CHAPTER 9

RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Ray optics or Geometrical optics, is a model of optics that describes light propagation in terms of
rays. It makes use of rectilinear propagation of light in a homogeneous, isotropic medium. The
straight-line path light follows is known as a ray. A collection of rays constitutes a beam. The
beam of light is parallel, divergent or convergent as shown in Fig. (a) .

Fig.(a)
REFLECTION
When a light ray strikes the surface separating two media such as air and glass, a part of it gets
reflected. Reflection refers to the bouncing back of the radiant energy at the interface between
two media. This is the reason that non-luminous objects are visible.
LAWS OF REFLECTION
1. The angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence.
2. The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting surface at the point of
incidence lie in the same plane [Fig.(b)].

Fig.(b)
SPHERICAL MIRRORS

The portion of a reflecting surface, which forms part of a sphere is called spherical mirror. It is of
two types.
1. Concave mirror, whose reflecting surface is towards the centre of the sphere of which the
mirror forms a part [Fig.(c)].

Ray Optics And Optical Instruments 1

2. Convex mirror, whose reflecting surface is away from the centre of the sphere of which the
mirror forms a part [Fig. (d)].

Fig.(c) Fig.(d)

Important definitions

1. Centre of curvature : The centre of the sphere of which the mirror forms a part is called the
centre of curvature.
2. Radius of curvature : the radius of the sphere of which the mirror forms a part is called radius
of curvature of the mirror.
3. Pole : The centre of the spherical mirror is called its pole.
4. Principal axis : The line joining the pole and the centre of curvature of the mirror is called
principal axis of the mirror.
5. Aperture: The diameter of the mirror is called aperture of the mirror.
6. Principal focus : The point at which, a narrow beam of light incident on the mirror parallel to
the principal axis, after reflection from the mirror, meets or appears to come from is called
the principal focus of the mirror [Fig. (e) & (f)].

Fig. (e) Fig.(f)

7. Focal length : The distance between the pole and the principal focus of the mirror is called
the focal length of the mirror.

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Sign convention
To derive the relevant formulae for reflection by spherical mirrors and refraction by spherical
lenses, the following Cartesian sign conventions are used for measuring distances [Fig. (g)].
1. All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror or the optical centre of the lens.
2. The distances measured in the same direction as the incident light are taken as positive
and those measured in the direction opposite to the direction of incident light are taken
as negative.
3. The heights measured upwards with respect to 𝑥 -axis and normal to the principal axis
(𝑥 -axis) of the mirror are taken as positive. The heights measured downwards are taken
as negative.

Fig. (g)
FOCAL LENGTH OF SPHERICAL MIRRORS
(i) Concave Mirror
Consider a concave mirror of small aperture. Let C be the centre of curvature of the mirror and
P and F be its pole and principal focus respectively. Consider a ray OM parallel to the principal
axis that strikes the mirror at M. Then 𝐶𝑀 is perpendicular to the mirror at 𝑀. Let theta be the
angle of incidence and 𝑀𝐷 be the perpendicular form 𝑀 on the principal axis. Then ∠𝑀𝐶𝑃 =
𝜃 and ∠𝑀𝐹𝑃 = 2𝜃 [Fig.(h)].

Fig. (h)

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From ∆ 𝑀𝐶𝐷,
𝑀𝐷
tan 𝜃 = ---------------------> (1)
𝐷𝐶
From ∆ 𝐹𝑀𝐷,
𝑀𝐷
tan 2𝜃 = ---------------------> (2)
𝐷𝐹

Since the aperture of the mirror is small, 𝜃 will be small so that

tan 𝜃 = 𝜃 and tan 2𝜃 = 2𝜃

For small angle 𝜃, the point 𝐷 lies close to 𝑃.

∴ 𝐷𝐹 ≈ 𝑃𝐹 = 𝑓 and 𝐷𝐶 ≈ 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑅
Hence from equations (1) and (2),
𝑀𝐷 𝑀𝐷
𝜃= =
𝑅 2𝑓
𝑅
(i.e.) 𝑓=
2

The above equation gives the relation between 𝑓 and 𝑅. (i.e.) For a spherical mirror of small
aperture, the focal length of mirror is equal to half of its radius of curvature.
(ii) Convex Mirror
Consider a concave mirror of small aperture. Let C be the centre of curvature of the mirror and
P and F be its pole and principal focus respectively. Consider a ray OM parallel to the principal
axis that strikes the mirror at M. Then 𝐶𝑀 is perpendicular to the mirror at 𝑀. Let theta be the
angle of incidence and 𝑀𝐷 be the perpendicular form 𝑀 on the principal axis. Then
∠𝑀𝐶𝑃 = 𝜃 and ∠𝑀𝐹𝑃 = 2𝜃 [Fig.(i)].

Fig. (i)
From ∆ 𝑀𝐶𝐷,
𝑀𝐷
tan 𝜃 = ---------------------> (3)
𝐷𝐶

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From ∆ 𝐹𝑀𝐷,
𝑀𝐷
tan 2𝜃 = ---------------------> (4)
𝐷𝐹

Since the aperture of the mirror is small, 𝜃 will be small so that

tan 𝜃 = 𝜃 and tan 2𝜃 = 2𝜃

For small angle 𝜃, the point 𝐷 lies close to 𝑃.

∴ 𝐷𝐹 ≈ 𝑃𝐹 = 𝑓 and 𝐷𝐶 ≈ 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑅
Hence from equations (3) and (4),
𝑀𝐷 𝑀𝐷
𝜃= =
𝑅 2𝑓
𝑅
(i.e.) 𝑓=
2
Image formation by a spherical mirror
If rays coming from a point meet at another point after reflection and (or refraction), that point is
called the image of the first point. The image is real if the rays actually converge to the point; it is
virtual if the rays do not actually meet but appear to diverge from the point when produced
backwards.
To find the position of the image due to reflection by a spherical mirror, any two rays coming
from a point on an object can be taken, their path can be traced, and their point of intersection
would give the image of the point due to reflection at a spherical mirror.

Fig. (j)

Ray Optics And Optical Instruments 5

Any two of the following rays can be used to get the image.
▪ The ray from the point which is parallel to the principal axis. The reflected ray goes through
the focus of the mirror.
▪ The ray passing through the centre of curvature of a concave mirror or appearing to pass
through it for a convex mirror. The reflected ray simply retraces the path.
▪ The ray passing through (or directed towards) the focus of the concave mirror or appearing to
pass through (or directed towards) the focus of a convex mirror. The reflected ray is parallel
to the principal axis.
▪ The ray incident at any angle at the pole. The reflected ray follows laws of reflection.
Figure (j) shows the ray diagram considering all possible four rays.
Mirror equation
(i) Concave mirror

Fig. (𝑘 ) shows the image formation by a concave mirror when the object is kept between the pole
and focus. The mirror equation connecting object distance (𝑢), image distance (𝑣 ) and the focal
length (𝑓 ) can be obtained as follows.

Fig. (k)

The two right-angled triangles 𝐴′𝐵′𝐹 and 𝑀𝑃𝐹 are similar. (For paraxial rays, 𝑀𝑃 can be
considered to be a straight line perpendicular to 𝐶𝑃.) Therefore,

𝐵′𝐴′ 𝐵′𝐹
=
𝑃𝑀 𝑃𝐹
𝐵′𝐴′ 𝐵′𝐹
Or = (∵ 𝑃𝑀 = 𝐵𝐴) ---------------------> (5)
𝐵𝐴 𝑃𝐹
Since ∠ 𝐴𝑃𝐵 = ∠ 𝐴′𝑃𝐵′, the right angled triangles 𝐴′𝐵′𝑃 and 𝐴𝐵𝑃 are also similar.
Therefore,

𝐵′ 𝐴′ 𝑃𝐵′
= ---------------------> (6)
𝐵𝐴 𝑃𝐵
Comparing Eqs. (5) and (6), we get

𝐵′𝐹 𝑃𝐵′ + 𝑃𝐹 𝑃𝐵′

= = ---------------------> (7)
𝐹𝑃 𝑃𝐹 𝑃𝐵

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Applying sign convention

𝑃𝐵 = −𝑢
𝑃𝐵′ = 𝑣 ---------------------> (8)
𝑃𝐹 = −𝑓
Substituting equation (8) in (7)

𝑣 +(− 𝑓) 𝑣
=
(−𝑓) −𝑢
𝑣 𝑣
Or −
𝑓
+1 = −𝑢

Dividing by 𝑣 on both sides

1 1 1
− + =
𝑓 𝑣 −𝑢

1 1 1
∴
+ =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓

The above equation is known as mirror equation.

(ii) Convex mirror

Fig. (𝒍)

Fig. (𝑙 ) shows the image formation by a convex mirror when the object is kept in front of the
mirror. The mirror equation connecting object distance (𝑢), image distance (𝑣 ) and the focal
length (𝑓 ) can be obtained in the same way as concave mirror.

Linear magnification (𝒎)

Linear magnification (𝑚) is defined as the ratio of the height of the image (ℎ′) to the height of
the object (ℎ).
ℎ′
(i.e) 𝑚= ℎ

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In Fig. (k), since ∠ 𝐴𝑃𝐵 = ∠ 𝐴′𝑃𝐵′, the right angled triangles 𝐴′𝐵′𝑃 and 𝐴𝐵𝑃 are also
similar.
Therefore,

𝐵′ 𝐴′ 𝑃𝐵′
= ---------------------> (9)
𝐵𝐴 𝑃𝐵
Applying sign convention

𝑃𝐵 = −𝑢
𝑃𝐵′ = 𝑣
𝐵𝐴 = ℎ ---------------------> (10)
𝐵′ 𝐴′ = ℎ′
Substituting equation (10) in (9)
ℎ′ 𝑣
=
ℎ −𝑢
𝑣
(i.e) Linear magnification 𝑚=
−𝑢
Note : The same expression can also derived for convex mirror using Fig.(𝑙 ).

• For virtual image 𝑚 is positive and it is negative for real image.

• If |𝑚| = 1 → The size of the image is equal to the size of the object.
> 1 → magnified image
< 1 → diminished image

REFRACTION
When a beam of light encounters another transparent medium, a part of light gets reflected back
into the first medium while the rest enters the other. A ray of light represents a beam.
Definition: The direction of propagation of an obliquely incident (0°< i < 90°) ray of light that
enters the other medium, changes at the interface of the two media. This phenomenon is called
refraction of light (Fig. 1).

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 Snell’s laws of refraction:
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface at the point of
incidence, all lie in the same plane.
(ii)The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence (𝑖) to the sine of angle of refraction (𝑟) is
constant.

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
(i.e.) = 𝑛21 ---------------------> (11)
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
where 𝑛21 is a constant, called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the
first medium. It depends on the pair of media and the wavelength of light but is independent of
the angle of incidence.

From Eq. (11),

• if 𝑛21 < 1, 𝑟 > 𝑖 , i.e., the refracted ray bends away from the normal. This occurs when
incident ray travels from a denser medium and refracts into a rarer medium [Fig. 2(a)].
• if 𝑛21 > 1, 𝑟 < 𝑖, i.e., the refracted ray bends towards the normal. This happens when incident
ray travels from rarer and refracts into denser medium [Fig. 2 (b)].

𝑛21 can also be defined as the ratio of the speed of light in medium - 1 (𝑣1 ) to that in
medium – 2 (𝑣2 ).
𝑣1
(i.e) 𝑛21 = ---------------------> (12)
𝑣2
If the first medium is vacuum or air, then equation (12) can be written as
𝑐
𝑛21 = ---------------------> (13)
𝑣
where 𝑐 is the speed of light in air and 𝑣 is the speed of light in the second medium.
In equation (13), 𝑛21 is called as absolute refractive index (𝑛) or refractive index of second
medium.
Ray Optics And Optical Instruments 9
 𝑐
(i.e) Equation (13) can be written as 𝑛 =
𝑣
𝑛2
Then 𝑛21 = ---------------------> (14)
𝑛1
𝑐 𝑐
[∵ 𝑛1 = 𝑣1
and 𝑛2 = 𝑣2
]

Equation (14) shows that

1
𝑛12 = [ Principle of reversibility]
𝑛21

and if 𝑛32 is the refractive index of medium 3 with respect to medium 2, then

𝑛32 = 𝑛31 × 𝑛12 ,

where 𝑛31 is the refractive index of medium 3 with respect to medium 1.

Lateral shift
Consider a rectangular slab 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 in which light falls on the surface 𝑃𝑄. Refraction takes
place at two interfaces (air-glass and glass-air) as given in Fig.3.

The perpendicular distance between the incident ray and the emergent ray, when the light is
incident obliquely on a parallel sided refracting slab is called lateral shift (𝑑).

From the right-angled triangle 𝐸𝐹𝐾 ,

𝑑
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑖 − 𝑟) =
𝐸𝐹

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 (or) 𝑑 = 𝐸𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑖 − 𝑟) ---------------------> (15)

From the right-angled triangle 𝐸𝑁2 𝐹,

𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 =
𝐸𝐹
𝑡
∴ 𝐸𝐹 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟
Substituting 𝐸𝐹 in equation (15),

𝑡
𝑑= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑖 − 𝑟) ---------------------> (16)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟

Equation (16) gives the lateral shift. It shows that is 𝑑 directly proportional to the
➢ Thickness of the glass slab
➢ Angle of incidence &
➢ Refractive index of the slab.
From the figure it is clear that the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray. There is no
deviation, but there is lateral displacement w.r.t. the incident ray.
Real and apparent depths
Due to refraction, the bottom of a tank or pond filled with water appears to be raised as in Fig.4.
For viewing near the normal direction, it can be shown that the apparent depth is the real depth
divided by the refractive index of the medium.

Let 𝑂 be a point object lying inside the liquid [Fig.4]. A ray 𝑂𝐴 incident along normal to the

surface of the liquid will be refracted along 𝐴𝐴′ without deviation. Another ray 𝑂𝐵, on
refraction into the air, bends away from the normal. The two refracted rays 𝐴𝐴′ and 𝐵𝐶 appear
to come from the point 𝐼. ∴ The object at 𝑂, appears to be at 𝐼. 𝐴𝑂(𝑡) is called real depth and
𝐴𝐼 is called apparent depth of the object 𝑂.

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The refractive index of medium – 2 (rarer medium) with respect to medium -1 (denser medium)
is given by
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
𝑛21 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
1
∵ 𝑛21 = , Refractive index of medium - 1 w.r.t. medium – 2 is given by
𝑛12
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
𝑛12 = ---------------------> (17)
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
𝐴𝐵
From the right angled triangle 𝑂𝐴𝐵, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 = ---------------------> (18)
𝑂𝐵
𝐴𝐵
From the right angled triangle 𝐼𝐴𝐵, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 = ---------------------> (19)
𝐼𝐵
Substituting equations (18) and (19) in (17)
𝐴𝐵⁄𝐼𝐵 𝑂𝐵
𝑛12 = = ---------------------> (20)
𝐴𝐵⁄𝑂𝐵 𝐼𝐵
From the figure, 𝑂𝐵 ≈ 𝑂𝐴 & 𝐼𝐵 ≈ 𝐼𝐴
𝑂𝐴
∴ equation (20) can be written as 𝑛12 = ---------------------> (21)
𝐼𝐴

𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
(i.e.) 𝑛12 =
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

Since the object appears to be at 𝐼 instead of 𝑂, the distance 𝑂𝐼 is called normal shift and is
denoted by 𝑑.
(i.e.) normal shift = 𝑑 = 𝑂𝐴 − 𝐼𝐴
1
= 𝑂𝐴 (1 − )
𝑂𝐴⁄𝐼𝐴

1 (using equation 21)

𝑑 = 𝑡 (1 − )
𝑛12
Thus, the normal shift depends on the real depth of the object and the refractive index of the
refractive medium.
The refraction of light through the atmosphere is responsible for many interesting natural
phenomena.

Eg.
• Advance sunrise and delayed sunset due to atmospheric refraction.
• Twinkling of stars

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Advance sunrise and delayed sunset

Total internal reflection

When a ray of light travels from an optically denser medium to an optically rarer medium and is
incident at an angle greater than the critical angle for the two media, the ray totally reflects back
into the medium, obeying the laws of reflection. This phenomenon is known as the total internal
reflection.
Conditions for the total internal reflection to take place:
• The ray of light must travel from a denser medium into a rarer medium.
• The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the critical angle for
that pair of media.

Consider Fig.5, in which a light ray travels in denser medium of refractive index 𝑛1 and meets the
boundary between denser and rarer medium of refractive index 𝑛2 (𝑛1 > 𝑛2 ). In the figure,
labels 1 through 5 indicate various possible directions of the incident light. The refracted rays are
bent away from the normal because 𝑛1 > 𝑛2 .

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As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction increases until it reaches 900 (ray 4).
The black line (ray 4) indicates that no energy actually propagates in this direction. For even
larger angles of incidence, total internal reflection occurs (ray 5).

The angle of incidence producing an angle of refraction equal to 90 0 is the critical angle 𝑖𝑐 or
( 𝐶 ). At this angle of incidence, all the energy of the incident light is reflected.

Relation between critical angle and refractive index

sin 𝑖
According to Snell’s law of refraction, 𝑛21 =
sin 𝑟
0
When 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑐, 𝑟 = 90
∴ 𝑛21 = sin 𝑖𝑐
Hence refractive index denser medium w.r.t. rarer medium is given by

1
𝑛12 =
sin 𝑖𝑐

Applications of Total internal reflection

/* Deleted
1. Mirage
On hot summer days, the air near
the ground becomes hotter than
the air at higher levels. The
refractive index of air increases
with its density. So, light from a
tall object such as a tree, passes
through a medium whose
refractive index decreases towards
the ground. Thus, a ray of light
from such an object successively
bends away from the normal and
undergoes total internal reflection,
if the angle of incidence for the air
near the ground exceeds the critical angle. The observer assumes that light is being reflected
from the ground, by a pool of water near the tall object. Such inverted images of distant tall
objects cause an optical illusion to the observer. This phenomenon is called mirage (Fig.6 ).

2. Diamond
Total internal reflection is the main cause of the brilliance of the
diamond. The refractive index of diamond with respect to air is 2.42.
Its critical angle is 24.41°. When light enters a diamond from any face
at an angle greater than 24.41° it undergoes total internal reflection.
By cutting the diamond suitably, multiple internal reflections can be
made to occur. This means that the first medium has the largest index
of refraction.

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3. Prism
Prisms designed to bend light by 90° [Fig. 8 (a)] or by 180° [Fig. (b) & (c)] make use of total
internal reflection. Such prisms can be used to invert images without changing their size and
brightness [Fig. 9.15 (b) & (c)]. In the first two cases, the critical angle 𝑖𝑐 for the material of the
prism must be less than 45°. It is true for both crown glass and dense flint glass. These prisms are
used to deviate light by 90o in periscope and 180o in binoculars.

Deleted*/

4. Optical fibres

Optical fibres make use of the

phenomenon of total internal
reflection. They are fabricated with high
quality composite glass/quartz fibres.
Each fibre consists of a core and
cladding [Fig.9]. The refractive index of
the material of the core is higher than
that of the cladding.

When a signal in the form of light is directed at one end of the fibre at a suitable angle, it
undergoes repeated total internal reflections along the length of the fibre and finally comes out
at the other end [Fig. 9]. Since light undergoes total internal reflection at each stage, there is no
appreciable loss in the intensity of the light signal. Optical fibres are fabricated such that light
reflected at one side of inner surface strikes the other at an angle larger than the critical angle.
Even if the fibre is bent, light can easily travel along its length. Thus, an optical fibre can be used
to act as an optical pipe.

Uses
• Optical fibres are used for transmitting audio and video signals through long distances.

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 • They are used as a ‘light pipe’ to facilitate visual examination of internal organs like
esophagus, stomach and intestines.
• The fibres in decorative lamps are optical fibres.

Refraction at spherical surfaces and by lenses

The portion of a refracting medium, whose curved surface forms the part of a sphere is called
spherical refracting surface. The spherical refracting surface convex towards the rarer medium is
called convex spherical refracting surface and concave towards the rarer medium is called
concave spherical refracting medium.

Refraction at a spherical surface (when object lies in the rarer medium and image formed is
real)
Figure 10 shows the geometry of formation of image 𝐼 of an object 𝑂 on the principal axis of a

spherical surface with centre of curvature C, and radius of curvature R. The rays are incident
from a medium of refractive index 𝑛1 , to another of refractive index 𝑛2 . The aperture of the
surface is considered to be small compared to other distances involved, so that small angle
approximation can be made.

As aperture of the refracting surface is small, point 𝑀 will be close to point 𝑃, the pole of the
refracting surface.
∴ 𝑀𝑂 ≈𝑃𝑂 and 𝑀𝐶 ≈ 𝑃𝐶
𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
From ∆ 𝑁𝑀𝑂, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 = 𝛼 =
𝑀𝑂
=
𝑃𝑂
---------------------> (22)

[ for small angles 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜃]

𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
From ∆ 𝑁𝑀𝐼, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 = 𝛽 =
𝑀𝐼
=
𝑃𝐼
---------------------> (23)

𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
From ∆ 𝑁𝑀𝐶, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛾 = 𝛾 =
𝑀𝐶
=
𝑃𝐶
---------------------> (24)

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For ∆ 𝑁𝑂𝐶, 𝑖 is the exterior angle.
∴ 𝑖= 𝛼+ 𝛾 ---------------------> (25)
Substituting equations (22) & (24) in (25)
𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
∴ 𝑖=
𝑃𝑂
+
𝑃𝐶
---------------------> (26)
Similarly, from ∆ 𝑁𝐶𝐼, 𝛾=𝑟+ 𝛽
∴ 𝑟 =𝛾− 𝛽 ---------------------> (27)
Substituting equations (23) & (24) in (27)
𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
𝑟 =
𝑃𝐶
−
𝑃𝐼
---------------------> (28)
According to Snell’s law of refraction,
𝑛 sin 𝑖
𝑛21 = 2 =
𝑛1 sin 𝑟

Or 𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟
For small angles
𝑛1 𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑟
Substituting equations (26) & (28) in the above equation,
𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
𝑛1 ( + ) = 𝑛2 ( 𝑃𝐶 − )
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐼
1 1 1 1
Or 𝑛1 (
𝑃𝑂
+
𝑃𝐶
) = 𝑛2 (𝑃𝐶 − 𝑃𝐼
) ---------------------> (29)

By applying new Cartesian sign conventions

𝑃𝑂 = −𝑢 , 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑅 & 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑣
Equation (29) becomes
𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2
+ = −
−𝑢 𝑅 𝑅 𝑣

Or 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
− + =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑅

Above equation gives us a relation between object and image distance in terms of refractive
index of the medium and the radius of curvature of the curved spherical surface. It holds for any
curved spherical surface.

Refraction through a thin lens – Lens maker’s formula

The following assumptions and sign conventions are used to derive lens maker’s formula.
Assumptions
1. The lens is thin so that the distance measured from the poles of two surfaces of the lens can
be taken to be the same as the distances measured from the optical centre of the lens.
2. The aperture of the lens is considered to be small.
3. The object is a point object situated on the principal axis.
4. The incident and refracted rays make small angles with the principal axis.

Ray Optics And Optical Instruments 17

New Cartesian sign convention
1. All the distances are to be measured from the optical centre of the lens.
2. The distances measured in the direction of the incident ray are taken as positive and those
measured in the direction opposite to the incident ray are taken as negative.

Figure 11(a) shows the geometry of image formation by a double convex lens.

The image formation can be seen in terms of two steps:

(i) The first refracting surface forms the image 𝐼1 of the object 𝑂 [Fig. 11(b)].
(ii) The image 𝐼1 acts as a virtual object for the second surface that forms the image at 𝐼 [Fig.
11(c)].

Ray Optics And Optical Instruments 18

Applying the equation [Eq. (29)] for refraction at a spherical surface

➢ to the first refracting surface 𝐴𝐵𝐶 [Fig.11(b)], we get

𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
𝐵𝑂
+ 𝐵𝐼1
= 𝐵𝐶1
---------------------> (30)

➢ to the second refracting surface 𝐴𝐷𝐶 [Fig.11(c)], we get

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
− 𝐷𝐼2 + 𝐷𝐼1 =
1 𝐷𝐶2

For a thin lens 𝐵𝐼1 ≈ 𝐷𝐼1 , the above equation can be written as
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
− 𝐵𝐼2 + 𝐷𝐼1 = ---------------------> (31)
1 𝐷𝐶2

Adding equations (30) and (31)

𝑛1 𝑛1 1 1
+ = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) ( + ) ---------------------> (32)
𝐵𝑂 𝐷𝐼 𝐵𝐶1 𝐷𝐶2

If the object is at infinity, the image will be formed at focus 𝐹. i.e., when 𝐵𝑂 → ∞ and 𝐷𝐼 = 𝑓,
Eq. (32) gives

𝑛1 1 1
= (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) ( + ) ---------------------> (33)
𝑓 𝐵𝐶1 𝐷𝐶2

Applying sign convention 𝐵𝐶1 = 𝑅1 & 𝐷𝐶2 = − 𝑅2

Substituting in (23)
𝑛1 1 1
= (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) ( − )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2

1 1 1 𝑛2
Or = (𝑛21 − 1) ( − ) [∵ 𝑛21 = ] ---------------------> (34)
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑛1

The above equation is known as the lens maker’s formula.

It is useful to design lenses of desired focal length using surfaces of suitable radii of curvature.
This formula is true for a concave lens also.

From equation (34)

➢ Focal length of a convex lens is positive, since its 𝑅1 is positive and 𝑅2 is negative.
➢ Focal length of a concave lens is negative, since its 𝑅1 is negative and 𝑅2 is positive.

Ray Optics And Optical Instruments 19

The two foci, 𝐹 and 𝐹′, of a double convex or concave lens are equidistant from the optical
centre. The focus on the side of the (original) source of light is called the first focal point, whereas
the other is called the second focal point.

From equations (32) & (33)

𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛1
+ =
𝐵𝑂 𝐷𝐼 𝑓
Since the lens is considered to be thin, B and D are both close the optical centre of the lens.
Applying sign convention 𝐵𝑂 = −𝑢 and 𝐷𝐼 = 𝑣, the above equation gives

−1 1 1
+ = 𝑓
𝑢 𝑣

This gives thin lens formula which is valid for both convex and concave lens and for both real and
virtual images.

Lens immersed in a medium

If a lens of refractive index 𝑛𝑔 is immersed in a medium of refractive index 𝑛𝑚 , then its focal
length 𝑓𝑚 in the medium is given by,

1 1 1 𝑛𝑔
= (𝑛𝑔𝑚 − 1) ( − ) where 𝑛𝑔𝑚 =
𝑓𝑚 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑛𝑚

If 𝑓𝑎 is the focal length of lens in air, then

(𝑛𝑔 − 1)
𝑓𝑚 = 𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎 ---------------------> (35)
(𝑛 − 1)
𝑚

Special Cases :

• If 𝑛𝑔 > 𝑛𝑚 , then 𝑓𝑚 and 𝑓𝑎 are of the same sign but 𝑓𝑚 > 𝑓𝑎 . (i.e.) The nature of
lens remains unchanged, but its focal length increases. In other words, the convergent
lens becomes less convergent and divergent lens becomes less divergent [ Fig. 12a & 13a].

• If 𝑛𝑔 = 𝑛𝑚 , then 𝑓𝑚 = ∞. (i.e.) the lens behaves as a glass plate. [ Fig. 12b &
13b].

• If 𝑛𝑔 < 𝑛𝑚 , then 𝑓𝑚 and 𝑓𝑎 have opposite signs. (i.e.) The nature of the lens
changes. A convergent lens becomes divergent and vice versa. [ Fig. 12c & 13c].

Ray Optics And Optical Instruments 20

Linear magnification of lens (𝒎)

Magnification (𝑚) produced by a lens is defined as the ratio of the size of the image to that of
the object. If ℎ and ℎ′ are the size of the object and image respectively then,
ℎ′
𝑚= ---------------------> (36)
ℎ
Consider a convex lens of focal length 𝑓 . Let 𝐶 be the optical centre and 𝐹 be its first principal
focus.

When we apply the sign convention, we see that, for erect (and virtual) image formed by a
convex or concave lens, 𝑚 is positive, while for an inverted (and real) image, 𝑚 is negative.

Ray Optics And Optical Instruments 21

In Fig.14 ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 and ∆𝐴′𝐵′𝐶 are similar triangles.
𝐴′𝐵′ 𝐶𝐴′
∴ = ---------------------> (37)
𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝐴
Applying new Cartesian sign conventions,

𝐴′ 𝐵′ = −ℎ′ , 𝐴𝐵 = ℎ, 𝐶𝐴 = −𝑢 & 𝐶𝐴′ = 𝑣

Equation (37) becomes
−ℎ′ 𝑣
=
ℎ −𝑢
′
ℎ 𝑣
Or 𝑚= ℎ = 𝑢
From lens equation
𝑣 𝑓 𝑓−𝑣
= =
𝑢 𝑓+𝑢 𝑓
Thus, linear magnification of lens can be given as

ℎ′ 𝑣 𝑓 𝑓−𝑣
𝑚= = = =
ℎ 𝑢 𝑓+𝑢 𝑓

Power of a lens (𝑷)

Power of a lens is a measure of the convergence or

divergence, which a lens introduces in the light falling on it.
It is defined as the tangent of the angle by which it
converges or diverges a beam of light parallel to the
principal axis falling at unit distance from the optical
centre.

From Fig.15,
ℎ
tan 𝛿 =
𝑓
1
If ℎ = 1, tan 𝛿 =
𝑓
1
For small value of 𝛿, 𝛿=
𝑓

Thus, power of a lens is given by

1
𝑃=
𝑓

Ray Optics And Optical Instruments 22

From lens maker’s formula
1 1 1
= (𝑛21 − 1) ( − )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2

Hence power of a lens can also be given as

1 1
𝑃 = (𝑛21 − 1) ( − )
𝑅1 𝑅2

The SI unit for power of a lens is dioptre (𝐷). 1𝐷 = 1m–1. The power of a lens of focal length of
1 metre is one dioptre. Power of a lens is positive for a converging lens and negative for a
diverging lens.

Combination of thin lenses in contact

Consider two lenses 𝐴 and 𝐵 of focal length 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 placed in contact with each other. Let the
object be placed at a point 𝑂 beyond the focus as in Fig.16. The first lens produces an image at
𝐼1 . Since image 𝐼1 is real, it serves as a virtual object for the second lens 𝐵 , producing the final
image at 𝐼 . Since the lenses are thin, we assume the optical centres of the lenses to be
coincident. Let this central point be denoted by 𝑃.

For the image formed by the first lens 𝐴, we get

−1 1 1
+ = ---------------------> (38)
𝑢 𝑣1 𝑓1

For the image formed by the second lens 𝐵, we get

−1 1 1
+ = ---------------------> (39)
𝑣1 𝑣 𝑓2

Adding equations (38) and (39), we get

1 1 1 1
− + = +
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓1 𝑓2

If the two lens-system is regarded as equivalent to a single lens of focal length 𝑓 , we have
1 1 1
− + =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓

Ray Optics And Optical Instruments 23

 1 1 1
Which gives = +
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2

The derivation is valid for any number of thin lenses in contact. If several thin lenses of focal

length 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , 𝑓3 ,... are in contact, the effective focal length of their combination is given by

1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓3

In terms of power, the above equation can be written as

𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + …

where 𝑃 is the net power of the lens combination.

Since the image formed by the first lens becomes the object for the second, the total
magnification 𝑚 of the combination is a product of magnification (𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 ,...) of individual
lenses

(i.e.) 𝑚 = 𝑚1 × 𝑚2 × 𝑚3
...
Use of combination of lenses
➢ Diverging or converging lenses of desired magnification can be obtained.
➢ It increases the sharpness of the image.
➢ Used in designing lenses for cameras, microscopes, telescopes and other optical
instruments.

Refraction through a prism

A prism is the portion of transparent refracting medium bound by two plane surfaces meeting
each other along a straight edge.

Ray Optics And Optical Instruments 24

Fig. 17 shows the passage of light through prism 𝐴𝐵𝐶. The angles of incidence and refraction at
the first face 𝐴𝐵 are 𝑖 and 𝑟1 while the angle of incidence (from glass to air) at the second face 𝐴𝐶
is 𝑟2 and the angle of refraction or emergence 𝑒. The angle between the emergent ray 𝑅𝑆 and
the direction of the incident ray 𝑃𝑄 is called the angle of deviation, 𝛿 .

In the quadrilateral 𝐴𝑄𝑁𝑅, two of the angles (at the vertices 𝑄 and 𝑅) are right angles. Therefore,
the sum of the other angles of the quadrilateral is 180°.

∠𝐴 + ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 180°
From the triangle 𝑄𝑁𝑅,

𝑟1 + 𝑟2 +∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 180°
Comparing these two equations, we get
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 +∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = ∠𝐴 + ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅
Or 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = ∠𝐴 ---------------------> (40)
The total deviation 𝛿 is the sum of deviations at the two faces,

𝛿 = (𝑖 – 𝑟1 ) + (𝑒 – 𝑟2 )
(i.e.) 𝛿 = 𝑖 + 𝑒– 𝐴

Or 𝐴+𝛿 = 𝑖 + 𝑒 ---------------------> (41)

Thus, the angle of deviation depends on the angle of incidence, angle of the prism and the
material of the prism.

Fig.18 shows a plot between the angle of deviation and angle of incidence.

Ray Optics And Optical Instruments 25

If the angle of incidence is increased gradually, the angle of deviation first decreases, attains a
minimum value (𝐷𝑚 ) and then starts increasing. When angle of deviation is minimum, the prism
is said to be placed in minimum deviation position. In general, any given value of 𝛿 , except for
𝑖 = 𝑒, corresponds to two values 𝑖 and hence of 𝑒 (as per equation (41)). i.e., 𝛿 remains the
same If 𝑖 and 𝑒 are interchanged. Physically, this is related to the fact that the path of ray in
Fig. 17 can be traced back, resulting in the same angle of deviation. At the minimum deviation 𝐷𝑚
, the refracted ray inside the prism becomes parallel to its base of the prism.

∴ When 𝛿 = 𝐷𝑚 , 𝑖 = 𝑒 and 𝑟1 = 𝑟2
Equation (40) gives 2 𝑟 = 𝐴
𝐴
Or 𝑟 = ---------------------> (42)
2
Similarly, equation (41) gives
𝐴 + 𝐷𝑚 = 2𝑖
𝐴+𝐷𝑚
Or 𝑖= ---------------------> (43)
2
Using equations (42) and (43), the refractive index of the prism can be written as

𝐴 + 𝐷𝑚
𝑛2 sin 𝑖 sin [ ]
𝑛21 = = = 2 ---------------------> (44)
𝑛1 sin 𝑟 𝐴
sin [ ]
2

The angles 𝐴 and 𝐷𝑚 can be measured experimentally. Equation (34)

4 thus provides a method of
determining refractive index of the material of the prism.

For a small angle prism, i.e., a thin prism, 𝐷𝑚 is also very small, and we get
𝐴+𝐷𝑚
[ ]
2
𝑛21 = 𝐴
[ ]
2

𝐷𝑚 = (𝑛21 − 1) 𝐴
The above equation shows that thin prisms do not deviate light much.

Optical Instruments

The angle subtended by an extended object at our eye is known as visual angle. The apparent
size of an object as seen by our eye depends on the value of visual angle. Higher the visual
angle, larger the apparent size of the object.

Ray Optics And Optical Instruments 26

Suppose an object 𝐵 subtends a visual angle 𝜃1 and its image 𝑂𝐵’ is formed at the retina as in
Fig.19. When the same object is brought closer to the eye to the position 𝐴, it subtends a larger
angle 𝜃2 and a larger image 𝑂𝐴’ is formed at the retina. Thus, the same object now appears
bigger to the eye. (i.e.) The apparent size of the object increases. Hence in order to observe an
object larger, the visual angle must be increased. Telescopes and microscopes are the optical
instruments which are used to increase the visual angle in order to observe the distant and closer
objects clearly.

• In microscope large image of small object is formed close to the eye. Since this image
subtends a larger visual angle at the eye, the small object will appear large.
• In Telescope smaller image of the distant object is formed close to the eye. Since this
Image subtends a larger visual angle at the eye, the small object will appear large.
Simple microscope
A magnified image of a small object can be seen by using a convex lens of short focal length.
Such a lens is called a simple microscope or a magnifier.

Principle: A simple microscope works on the principle that when a small object is placed within
its focus, a virtual, erect, and magnified image of the object is formed at the least distance of
distinct vision or near point (𝐷 ) from the eye held close to the lens. For normal eye 𝐷 = 25 cm.

Magnifying power (𝑀) : The magnifying power of the simple microscope is the ratio of the angle
subtended by the image (𝜃𝑖 ) at the eye when seen through the lens to the angle subtended by
the object (𝜃0 ) at the unaided eye, when both lie at the least distance of distinct vision.

𝜃𝑖
(i.e.) 𝑀 =
𝜃0
---------------------> (45)

Deriving the expression for magnifying power (𝑴)

ℎ
From Fig. 20, tan 𝜃0 = ≈ 𝜃0 ---------------------> (46)
𝐷

Ray Optics And Optical Instruments 27

 ℎ
From Fig. 21, tan 𝜃𝑖 = ≈ 𝜃𝑖 ---------------------> (47)
𝑢
Substituting equations (46) & (47) in (45)
ℎ⁄𝑢 𝐷
𝑀= ⁄ = ---------------------> (48)
ℎ 𝐷 𝑢

Case 1 : When image is formed at least distance of distinct vision (𝑫):

If 𝑓 is the focal length of the lens then

1 1 1
− + =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
Applying sign convention
𝑢 = −𝑢, 𝑣 = −𝐷 and 𝑓 = +𝑓
1 1 1
− =
𝑢 𝐷 𝑓
1 1 1
= +
𝑢 𝐷 𝑓
Substituting this in equation (48)

𝐷 ---------------------> (49)
𝑀 =1+
𝑓

===============================================================================
𝑣 𝑣
Note : Linear magnification of lens 𝑚 = = 1−
𝑢 𝑓
When the image is formed at least distance of distinct vision,
𝑣 = −𝐷
𝐷
And hence 𝑚 = 1+
𝑓
Thus at 𝐷 , linear magnification and angular magnification are equal.

===============================================================================

Ray Optics And Optical Instruments 28

Case 2 : When image is formed at infinity or at normal adjustment position:
To see the image with a relaxed eye, final image
must be formed at infinity. In this case, object
must lie at the focus as in Fig.22. Hence from
equation (48), angular magnification becomes

𝐷
𝑀=
𝑓 -----------------> (50)

Equations (49) and (50) show that magnification

can be made large by choosing a lens of small
focal length.

Compound microscope

A simple microscope has a limited maximum magnification (≤ 9) for realistic focal lengths. For
much larger magnifications, one uses two lenses, one compounding the effect of the other. This
is known as a compound microscope. The final image produced is virtual and enlarged.

Principle: When a small object is placed just outside the focus (𝐹0 ) of the objective, its real,
inverted and magnified image is produced on the other side of the lens beyond (2𝐹0 ). This acts
as an object for eyepiece. The distance of the object from the objective is so adjusted that the
final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision from the eye.

A schematic diagram of a compound microscope is shown in Fig. 23.

Ray Optics And Optical Instruments 29

The lens nearest the object, called the objective, forms a real, inverted, magnified image of the
object. This serves as the object for the second lens, the eyepiece, which functions essentially like
a simple microscope or magnifier, produces the final image, which is enlarged and virtual. The
first inverted image is thus near (at or within) the focal plane of the eyepiece, at a distance
appropriate for final image formation at infinity, or a little closer for image formation at the near
point. Clearly, the final image is inverted with respect to the original object.

Magnifying power or angular magnification of compound microscope

The linear magnification due to the objective is given by

𝑣
𝑚0 = 0
𝑢0
As the first inverted image is near the focal point of the eyepiece, the result from the simple
microscope can be used to obtain the angular magnification 𝑚𝑒 when the final image is formed
at the near point.
𝐷
𝑚𝑒 = 1 +
𝑓𝑒
When the final image is formed at near point, the total magnification or angular magnification of
the compound microscope is given by
𝑣 𝐷
𝑀 = 𝑚0 × 𝑚𝑒 = (− 0 ) (1 + ) ---------------------> (51)
𝑢0 𝑓𝑒
[by applying sign convention 𝑢0 is negative, and 𝑣0 & 𝑓𝑒 are positive]
Length of the microscope is given by
𝐿 = |𝑣0 | + |𝑢𝑒 |

When the final image is formed at infinity, the angular magnification due to the eyepiece is
𝐷
𝑚𝑒 =
𝑓𝑒
Thus, the total magnification, when the image is formed at infinity, is given by
𝑣 𝐷
𝑀 = 𝑚0 × 𝑚𝑒 = (− 0 ) ( ) ---------------------> (52)
𝑢0 𝑓𝑒
Now the Length of the microscope is given by
𝐿 = |𝑣0 | + |𝑓𝑒 |
Special case:
Usually, the object is placed just beyond the first focus of objective. Hence 𝑢0 = 𝑓0 and
𝑣0 = 𝐿.
Hence equations (50) & (51) become

𝐿 𝐷
𝑀 = (− ) (1 + )
𝑓 0 𝑓𝑒

𝐿 𝐷
& 𝑀 = (− ) ( )
𝑓 𝑓 0 𝑒
The above two equations show that for large magnification of a small object, the objective and
eyepiece should have small focal lengths.

Ray Optics And Optical Instruments 30

Telescope
The telescope is used to provide angular magnification of distant objects. It is of two types.
1. Astronomical telescope: It is used to see the heavenly bodies. It produces a virtual, inverted
and magnified image. As the heavenly bodies are round the inverted image does not affect
the observation.
2. Terrestrial telescope: It is used to observe objects on earth. It produces an erect image.

Astronomical Telescope (Refracting type)

Principle: The objective forms the real and inverted image of the distant object at its focal plane.
The distance of the eyepiece from the objective is adjusted till the final image is formed at the
least distance of distinct vision. If the position of the eyepiece is so adjusted that the final image
is formed at infinity, the telescope is said to be in normal adjustment.

Magnifying power or angular magnification of Telescope

i) When the final image is formed at infinity – Normal adjustment position

Light from a distant object enters the objective and a real image is formed in the tube at its
second focal point. The eyepiece magnifies this image producing a final inverted image as in
Fig.24.

The magnifying power 𝑀 is the ratio of the angle 𝛽 subtended at the eye by the final image to
the angle 𝛼 which the object subtends at the lens or the eye. Hence

𝛽
𝑀=
𝛼
tan 𝛽 ℎ⁄𝑓𝑒
Since 𝛼 and 𝛽 are small, 𝑀= = [from Fig.24]
tan 𝛼 ℎ⁄𝑓0

𝑓0
Or 𝑀=
𝑓𝑒

And length of the telescope tube is given by 𝐿 = 𝑓0 + 𝑓𝑒

Ray Optics And Optical Instruments 31
ii) When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision

When parallel rays from distant object falls on the objective, its real and inverted image 𝐴’𝐵’ is
formed on the other side of the objective at a distance equal to its focal length (𝑓0 ). The
distance

of the eyepiece from the objective is adjusted so that the final image 𝐴”𝐵” is formed at the least
distance of distinct vision. The image formation for this case can represented by the following ray
diagram [Fig.25].
𝛽
By definition magnifying power 𝑀 =
𝛼
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽
Since 𝛼 and 𝛽 are small 𝑀 = ---------------------> (53)
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼

𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵
From ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶′ tan 𝛼 = and from ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 tan 𝛽 =
𝐶′𝐵 𝐶𝐵

𝐴𝐵⁄𝐶𝐵 𝐶′𝐵
∴ Equation (53) becomes 𝑀= = ---------------------> (54)
𝐴𝐵⁄𝐶′𝐵 𝐶𝐵

By applying new Cartesian sign conventions, 𝐶 ′ 𝐵 = 𝑓0 and 𝐶𝐵 = −𝑢𝑒

𝑓0
∴ 𝑀= ---------------------> (55)
−𝑢𝑒
For the eye lens
1 1 1
− + =
𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑒
According to sign convention 𝑢𝑒 is negative and 𝑣𝑒 = − 𝐷
1 1 1
∴ − =
𝑢𝑒 𝐷 𝑓𝑒

1 1 1
Or = +
𝑢𝑒 𝐷 𝑓𝑒

Substituting the above equation in equation (55)

𝑓0 𝑓𝑒
𝑀= − (1 + )
𝑓𝑒 𝐷

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 1
Thus 𝑀 ∝ 𝑓0 and . The negative sign shows that the final image formed is inverted.
𝑓𝑒
For large magnification focal length of the objective should be large and that of eyepiece must be
small.
And length of the telescope tube is given by 𝐿 = |𝑓0 | + |𝑢𝑒 |

Telescopes need large light gathering power to get bright image and high resolving power to
observe two objects distinctly, which are in very nearly the same direction. To achieve these two,
the objective should have large diameter. The largest lens objective in use has a diameter of 40
inch (~1.02 m) with a tube that is 60 feet (18.3 meters) long. It is at the Yerkes Observatory in
Wisconsin, USA.

Disadvantages of refracting type telescope

Big lenses are used in telescope to have large light gathering power, large magnifying power and
high resolving power.
• Big lenses used in telescope are very heavy and therefore, difficult to make and support
by their edges.
• It is difficult and expensive to make such large sized lenses which form images that are
free from any kind of chromatic aberration and distortions.

Reflecting Telescopes
Modern telescopes use a concave mirror rather than a lens for the objective. Telescopes with
mirror objectives are called reflecting telescopes.

Advantages of reflecting telescopes over refracting type telescopes

• There is no chromatic aberration in a mirror.

• Mechanical support is much less of a problem since a mirror weighs much less than a lens
of equivalent optical quality, and can be supported over its entire back surface, not just
over its rim.

Cassegrain Telescope

Ray Optics And Optical Instruments 33

In reflecting type telescope light from a distant object falls on concave mirror called objective
primary mirror. The reflected light from this mirror falls on convex secondary mirror to focus the
incident light, which then passes through a hole in the primary mirror to the eyepiece. This is
known as a Cassegrain telescope, after its inventor [Fig.26]. It has the advantages of a large focal
length in a short telescope.

The largest reflecting telescope in Asia is located in the Devasthal Observatory at Nainital,
Uttarakhand, India called the Devesthal Optical. It is a 3.6m diameter reflecting telescope.
The Gran Telescopio Canarias is a 10.4 m (410 in) reflecting telescope located at the Roque de los
Muchachos Observatory on the island of La Palma, in the Canaries, Spain. It is the world's largest
single-aperture optical telescope.

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Ray Optics And Optical Instruments 34