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CHAPTER 9 • The image is as far as behind the mirror,

as the object is in front of it.
RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS • Size of the image is same as that of object.
(Prepared By Ayyappan C, HSST Physics, GHSS Udma, Kasaragod, Mob: 9961985448)
• Image formed is virtual – cannot be
produced on screen.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT • The image is erect.
• The image is laterally inverted.
• When light is incident on a surface, it
partially reflected back, partly absorbed Spherical Mirrors
by the surface and remaining is
transmitted through the surface. • The portion of a reflecting surface, which
• Mirrors are used to reflect light efficiently. forms a part of a sphere, is called a
spherical mirror.
Ray of Light • Concave mirror – reflecting surface
towards the centre of the sphere
• The path along which a light wave travels • Convex mirror – reflecting surface away
is called ray of light. from the centre of the sphere.
Beam of Light Some definitions
• A bundle of ray of light is called beam of Centre of curvature (C)
light.
• The centre of the sphere of which the
Angle of incidence mirror forms a part.
• The angle between the incident ray and Radius of curvature (R)
the normal is the angle of incidence.
• The radius of the sphere of which the
Angle of reflection mirror forms a part.
• The angle between the reflected ray and Pole
the normal is the angle of reflection
• The geometric centre of a spherical mirror
Reflection of light by plane mirrors is called its pole.

Principal Axis

• The line joining the pole and centre of

curvature.

Aperture

• The diameter of the mirror.

Laws of reflection Principal Focus
• The angle of reflection equals the angle of • The point at which, a narrow beam of light
incidence. incident on the mirror parallel to its
• The incident ray, reflected ray and the principal axis , after reflection from the
normal to the reflecting surface at the mirror , meets or appears to come from.
point of incidence lie in the same plane. Focal length
Characteristics of image formed by plane mirrors • The distance between pole and principal
focus.

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Spherical aberration Relation between focal length and radius of

curvature of a spherical mirror
• The inability of a spherical mirror of large
aperture to focus the marginal rays and • Consider a ray parallel to the principal axis
central rays at a single point is called striking the mirror at M.
spherical aberration. .
Cartesian Sign Convention

• According to this convention, all distances

are measured from the pole of the mirror
or the optical centre of the lens.

• The distances measured in the same

direction as the incident light are taken as
positive and those measured in the
direction opposite to the direction of
incident light are taken as negative .
• Thus from the diagram
• The heights measured upwards with
respect to x-axis and normal to the
principal axis (x-axis) of the mirror/ lens
are taken as positive).
• For small θ, tan θ ≈ θ, tan 2θ ≈ 2θ.
• The heights measured downwards are
taken as negative.

• For small θ, the point D is very close to the

point P.

• Therefore, FD = f and CD = R.

Reflection of light by spherical mirrors

Some conventions to draw a ray diagram
Concave mirror
• The ray from the point which is parallel to
the principal axis. The reflected ray goes
through the focus of the mirror.

• The ray passing through the centre of

curvature of a concave mirror or
appearing to pass through it for a convex
mirror. The reflected ray simply retraces
Covex Mirror
the path.

• The ray passing through (or directed

towards) the focus of the concave mirror
or appearing to pass through (or directed
towards) the focus of a convex mirror. The
reflected ray is parallel to the principal
axis.

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• The ray incident at any angle at the pole. • Therefore the mirror equation is given by
The reflected ray follows laws of
reflection.

The mirror equation

• The same equation can be derived for a
• The relation connecting the object convex mirror too.
distance (u), image distance (v) and the
Linear Magnification
focal length ( f) is the mirror equation.
• Linear magnification (m) is the ratio of the
Derivation height of the image (h′) to the height of
the object (h).

• In triangles A′B′P and ABP, we have,

• In the diagram the two right-angled • With the sign convention, this becomes
triangles A′B′F and MPF are similar.

• Therefore,

• Therefore the linear magnification is given

by
• Since ∠ APB = ∠ A′PB′, the right angled
triangles A′B′P and ABP are also similar.
v
m =−
u
• Therefore, • The expression for magnification is same
for concave and convex mirror.

Significance of magnification ‘m’

• Comparing Equations :
• When ‘m’ is positive, the image is erect
(virtual)
• When ‘m’ is negative, the image is
• Using sign conventions inverted (real)
• For enlarged image, m>1
• For diminished image, m<1

• We get Uses of spherical mirrors

Concave mirrors

• Used as reflectors of table lamps to direct

light in a given area.

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• Concave mirrors of large aperture are Snell’s law:-

used in reflecting type astronomical
telescopes. • The ratio of the sine of the angle of
• Shaving mirrors are made slightly
sligh concave incidence to the sine of angle of refraction
to get erect enlarged image of the face. is constant.
Convex mirrors • Now
• They are used in automobiles as rear view
mirrors because of the two reasons:
• A convex mirror always produces an erect
image.
• The image is diminished in size, so that it • Where n21 is a constant, called the
gives a wide field of view. refractive index of the second medium
Nature of the image formed by a Concave mirror with respect to the first medium.

n2
n21 =
n1

• Where n1- absolute refractive index of the

first medium and n2 – absolute refractive
index of the second medium.

Refractive index

• The refractive index of a medium depends

on
Nature of the image formed by a Convex mirror
• Nature of the pair of medium
• A convex mirror always forms a virtual • Wavelength of light
and diminished image irrespective of the
position of the object • Refractive index is independent of the
angle of incidence.
incidence
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
• A medium having larger value of
• The phenomenon of change in path of refractive index is called optically denser
light as it goes from one medium to medium.
another is called refraction. • A medium having smaller value of
refractive index is called optically rarer
medium.

• Also

n1
• Where n12 =
n2
Laws of Refraction • If n32 is the refractive index of medium 3
• The incident ray, the refracted ray and the with respect to medium 2 then
normal to the interface at the point of n32 = n31 × n 12
incidence, all lie in the same plane. • Where n31 is the refractive index of
medium 3 with respect to medium 1.

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Absolute refractive index • The bottom of a tank filled with water

appears to be raised due to refraction.
• The ratio of velocity of light in vacuum to
the velocity of light in a medium is called
absolute refractive index.

c
n =
v
• Where C - velocity of light in vacuum,
v- velocity of light in the medium.

• When light enters from a rarer medium • For viewing near the normal direction
to denser medium, the refracted ray ‫ ܔ܉܍܀‬۲‫ܐܜܘ܍‬
‫ ܜܖ܍ܚ܉ܘܘۯ‬۲‫= ܐܜܘ܍‬
bends towards the normal. ‫ ܍ܞܑܜ܋܉ܚ܎܍܀‬۷‫ܠ܍܌ܖ‬

• When light enters from a denser medium Apparent position of sun

to rarer medium, the refracted ray bends
• The sun is visible a little before the actual
away from the normal.
sunrise and until a little after the actual
sunset due to refraction of light through
the atmosphere.

• Time difference between actual sunset

Refraction through a glass slab - Lateral shift and apparent sunset is about 2 minutes.

• For a rectangular slab, refraction takes • As we go up, the density of air in the
place at two interfaces (air-glass and atmosphere continuously decreases, and
glass-air). thus the light coming from the sun
undergoes refraction.
• When a light ray enters a glass slab it • Thus we see the sun at an apparent
undergoes lateral displacement/ shift with position raised above the horizon.
respect to the incident ray. • This is the reason for early sunrise and
• The perpendicular distance between the delayed sunset.
incident ray and the emergent ray, when
the light is incident obliquely on a parallel Twinkling of stars
sided refracting slab is called lateral shift.

Applications of refraction

Apparent depth

• If an object in a denser medium is viewed

from a rarer medium the image appears
to be raised towards the surface.

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• The light rays coming from the sun Critical Angle

undergo refraction and hence the star is • It is the angle of incidence in the denser
viewed at the apparent position. medium for which the angle of refraction
• As the density of air in the atmosphere becomes 900.
continuously changes, the apparent
position also changes continuously.
• Thus the star appears to be twinkling.
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (T I R)
• When light travels from a denser medium
to a rarer medium, if the angle of
incidence is greater than the critical angle
it gets totally reflected in to the same
medium. This phenomenon is called total
internal reflection.
Explanation Relation connecting refractive index and critical
angle

• When light travels from an optically • By Snell’s law

denser medium to a rarer medium at the
s in i n
interface, it is partly reflected back into = 1
the same medium and partly refracted to s in r n2
the second medium. This reflection is • Here the ray goes from denser to rarer
called the internal reflection. medium
• When a ray of light enters from a denser
• When i = iC , r =900, thus
medium to a rarer medium, it bends away
from the normal. s in i c n
• As the angle of incidence increases, the
= 1
s in 9 0 n2
angle of refraction also increases.
• For a particular angle of incidence the n1
angle of refraction becomes 900. s in i c =
• If the angle of incidence is further n2
increased the ray gets totally reflected 1 n
into the same medium. = 2
• This phenomenon is called total internal s in ic n1
reflection. • If the rarer medium is air , n1= 1, and let
Conditions for total internal reflection n2= n, then
• The light ray should travel from denser
medium to rarer medium. 1
• The angle of incidence should be greater n=
than the critical angle. sin ic
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Applications of Total Internal Reflection

Mirage
• Mirage is due to total internal reflection.

• Total reflecting prisms are used in

periscopes.

Optical fibres
• In hot sunny days the layer of air in
contact with sand in a desert (or tar road),
becomes hot and rarer.
• The upper layers are comparatively cooler
and denser.
• Therefore the ray of light coming down
from a distant object like a tree is
travelling from a denser medium to a
rarer medium and it suffers total internal
reflection.
• Thus for an observer the image of a
distant object is seen inverted. •Optical fibre consists of a core and
• This makes the illusion that the tree is cladding.
standing near a pool of water. This • The refractive index of the material of the
phenomenon is called mirage. core is higher than that of the cladding.
• During a hot summer day, a distant patch • When a signal in the form of light is
of road appears to be wet due to mirage. directed at one end of the fibre at a
Brilliance of Diamond suitable angle, it undergoes repeated total
• Brilliance of diamond is due to total internal reflections along the length of the
internal reflection. fibre and finally comes out at the other
• The critical angle for diamond-air end.
interface (≅ 24.4°) is very small, therefore • Since light undergoes total internal
once light enters a diamond; undergo reflection at each stage, there is no
total internal reflection inside it. appreciable loss in the intensity of the
• By cutting the diamond suitably, multiple light signal.
total internal reflections can be made to • Even if the fibre is bent, light can easily
occur. travel along its length.
Total reflecting prisms Uses of Optical fibres

• Total reflecting prisms are designed to • Optical fibres are used as a light pipe for
bent light or to invert images without visual examination of internal organs.
changing their size, based on total internal • Optical fibres are used to carry electrical
reflection. signals which are converted to light.

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REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES

Expression for refraction at a convex surface

• Substituting for I and r,

• Or

• Thus

• For small angles , tan θ ≈ θ, thus

• From triangle OMP ,
• Therefore

• From triangle PCM,

• By Cartesian sign convention
PO = -u , PI = v , PC =R

• From triangle PMI, • Thus equation(3) becomes

• From triangle OMC,

Exterior angle = sum of interior angles •This is the equation of refraction at
• Thus convex surface.
Refraction by a lens - Lens maker’s formula

• From triangle IMC

• By Snell’s law

• If I and r are small, • The image formation has two steps:

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The first refracting surface forms the

•
image I1 of the object O.
• The image formed by the first refracting
surface acts as the virtual object for the
second refracting surface and the final
image is formed at I.
• We have the curved surface formula
• If the object is at infinity, the image is
formed at the principal focus.
• Thus if u=∞, v=f, equation 4 becomes

For refraction at the surface ABC

• Light ray travels from n1 to n2 and O is the

object and I1 is the image. • Thus the lens maker’s formula is given by
• And

• Here R1 is the radius of curvature of ABC.

• Thus Thin lens formula
• We have from eqn 4,

For refraction at the surface ADC

• Light ray travels from n2 to n1. • And the lens maker’s formula
• Here I1 is the object and I is the image and

• Here R2 is the radius of curvature of ADC • If the first medium is air n1 = 1 and ,let
n2=n, then

• Thus

• Adding equation 1 and 2, we get

• Therefore

• Dividing by n1 • This equation is the thin lens formula.

• The formula is valid for both convex as
well as concave lenses and for both real
and virtual images.

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Linear magnification of a lens

• Magnification (m) produced by a lens is
defined, as the ratio of the size of the
image to that of the object. • For the second lens object is I1 and image
is at I.

• Therefore

• Adding Equations

• The value of m is negative for real images

and positive for virtual images.
Power of a lens • If the two lens-system is regarded as
• Power of a lens is the reciprocal of focal equivalent to a single lens of focal length
length expressed in metre. f, we have
• Power of a lens is a measure of the
convergence or divergence, which a lens
introduces in the light falling on it.
• Therefore

• The SI unit for power of a lens is dioptre

(D).
• If several thin lenses of focal length f1, f2,
• Power of a lens is positive for a
f3,... are in contact, the effective focal
converging lens and negative for a
length of their combination is given by
diverging lens.
Combination of thin lenses in contact

• Thus the power is given by

• The total magnification

REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM

• For the first lens, object is at O and image

is at I1.

• Thus

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Angle of deviation, (d) Prism formula for a small angled prism

• For a small angled prism
• The angle between the emergent ray RS ( A + D)
and the direction of the incident ray PQ is
n21 = 2
called the angle of deviation, δ. A
Angle of minimum deviation (D) 2
• Therefore
• The angle of deviation for which the D = (n21 − 1) A
refracted ray inside the prism becomes
parallel to its base is called angle of i-d curve
minimum deviation.
• It is the plot between the angle of
Prism Formula ( Eqn. for refractive index) deviation and angle of incidence.

• In the quadrilateral AQNR, two of the

angles (at the vertices Q and R) are right
angles.

• Therefore, the sum of the other angles of

the quadrilateral is 1800.

• From the triangle QNR DISPERSION BY A PRISM

• The phenomenon of splitting of light into

its component colours is known as
• Comparing these two equations dispersion.

• The pattern of colour components of light

• We know ,exterior angle = sum of interior is called the spectrum of light.
angles, thus
d = (i - r1) + (e - r2)
• That is
d = (i + e - A)
• Thus, the angle of deviation depends on
the angle of incidence.

• At the minimum deviation, d=D, i=e,

r1=r2, therefore

• Thick lenses could be assumed as made of

• Thus using Snell’s law, the refractive index many prisms, therefore, thick lenses show
of the prism is given by chromatic aberration due to dispersion of
light.
(A + D) • When white light is passed through a
s in prism, it splits into its seven component
n 21 = 2 colors (VIBGYOR).
A
sin • If we place a second prism in an inverted
2 position, close to the first prism, the

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second prism recombines the colors and

we get white light.

Cause of dispersion
• Dispersion takes place because the In a primary rainbow the violet light
•
refractive index of medium for different emerges from raindrops at an angle of 400
wavelengths (colors) is different. relative to the incoming sunlight and red
Dispersive medium light emerges at an angle of 420.
• The medium in which the different • Thus the observer sees a rainbow with red
colours of light travel with different colour on the top and violet on the
velocities is called a dispersive medium. bottom.
• Eg :- Glass Secondary rainbow
Non-Dispersive medium • A secondary rainbow is a result of four-
• The medium in which all colours travel step process: refraction, total internal
with the same speed is called non- reflection, again total internal reflection
dispersive medium. and refraction.
Eg:- vacuum
Chromatic abberation
• The inability of a lens to focus all
wavelength to a single point is called
chromatic aberration.
SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA DUE TO SUNLIGHT
The rainbow

• This is a phenomenon due to combined

effect of dispersion, refraction and
reflection of sunlight by spherical water
droplets of rain.

Condition for a person to see rainbow •In a secondary rainbow the violet light
• The conditions for observing a rainbow emerges from the raindrops at an angle of
are that the sun should be shining in one 530 relative to the incoming sunlight and
part of the sky, while it is raining in the red light emerges at an angle of 500.
opposite part of the sky. • Thus an observer sees a secondary
• An observer can therefore see a rainbow rainbow with violet colour on the top and
only when his back is towards the sun. red on the bottom.
• Secondary rainbow is fainter than primary
Formation of rainbow rainbow.
Primary rainbow Scattering of light

• A primary rainbow is a result of three step • The irregular and partial reflection of light
processes: refraction, total internal at the dust particles and air molecules in
reflection and again refraction. the atmosphere is called scattering.

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Rayleigh’s scattering law OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

• According to Rayleigh’s scattering law the
intensity of the scattered light is inversely The eye
proportional to forth power of wave
length.

• Rayleigh’s law is applicable only if the size

of the scatterer is less than the Light enters the eye through a curved
•
wavelength of the light. front surface, the cornea. It passes
Blue color of the sky through the pupil which is the central
• When sun light comes through the hole in the iris.
atmosphere it undergoes scattering at the • The size of the pupil can change under
dust particles and air molecules. control of muscles. The light is further
• Thus the low wavelength region (bluish focused by the eye lens on the retina.
region) is more scattered. • The retina contains rods and cones which
• Since our eyes are more sensitive to blue sense light intensity and colour,
than violet, sky appears blue. respectively, and transmit electrical
White clouds signals via the optic nerve to the brain
• The particles of cloud are comparatively which finally processes this information.
bigger in size. • The shape (curvature) and therefore the
• Therefore, all colors of sunlight are focal length of the lens can be modified by
almost equally scattered. Thus clouds the ciliary muscles.
appear white. Accommodation
Color of setting or rising sun • The curvature and hence the focal length
of the eye lens can be adjusted by the
ciliary muscles. This ability of the eye is
called accommodation.
Near point (least distance of distinct vision)
• The closest distance for which the lens
can focus light on the retina is called least
distance of distinct vision or near point.
• For normal eye it is about 25cm.it is
• During sunrise and sunset light has to denoted by D.
travel more distance through the • This distance increases with age, because
atmosphere. of the decreasing effectiveness of the
• Thus most part of low wavelength region ciliary muscle and the loss of flexibility of
is scattered away and the least scattered the lens.
longer wavelength region (reddish region)
reaches our eye. Therefore the sun Presbyopia
appears red.
Blue color of the sea • The near point may be as close as about 7
• It is due to the scattering of sunlight at the to 8 cm in a child ten years of age, and
water molecules and dust particles. may increase to as much as 200 cm at 60
• By Rayleigh’s scattering law, low years of age.
wavelength region (blue region) is more • Thus, if an elderly person tries to read a
scattered. Therefore, sea appears blue book at about 25 cm from the eye, the

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image appears blurred. This condition •The position of the object can be adjusted
(defect of the eye) is called presbyopia. so that the image is formed at the least
• It is corrected by using a converging lens distance of distinct vision.
for reading. Linear magnification
Nearsightedness or myopia Image formed at the near point D
• The linear magnification m, for the image
• In certain eyes, the light from a distant formed at the near point D, by a simple
object arriving at the eye lens may get microscope is,
converged at a point in front of the retina.
• This type of defect is called near-
sightedness or myopia.
• This defect can be compensated by
using a concave lens
lens

Far sightedness (long sight) or hypermetropia

• In certain eyes, the light from a near
object is focused at a point behind the • Now according to our sign convention, v is
retina. This defect is called farsightedness negative, and is equal in magnitude to D.
or hypermetropia. • Thus, the magnification is
• This defect can be corrected by using
convex lens.
When the image is at infinity

Astigmatism
• Astigmatism occurs when the cornea is
not spherical in shape.
• This can be corrected using cylindrical
lens.

The microscope
• Microscope is used to get magnified • If the image is formed at infinity,
images of near objects.
Simple microscope
• Convex lens of small focal length is used
as a simple microscope.
• If the object is at the focus, the image is at
Nature of the image
infinity.
• If the object is brought closer, then the
• The image is erect, magnified and virtual.
image is formed at a distance closer than
infinity.

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Limitation of simple microscope

• A simple microscope has a limited
maximum magnification (≤ 9)
Compound microscope
• Therefore
• Compound microscope consists of two vo D
m= (1 + )
convex lenses objective and eye piece. uo fe
• The focal length and aperture of • Since the object is p laced very n ear to
objective is less than those of eye piece. the focus of the objective,
Working ‫ݑ‬଴ ≈ ݂଴ ܽ݊݀ ‫ݒ‬଴
• When an object is placed beyond the focal ≈ ‫ܮ‬, ‫ݐ‬ℎ݁ ݈݁݊݃‫ݐ‬ℎ ‫ݐ ݂݋‬ℎ݁ ‫ܾ݁ݑݐ‬
length of the objective, a magnified, real • Therefore
and inverted image is formed beyond the
‘2f’ of the objective on the other side.
• The distance between the lenses is
adjusted so that this image falls within the
focal length of the eye piece.
• Now the eyepiece acts as a simple
microscope and the final image is formed Image formed at infinity
at the least distance of distinct vision. • If the final image is formed at infinity,
Ray diagram then

Resolving power of a microscope

• Resolving power of a microscope is
defined as the reciprocal of minimum
separation between two point objects
which can be distinctly seen by it.
Nature of the final image
• The final image is inverted with respect to
the original object.
•Where λ, is the wavelength of the light
Linear magnification
used, n is the refractive index of the
When the image is at near point
transparent medium between the object
• The total magnification of the
and the objective of the microscope, and
combination of objective and eye piece is
β is half of the angle subtended by the
given by
diameter of the objective lens at the focus
of the microscope.
• The quantity n sin β is called the
• Where mO- magnification of objective
numerical aperture.
me-magnification of eye piece.
Telescope
• We have
• The telescope is used to provide angular
vo magnification of distant objects.
mo = • The objective has a large focal length and
uo a much larger aperture than the eyepiece.

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A refracting telescope •It is difficult and expensive to make such

large sized lenses.
• Chromatic aberration is a main defect in a
lens.
Reflecting telescopes
• In reflecting type telescopes, a concave
mirror is used as objective instead of
convex lens.
• The light from the object is reflected by
the concave mirror to the secondary
mirror, which again reflects the light into
the eyepiece.
• This type of reflecting telescope is known
as cassegrain telescope.
• Refracting telescopes can be used both
for terrestrial and astronomical
observations.
• Light from a distant object enters the
objective and a real and inverted image is
formed at its focus (Fo).
• The eyepiece magnifies this image
producing a final inverted image with
respect to the object.
Magnification(m)
• The magnifying power ‘m’ is the ratio of
the angle ‘β’ subtended by the final image The advantages of a reflecting type telescope
at eye to the angle ‘α’ subtended by the • There is no chromatic aberration in a
object at the lens or eye. mirror.
• If a parabolic mirror is chosen as the
objective, spherical aberration can be
removed.
• But we have • Mechanical support is much less of a
problem since a mirror weighs less.
Resolving power of a Telescope
• The resolving power of a telescope is
• Therefore
defined as the reciprocal of smallest
angular separation between two distant
objects whose images are distinctly
separated by the telescope.
• That is

Nature of final image • Where d is the diameter of telescope

• The final image is enlarged, inverted and objective and λ is the wavelength of light
virtual with respect to the object. used.
Disadvantages of refracting telescope • Δθ is called the limit of resolution of the
• In refracting telescopes, to get better telescope.
resolving power objective lens of large
aperture is needed.
• Big lenses are very heavy and therefore, ******
difficult to support by their edges.
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