Chapter 1 Introduction to Control System

1.1 Concept of Control system

Automatic control refers to the use of external equipment or devices (known as the
controller or control device), so that the machine, equipment, or production process
(collectively controlled object) of a working state or parameters (collectively controlled
quantity) automatically in accordance with the predetermined rule of operation.

Automatic control system refers to a system that can automatically control the working
state of the controlled object.

1.1.1 Technical Terms:

1. Controlled object: refers to the machine, equipment or production process that

requires automatic control.
2. Controlled object: refers to the machine, equipment or production process that
requires automatic control.
3. Controller: also known as regulator, control device, composed of control components,
it receives instruction signal, output control signal to the controlled object.
4. Given value or instruction signal r(t): the signal that requires the control system to
change according to a certain law is the input signal of the system.
5. Interference signal n(t): also known as disturbance value, is a signal that destroys the
controlled quantity of the system.
6. Feedback signal b(t): it refers to the signal fed back to the input end of the system
after the controlled quantity is detected by the measuring element.
7. Deviation signal e(t): refers to the difference between the given value and the
controlled quantity, or the difference between the instruction signal and the feedback
signal.

1.1.2 Target of Control System

Without the direct participation of people, the control device is used to manipulate the
controlled object, so that the controlled quantity changes according to the law of the given
value.

Figure 1.1 Control System

1.1.3 feedback control

In the automatic control system, the controlled quantity is the physical quantity that
requires strict control. As a control device to exert control on the controlled object, different
principles and ways can be used to complete the assigned task. Among them, the most basic
control principle is feedback control principle. The control system based on feedback control
principle is called feedback control system.
In the feedback control system, the control device exerts a control effect on the
controlled object, and the signal received by the control device is the deviation generated by
comparing the feedback signal of the controlled quantity with the given value, and the control
effect is generated according to the size of the deviation value to achieve the control task.
The process of sending the output back to the input and generating a deviation signal
compared with the input signal is called feedback. Feedback is divided into positive feedback
and negative feedback. If the feedback signal meets the input signal, resulting in a reduction
in the deviation, it is called negative feedback regulation. On the contrary, it is called positive
feedback regulation. Feedback control is the process of using negative feedback regulation
and using deviation to control. Because the feedback information of the controlled quantity is
applied, the whole control process is called closed process, so the feedback control is also
called closed-loop control.
In engineering practice, to realize the feedback control of the controlled object, the
system must have equipment that can continuously measure, feedback, and compare the
controlled quantity, and control according to the deviation. These devices are called
measuring element, comparing element, and actuating element respectively, and collectively
referred to control devices.

Figure 1.2 feedback control system

1.1.4 Classic control theory and modern control theory

Automatic control science is a technical science that studies the common law of
automatic control. Its birth and development stem from the application of automatic control
technology.
Bertalanffy put forward "system theory" in 1945 and Wiener put forward the famous
"Cybernetics" in 1948, forming a complete system of control theory - classical control
theory based on transfer function, which mainly studies the analysis and design of single
input, single output, and linear constant systems.
In the 1960s, the second generation of control theory was born - modern control theory.
These include the state space method based on state, Behrman's dynamic programming
method, Pontryagin's minimum principle and Kalman filter. Modern control theory mainly
studies the analysis and design of multivariable systems with local high performance, high
precision and multi coupling loops.
 Table 1-1 Comparisons between The Classical and Modern Control

Figure 1.3 Functional block diagram of the control system

The controller should have three basic functions, namely measurement, comparison, and
execution.
1. The function of the measuring element is to detect the physical quantity controlled. If
the physical quantity measured is non-electric quantity, it is generally converted into
electric quantity.
2. The function of the comparison element is to compare the actual value of the
controlled quantity detected by the measuring element with the given value and
calculate the deviation between the two.

1.2 Model of Control System

Feedback control is not only the most basic way of automatic control system, but also
the most widely used control method. In addition, there are open-loop control mode and
coincidence control mode, which have their own characteristics and different application
occasions. In recent decades, based on modern mathematics, new control methods with
computer have also made great development, such as optimal control, adaptive control, fuzzy
control and so on.
1.2.1 open-loop control

Figure 1.4 Block diagram of open-loop control

The open-loop control system utilizes an actuating device to control the process directly
without using feedback. Output will not impact normal work of control system The open-loop
control system can be composed of given control mode or disturbance control mode.
For the open-loop control system with given quantitative control, its control function is
directly generated by the input of the system. Given an input, there is an input corresponding
to it. The control accuracy completely depends on the accuracy of all components and
calibration. In the planer control system shown in the figure below, the components in the
dotted box are the open-loop control system with given quantity. The expected speed value of
the planer is determined by adjusting the control voltage 𝑈𝑈𝑘𝑘 of the trigger CF in advance.
Therefore, in the working process, even the planer speed deviates from the expected, it will
not affect the control voltage 𝑈𝑈𝑘𝑘 in turn. So, this open-loop control method has no ability to
self-correct the deviation and has poor anti-disturbance performance. However, due to its
simple structure, convenient adjustment and low cost, this control method has certain
practical value in the case of low accuracy requirements or small disturbance impact. At
present, some automatic devices used in various departments of the national economy, such as
vending machines, automatic washing machines, CNC lathes and the conversion of traffic
lights, are generally open-loop control systems.

Figure 1.5 Schematic diagram of speed control system of gantry planer

1.2.2 Close-loop control

 Figure 1.6 Block diagram of close-loop control
In contrast to open-loop control system, closed-loop control system utilizes an additional
measure of the actual output to compare the actual output with the desired output response.
The measure of output is called the feedback signal. The difference is amplified and used to
control the process so that the difference is continually reduced
In the precious explanation, closed loop control system is feedback control system,
which is composed of various components with different structures. To complete the function
of "automatic control", a system must include two parts: the controlled object and the control
device, and the control device is composed of various basic elements with certain functions.
In different systems, the components with completely different structures can have the same
functions. Therefore, the components of the system can be classified according to their
functions as follows:
1) Measurer: measure the controlled physical quantity If this physical quantity is
nonelectric quantity, it is generally converted into electric quantity. For example, the
tach generator is used to detect the speed of the motor shaft and convert it into
voltage; Potentiometer, rotary rheostat or synchro are used to detect the angle and
convert it into voltage; Thermocouples are used to detect temperature and convert it
into voltage, etc.
2) Giving Unit: give the desired control output quantity
3) Comparator: the desired output given by giving unit is compared with the measure of
actual output to generate the measure of the error, common element include
Differential Amplifier 、Bridge Circuit.
4) Amplifier: Its function is to amplify the deviation signal given by the comparison
element to control the controlled object.
5) Actuator: cause the process to provide the desired output and provide the motive
power to process. Its function is to directly work on the controlled object and change
its controlled quantity. Valves, motors, and hydraulic motors are used as actuators.
6) Compensator: additional component or circuit to compensate for a deficient
performance. It is connected in series or feedback to improve the performance of the
system. The simplest correction element is a passive or active network composed of
resistance and capacitance, and the complex one is computer.
As mentioned above, the feedback control method is controlled according to the
deviation. Its characteristic is when the deviation occurs due to the deviation of the controlled
quantity from the expected value for any reason, a corresponding control function will be
generated to reduce or eliminate the deviation, to make the controlled quantity consistent with
the expected value. It can be said that the feedback control system composed of feedback
control method can suppress the influence of any internal and external disturbance on the
controlled quantity and has high control accuracy. However, this system uses many
components and complex structure, especially the performance analysis and design of the
system are also troublesome. Nevertheless, it is still an important and widely used control
mode. The main research object of automatic control theory is the system composed of this
control mode.

Figure 1.7 Pitch angle control system components

In the figure, the vertical gyroscope is used as a measuring element to measure the pitch
angle of the aircraft. When the aircraft flies horizontally at a given pitch angle, the gyroscope
potentiometer has no voltage output; If the aircraft is disturbed and the pitch angle deviates
downward from the expected value, the gyro potentiometer outputs a signal proportional to
the pitch angle deviation, which is amplified by the amplifier and drives the steering gear. On
the one hand, it pushes the elevator to deflect upward and generates a torque to raise the
aircraft to reduce the pitch angle deviation; At the same time, it also drives the sliding arm of
the feedback potentiometer to output a voltage proportional to the rudder deflection angle and
feed it back to the input terminal. With the decrease of pitch angle deviation, the output signal
of gyro potentiometer becomes smaller and smaller, and the rudder deflection angle becomes
smaller and smaller. When the pitch angle returns to the expected value, the rudder surface
also returns to the original position.

1.2.3 Compound control

The disturbance control mode is technically simpler than the safety deviation control
mode, but it is only applicable to the situation where the disturbance is measurable, and a
compensation device can only compensate one disturbance factor and cannot compensate
other disturbances. Therefore, a more reasonable control method is to combine the control
according to deviation and the control according to disturbance. For the main disturbance, an
appropriate compensation device is used to realize the control according to disturbance, and a
feedback control system is formed to eliminate the deviation caused by other disturbances. In
this way, because the main disturbance of the system has been compensated, the feedback
control system is easier to design, and the control effect is better. This control mode
combining deviation control and disturbance control is called compound control mode.
 Figure 1.8 Block diagram of compound control

1.2.4 Basic control mode

Figure 1.10 Input signal compensation structure

Principle：produce compensation effect by using measurable disturbance quantity to

minimize or eliminate the disturbance influence on output signal

1.2.5 Basic performance requirement

Automatic control theory is a subject that studies the common law of automatic control.
Although there are different types of automatic control systems and different special
requirements for each system, for all kinds of systems, when the structure and parameters of
the system are known, we are interested in the whole process of the change of the controlled
quantity of the system under a typical input signal. For example, for constant value control
system, it is the whole process of studying the change of controlled quantity caused by
disturbance; For the servo system, it is the whole process of studying how the controlled
quantity overcomes the influence of disturbance and follows the change of input quantity.
However, the air conditioning requirements for the whole process of each type of controlled
quantity change are stability, rapidity, and accuracy.
Stability
Stability is a prerequisite to ensure the normal operation of the control system. A stable
system is a dynamic system with a bounded response to a bounded input. For a stable control
system, the initial deviation of the controlled quantity from the expected value should
gradually decrease and approach zero with time passing. Specifically, for a stable constant
value control system, after the controlled quantity deviates from the expected value due to
disturbance, after a transition time, the controlled quantity should return to the original
expected value state; For a stable servo system, the controlled quantity shall always follow the
change of input quantity. On the contrary, for an unstable control system, the initial deviation
of the controlled quantity from the expected value will diverge with the increase of time.
Therefore, the unstable control system cannot achieve the predetermined control task.

c(t)

2
r(t)

O t

Figure 1-11 Stability diagram

Rapidity
To complete the control task well, it is not enough for the control system to only meet
the requirements of stability. It is also necessary to put forward requirements for the form and
speed of its transition process, which is generally called dynamic performance. For example,
for the stable anti-aircraft gun firing angle follow-up system, although the gun body can
finally track the target, if the target changes rapidly and the transition time required for the
gun body to track the target is too long, it is impossible to hit the target.

c(t)

r(t)

1 2

O t

Figure 1.12 Rapidity diagram

Accuracy
Steady-state response performance
 Exist for a long time following any input signal initiation
Steady-state response error (the error between real output signal and desired output
signal)
Ideally, when the transition process is over, the steady-state response performance (i.e.,
equilibrium state) of the controlled quantity should be consistent with the expected
performance. But in fact, due to the influence of system structure, external action form,
friction, clearance and other nonlinear factors, there will be an error between the steady-state
signal and the expected signal of the controlled quantity, which is called steady-state error.
Steady state error is an important symbol to measure the accuracy of control system, and there
are generally specific requirements in technical indicators.

1.2 Typical Input Signal

In engineering practice, the external action of automatic control system is various,
including deterministic external action and random external action. For different forms of
external action, the change of system-controlled quantity (i.e., response) is different. To study
and compare the performance of control system with a unified method, several deterministic
functions are usually selected as typical external effects. Functions that can be used as typical
external actions shall meet the following conditions:

1） This function is easy to be produced in lab

2） The performance of the control system under this function shall represent the
performance under actual working conditions
3） This function can be calculated and analyzed conveniently
the typical external action functions commonly used in control engineering design include
Step function, Ramp function, Impulse function, sinusoidal function, and other deterministic
functions.

1.3.1 Step signal

The mathematical expression of step function is:
0, 𝑡𝑡 < 0
𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = � {1-1}
𝑅𝑅, 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0
This formula represents the step change function with the value of R when t = 0.
In practice, this means that when t = 0, an external action with constant amplitude is
suddenly added to the system. The step function with amplitude r = 1 is called the unit step
function. Expressed by 1 (T), the step function with amplitude R can be expressed as 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) =
𝑅𝑅 × 1(𝑡𝑡)
The step function of any 𝑡𝑡0 can be expressed as 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡0 ) = 𝑅𝑅 × 1(𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡0 )
Step function is an external action form often encountered in automatic control system
under actual working conditions. For example, the sudden jump of power supply voltage, the
sudden increase or decrease of load, and the constant gust disturbance encountered in aircraft
flight can be regarded as the external action in the form of step function. In the analysis and
design of control system, the response characteristics of the system under the action of step
function are generally used as the basis for evaluating the dynamic performance index of the
system.

Figure 1.13 Diagram of step signal

1.3.2 Impulse signal

The mathematical expression of Impulse function is:
𝐴𝐴
𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = lim [1(𝑡𝑡) − 1(𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡0 )] {1-2}
𝑡𝑡0 →0 𝑡𝑡0

This formula is a Impulse function synthesized by two step functions, and its area is 𝐴𝐴 =
𝐴𝐴
( )𝑡𝑡0 . When the width approaches zero, the limit of the pulsation function is the pulse
𝑡𝑡0
function. The intensity of the pulse function is usually expressed by its area. The pulse
function with area a = 1 is called the unit pulse function or 𝛿𝛿 Function; The pulse function
with intensity a can be expressed as 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝑡𝑡). The unit pulse function at time 𝑡𝑡0 is
expressed as 𝛿𝛿(𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡0 ).
In fact, Impulse function does not exist, but it is indeed an important and effective digital
tool and plays an important role in the research of automatic control theory. For example, an
arbitrary form of external action can be decomposed into the sum of a series of Impulse
functions at different times. In this way, by studying the response characteristics of the
control system under the action of Impulse function, we can understand the response
characteristics under any form of external action.

Figure 1.14 Impulse signal diagram

1.3.3 Ramp signal

The mathematical expression of Ramp signal is:
0, 𝑡𝑡 < 0
𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = � {1-3}
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅, 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0
 This formula represents a function of time at a constant rate r starting from t = 0. In
engineering practice, some servo systems often work under this external action, such as radar,
anti-aircraft gun and air defense system. When the tracking target of the radar flies at a
constant rate, it can be regarded as that the system works under the slope function.

Figure 1.15 Ramp signal diagram