COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING ROORKEE

Established in 1998
• Concept of automatic controls
• Open loop and closed loop systems
• Concepts of feedback systems
• Requirements of an ideal control system
• Types of controllers
– Proportional,
– Integral
– Proportional Integral,
– Proportional Integral Differential controller

2
• Automatic control has played a vital role in th
advance of engineering and science.
• It is more important in space-vehicle systems
missile-guidance systems, robotic systems, moder
manufacturing and industrial processes.
• For example,
– Numerical control of machine tools in the manufacturing
industries.
– Design of autopilot systems in the aerospace industries
– Design of cars and trucks in the automobile industries.
– Speed Governors 3
• It is also essential in industrial operations as
– controlling pressure,
– temperature,
– humidity,
– viscosity, and
– flow in the process industries.
• Automatic control helps in attaining optimal performance
• of dynamic systems, improving productivity, relieving the drudgery
of many routine repetitive manual operations.

4
 Automatic water lever controller

Automatic Engine speed controller

Hareesha N G, Dept of A 6
8/21/2017
Blore
• An automatic control system is a pre-set closed-loop control system
that requires no operator (human) action.
• Automatic control uses application of mechanisms to the operation
and regulation of processes without continuous direct human
intervention.
• This assumes the process remains in the normal range for the control
system.
• An automatic control system has two process variables associated
with it:
– a controlled variable
– a manipulated variable.
• A controlled variable is the process variable that is maintained at a
specified value or within a specified range.
• In the previous example, the storage tank level is the controlled
variable.
• A manipulated variable is the process variable that is acted on by the
control system to maintain the controlled variable at the specified
value or within the specified range.
• The flow rate of the water supplied to the tank is the manipulated
variable.

Functions of Automatic Control

• In any automatic control system, the four basic functions that occur
are:
– Measurement
– Comparison
– Computation
– Correction
System :
A system is a combination or an arrangement of different physical
components which act together as a entire unit to achieve certain
objective.
• E.g.,
– A classroom is a physical system. A room along with the
combination of benches, blackboard, fans, lighting arrangement
etc. can be called as a classroom which acts as elementary system.
– In a classroom, professor is delivering his lecture, it becomes a
control system as; he tries to regulate, direct or command the
students in order to achieve the objective which is to input good
knowledge to the students.
Plant :
– The portion of a system which is to be controlled or regulated
is called as the plant.
– A plant may be a piece of equipment, perhaps just a set
of machine parts.
– The purpose of plant is to perform a particular operation.
– E.g., mechanical device, a heating furnace, a chemical
reactor, or a spacecraft.
Process:
– Any operation to be controlled is called a process.
– Examples are chemical, economic, and biological processes.
Controller :
– The element of the system itself or external to the system which
controls the plant or the process is called as controller.
– E.g., ON/OFF switch to control bulb.
 Input
– It is an applied signal or an excitation signal applied to control system from an
external energy source in order to produce a specified output.
– For each system, there must be excitation and system accepts it as
an input
Output :
– It is the particular signal of interest or the actual response
obtained from a control system when input is applied to it.
– for analysing the behaviour of system for such input, it is necessary to define
the output of a system.
 Disturbances :
– Disturbance is a signal which tends to adversely affect the value of the output of
a system.
– Disturbances are undesirable and unavoidable effects beyond our control,
generated from outside process-environment, and from within.
– If such a disturbance is generated within the system itself, it is called as internal
disturbance.
– The disturbance generated outside the system acting as an extra input to the
system in addition to its normal input, affecting the output adversely is called as
an external disturbance.
– The presence of the disturbance is one of the main reasons of using control.
 1) Natural Control
System
— Universe
— Human Body
2) Manmade Control System
— Vehicles
— Aeroplanes
3) Manual Control Systems
– Room Temperature regulation Via Electric
Fan
– Water Level Control
4) Automatic Control System
– Room Temperature regulation Via A.C
– Human Body Temperature Control
 5) Open-Loop Control
System
– Washing Machine
– Toaster
– Electric Fan

6) Closed-loop Control System

– Refrigerator
– Auto-pilot system
– Driverless cars

7) Linear Vs Nonlinear Control System

A Control System in which output varies linearly with
the input is called a linear control system.
 8) Time invariant vs Time
variant of the system do not depend upon time itself then the system
– When the characteristics is
said to time invariant control system.
– Time varying control system is a system in which one or more parameters vary with
time.
9) Continuous Data Vs Discrete Data System
– In continuous data control system all system variables are
function of a continuous time t.
– A discrete time control system involves one or more variables that are known
only at discrete time intervals.
0) Deterministic vs Stochastic Control System
– A control System is deterministic if the response to input is predictable and
repeatable.
– If not, the control system is a stochastic control system.
• Any physical system which does not automatically correct for
variation in its output, is called an open-loop system.
• Such a system may be represented by the block diagram as shown in
Fig.

• In these systems, output is dependent on input but controlling action

or input is totally independent of the output or changes in output of
the system.
• In these systems the output remains constant for a constant input
signal provided the external conditions remain unaltered.
• In any open-loop control system the output is not compared with the
reference input. As a result, the accuracy of the system depends on
calibration.
• In the presence of disturbances, an open-loop control system will not
perform the desired task. Open-loop control can be used, in practice,
only if the relationship between the input and output is known and if
there are neither internal nor external disturbances.
• Clearly, such systems are not feedback control systems. Note that any
control system that operates on a time basis is open loop.
• For instance, traffic control by means of signals operated on a time
basis is an example of open-loop control.
 Advantages: The advantages of open loop control system are,
1) Such systems are simple in construction.
2) Very much convenient when output is difficult to measure.
3) Such systems are easy from maintenance point of view.
4) Generally these are not troubled with the problems of stability.
5) Such systems are simple to design and hence economical.

Disadvantages: The disadvantages of open loop control system are,

1. These systems are inaccurate and unreliable because accuracy of such systems are
totally dependent on the accurate pre-calibration of the controller.
2. These systems give inaccurate results if there are variations in the
external environment.
3. These systems cant sense internal disturbances in the system, after the
controller stage.
4. Recalibration of the controller is necessary, time to time to maintain the quality
and accuracy of the desired output.
 1) Automatic Toaster System
• In this system, the quality of toast depends upon the time for which
the toast is heated.
• Depending on the time setting, bread is simply heated in this system.
• The toast quality is to be judged by the user and has no effect on the
inputs.
 2) Traffic Light Controller
• A traffic flow control system used on roads is time dependent.
• The traffic on the road becomes mobile or stationary depending on
the duration and sequence of lamp glow.
• The sequence andduration are controlled by relays which are
predetermined and not dependent on the rush on the road.
 3) Residential Heating System
• The indoor temperature is the response variable of interest, and it is affected by the
main disturbance input—the outdoor temperature.
• The desired temperature is set on a calibrated dial. This positions the valve that
admits the steam for circulation through the radiator.
• The valve dial is calibrated when the environment temperature has certain value.
• When this value changes significantly, the controlled temperature will deviate from
the desired value by a large error and hence precise control will not be realized.
Feedback Control Systems.
• A system that maintains a prescribed relationship between the output
and the reference input by comparing them and using the difference
as a means of control is called a feedback control system.
Closed-Loop Control Systems.
• Feedback control systems are often referred to as closed-loop control
systems.
• In practice, the terms feedback control and closed-loop control are
used interchangeably.
• In a closed-loop control system the actuating error signal (which is
the difference between the input signal and the feedback signal) is fed
to the controller so as to reduce the error and bring the output of the
system to a desired value.
• The term closed-loop control always implies the use of feedback
control action in order to reduce system error.
The various signals are,
r(t) = Reference input
e(t) = Error signal
c(t) = Controlled output
m(t) = Manipulated
signal b(t) = Feedback
signal
• The part of output, which is to be decided by feedback element is fed
back to the reference input. The signal which is output of feedback
element is called feedback signal, b(t).
• It is then compared with the reference input giving error signal e(t)
=r(t) ± b(t)
• When feedback sign is positive, systems are called positive feedback
systems and if it is negative systems are called negative feedback
systems.
• This error signal is then modified by controller and decides the
proportional manipulated signal for the process to be controlled.
• This manipulation is such that error will approach zero. This signal
then actuates the actual system and produces an output. As output is
controlled one, hence called controlled output c(t).
 Advantages
1. Accuracy of these systems is always very high because controller modifies and
manipulates the actuating signal such that error in the system will be zero.
2. closed loop system senses environmental changes, as well as internal disturbances
and accordingly modifies the error.
3. There is reduced effect of nonlinearities and distortions.
4. Bandwidth (operating frequency zone) for such system is veryhigh.
Disadvantages
1. systems are complicated and time consuming from design point of view and hence costlier.
2. Due to feedback, system tries to correct the error from time to time. Tendency to
overcorrect the error may cause oscillations without bound in the system.
3. System has to be designed taking into consideration problems of instability due to
feedback.
4. The stability problems are severe and must be taken care of while designing the system.
 1. Human Being
• The best example is human being. If a person wants to reach for a
book on the table, Position of the book is given as the reference.
• Feedback signal from eyes, compares the actual position of hands
with reference position. Error signal is given to brain.
• Brain manipulates this error and gives signal to the hands. This
process continues till the position of the hands get achieved
appropriately.
2. Home Heating System
• In this system, the heating system is operated by a valve.
• The actual temperature is sensed by a thermal sensor and compared
with the desired temperature.
• The difference between the two, actuates the valve mechanism to
change the temperature as per the requirement.
3. Manual Speed Control System
• A locomotive operator driving a train is a good example of a
manual speed control system.
• The objective is to maintain the speed equal to the speed limits set.
• The entire system is shown in the block diagram in the Fig.
 Open Loop Closed Loop
Any change in output has no effect Changes in output, affects the input
on the input i.e. feedback does not which is possible by use of feedback.
exists.
Output measurement is not Output measurement is necessary.
required for operation of system.
Feedback element is absent. Feedback element is present.
Error detector is absent. Error detector is necessary.
It is inaccurate and unreliable. Highly accurate and reliable.
Highly sensitive to the disturbances. Less sensitive to the disturbances.
Highly sensitive to the environmental Less sensitive to the environmental
changes. changes.
Bandwidth is small. Bandwidth is large.
Simple to construct and cheap. Complicated to design and hence costly.
Generally are stable in nature. Stability is the major
consideration while designing
Highly affected by nonlinearities. Reduced effect of nonlinearities.
 To achieve the required objective, a good control system must satisfy
the following requirements.

1. Accuracy :
– A good control system must be highly accurate.
– The open loop systems are generally less accurate
and hence feedback is introduced to reduce the error in the
system.
2. Sensitivity :
– A good control system should be very insensitive to environmental
changes, age etc. But, must be sensitive to the input commands.
– The performance should not be affected by small changes in the
certain parameters of the system.
3) External disturbance or noise :
– All the physical systems are subjected to external disturbances and
noise signals during operation.
– A requirement of a good control system is that system is
insensitive to noise and external disturbances but sensitive to the
input commands.
– It should be able to reduce effects of undesirable
disturbances.
4) Stability :
– A concept of stability means output of system must follow reference input
and must produced bounded output for bounded input.
– A good control system is one which is stable in nature.
 5) Bandwidth :
– This requirement is related to the frequency response of
the system.
– For the input frequency range, it should give satisfactory output.
6) Speed :
– A system should have good speed. This means output of
the system should approach to its desired value as quickly as
possible.
– System should settled down to its final, value as quicklyas
possible.
7) Oscillations :
– The system should exhibits suitable damping i.e. the controlled
output should follow the changes in the reference input without
• The concept of a control system is to sense deviation of the output
from the desired value and correct it, till the desired output is
achieved.
• The deviation of the actual output from its desired value is called an
error. The measurement of error is possible because of feedback.
• The feedback allows us to compare the actual output with its desired
value to generate the error.
• The controller is an element which accepts the error in some form and
decides the proper corrective action.
• The output of the controller is then applied to the process or final
control element. This brings the output back to its desired set point
value.
• The controller is the heart of a control system. The accuracy of the
entire system depends on how sensitive is the controller to the error
detected and how it is manipulating such an error.
Most industrial controllers may be classified according to their control
actions as:
1. Two-position or on-off controllers
2. Proportional controllers
3. Integral controllers
4. Proportional-plus-integral controllers
5. Proportional-plus-derivative controllers
6. Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative controllers
• The most elementary controller mode is the two-position or ON/OFF
controller mode.
• It is the simplest, cheapest.
• The most general form can be given by:
P=0% ep < 0
P = 100 ep > 0
%
Ex. ON/OFF
switch

• The relation shows that when the measured value is less than the
set-point (i.e. ep > 0), the controller output will be full (i.e. 100%),
• when the measured value is more than the setpoint (i.e. ep < 0), the
controller output will be zero (i.e. 0%).
 • In this control mode, the output of the controller is simple proportional
to the error e(t).
• The relationbetween the error e(t) and the controller output p is
determined by constant called proportional gain constant denoted as Kp.
• The output of the controller is a linear function of the error e(t).
• Thus each value of the error has a unique value of the controller output.
• The range of the error which covers 0 % to 100 % controller output is
called proportional band.
• The basic relationship between output of the controller and error signal
is given by,
p(t) =
Kp e(t) Taking Laplace
transform,
P(s) = Kp E(s)

Kp = Proportional gain constant

• Though there exists linear relation between controller output and the
error, for a zero error the controller output should not be zero, otherwise
the process will come to halt.
• Hence there exists some controller output Po for the zero error. Hence
mathematically the proportional control mode is expressed as,
p(t) = Kp e(t) Kp = Proportional gain constant
+ Po Po = Controller output with zero
error
• In the proportional control mode, error reduces but can not go to zero.
• It finally produces an offset error. It can not adapt with the changing
load conditions. To avoid this, another control mode is often used in
the control systems which is based on the history of the errors. This
mode is called integral mode or reset action controller.
• In such a controller, the value of the controller output p(t) is changed
at a rate which is proportioned to the actuating error signal e(t).
Mathematically it is expressed as,

dp(t
=K
i
) e(t)
Ki =dt Constant relating error and rate
Taking Laplace transform,
sP(s) = Ki E(s)or P(s) = (Ki/s) E(s)
• The constant Ki is also called integral constant.
• Integrating the above equation, actual controller output at any time t
can be obtained as,
t

p(t ) = Ki e(t )dt +

Where ∫
p(0)when integral action starts i.e. at t =
p(0) = Controller output
0. 0
 • The controller produces a control action that is proportional to the
rate at which the error is changing de(t)/dt.
• The mathematical equation for the mode is,
de(t
p(t ) = Kd
where Kd = Derivative gain constant.
)
dt
Taking Laplace
transform
P(s) = Kd s E(s)
• This is a composite control mode obtained by combining the
proportional mode and the integral mode.
• The mathematical expression for such a composite control is,
t

p(t ) = Kpe(t )+ Kp K0i e(t )dt + p(0)

∫
Taking Laplace
transform,
⎡ Kp ⎤
P(s) =⎢ Kp K ⎥ E(s
⎣ ⎦ is
+
⎡ K ⎤)
P(s) = Kp 1 + i
⎥
E(s) s ⎦
⎢⎣
• The series combination of proportional and derivative control modes
gives proportional plus derivative control mode.
• The mathematical expression for the PD composite control is,
p(t ) = Kpe(t )+ Kp de(t )
+
Kd dt
• Taking Laplace p(0)
(s) = [Kp + pKK d
Ptransform,
]E(saddition
• sThe ) of a derivative mode to a proportional controller
modifies its response to inputs.
• A PD controller provides an element to the response which is largest
when the rate of change of the error is greatest and diminishes as it
becomes smaller.
• The derivative mode is never used alone because it is not capable of
maintaining a control signal under steady error conditions.
• It is always used with the proportional mode and often additionally
w i th the integral mode.Hareesha N G, Dept of Aero Engg, DSCE, 44
• The composite controller including the combination of the
proportional, integral andderivative control mode is called
PID control mode and the controller is called three mode controller.
• It is very much complex to design but very powerful in action.
• Mathematically such a control mode can be expressed as,
t
de(t +
p(t ) = Kp e(t )+ p K ∫ e(t )dt + K K
p
)
K i
0
d
p(0)
dt
+ Kp Ki ⎤
P(s) =⎢ + Kp Kd s E(s)
⎡ ⎣
p
s ⎥⎦
K
K +s+K
P(s) = p s2 [ d i
K
s ]E(s)
• This mode has advantages of all the modes.
• The integral mode eliminates the offset error of the
proportional mode and the response is also very fast due to derivative
mode.
• The sudden response is produced due to derivative mode.
• Thus it can be used for any process condition.
• With the PID control action, there is no offset, no oscillations with
• least settlingistime.
So there improvement in both transient as well as
state steady
response.
 The Fulcrum can be adjusted horizontally by turning
A
knob A
B The Float can be adjusted vertically by turning knob B

Desired Value (DV ) = The required level of water in the tank

Measured Value (MV) = The actual level of water in the tank.
Offset or Error (E) = The difference between the required and actual
level (DV-MV)
Gain (K) = The ratio of float movement to valve movement
• The water level and the Float continue to drop and the Supply Valve
continues to open until the water flow into the tank equals the flow out of the
tank at which point the water level stops falling.
• The system has now reached steady state but the tank level is now lower
than the required level (DV>MV) and there is an Offset.
• In a Proportional only system under load there will always be an Offset
and that offset will vary dependant on the size of the load.

C8o/2u1/r2t0e1s7y: Hareesha N G, Dept of Aero Engg, DSCE, 47

• Proportional control will always result in an Offset between
Measured Value and Desired Value and for every load there will be
a different steady state water level.
• As the Gain increases the Offset decreases.
• As the Gain increases the stability decreases until the system
becomes unstable.
• With Proportional only control a compromise must be reached
between size of Offset and stability by adjusting the Gain.
• In some systems an Offset is acceptable, as in the water tank
described above, and Proportional only control is acceptable.
• However in other systems an offset of any size is unacceptable and
some other form of control is required.

8/21/2017 Hareesha N G, Dept of Aero Engg, DSCE, 48

• With the system we described above, under load, assuming the Gain
of system has been adjusted to its optimum value, the water level will
settle with an Offset from the Desired Value.
• By adjusting knob B so that the float moves upwards, relative to the
water level, the Supply Valve will open more, the flow in will
increase and the Offset will reduce.
• Eventually a new height of the Float will be found where the flow into
the tank equals the flow out , the Measured value equals the Desired
Value and Offset will be zero.

8/21/2017 Hareesha N G, Dept of Aero Engg, DSCE, Blore

• The speed at which the Float height is adjusted can be fast or slow.
• If it is too fast the system can become unstable (hunting) and if it is
too slow time will be wasted.
• With Integral control the speed at which Offset is removed is made
directly proportional to the size of the Offset.
• In the water tank system, we could achieve this by operating knob B
with a variable speed servo motor.
• The amount of integral action applied would be controlled by
adjusting the ratio between Motor speed and size of Offset.

8/21/2017 Hareesha N G, Courtesy:

pt of Aero Engg, DSCE, Blore http://aeroquad.com
50
• Not all systems can be controlled by Proportional and Integral control
only.
• In the water tank system, an increase in load results in an immediate
drop in water level and the Float.
• The Supply Valve is immediately opened allowing water into the tank.
• In some systems there is a delay or lag in response to a change in
load.
• For example, a wind tunnel has a large heavy fan. If more power is
applied to increase the fan's speed there will be a significant delay
before the new speed is achieved due to the time needed to overcome
the inertia of the fan.
• To overcome the inertia more power (than actually required) is
required to maintain the desired speed (DV), to accelerate the fans
speed change.
• The additional power is then reduced to the level required to maintain
the required speed.
• In the water tank system, under Proportional and Integral control,
knob B is operated by a variable speed servo motor.
• If there was inertia in the system, due to friction in the linkage
between the Float and the Supply Valve, Derivative action would
temporarily apply a higher speed to the servo motor than was
necessary to remove the Offset.

Summary:
1. Derivative action speeds up the removal of the Offset.
2. It is required in systems which have large time delays due to
Inertia or large capacities.
3. It tends to make a system more stable as it is increased it can
cause hunting and instability
 It arrest the change of the Measured Value
Proportional
Arrests but always with an Offset from the
action (P)
Measured Value
Integral action
Restores It removes the Offset
(I)
Derivative
Accelerates It speeds up the removal of the Offset
action (D)
1. Modern Control Engineering, Katsuhiko Ogatta,Pearson
Education,2004.
2. Control System Engineering, U.A.Bakshi
3. Control Systems, W. Bolton, Elsevier Ltd.
4. http://aeroquad.com/showwiki.php?title=A-Guide-To-Proportional-
Integral-and-Derivative-PID-Control
• Automatic control has played a vital role in the
advance of engineering and science.
• It is more important in space-vehicle systems,
missile-guidance systems, robotic systems, modern
manufacturing and industrial processes.
• For example,
– Numerical control of machine tools in the manufacturing
industries.
– Design of autopilot systems in the aerospace industries
– Design of cars and trucks in the automobile industries.
– Speed Governors
Hareesha N G, Dept of Aero Engg, DSCE, 5
• It is also essential in industrial operations as
– controlling pressure,
– temperature,
– humidity,
– viscosity, and
– flow in the process industries.
• Automatic control helps in attaining optimal performance of dynamic
systems, improving productivity, relieving the drudgery of many
routine repetitive manual operations.

Hareesha N G, Dept of Aero Engg, DSCE, 5

 Automatic water lever controller

Automatic Engine speed controller

Hareesha N G, Dept of A ero Engg,
8/21/2017 6
Blore DSCE,
• An automatic control system is a pre-set closed-loop control system
that requires no operator (human) action.
• Automatic control uses application of mechanisms to the operation
and regulation of processes without continuous direct human
intervention.
• This assumes the process remains in the normal range for the control
system.
• An automatic control system has two process variables associated
with it:
– a controlled variable
– a manipulated variable.
• A controlled variable is the process variable that is maintained at a
specified value or within a specified range.
• In the previous example, the storage tank level is the controlled
variable.
• A manipulated variable is the process variable that is acted on by the
control system to maintain the controlled variable at the specified
value or within the specified range.
• The flow rate of the water supplied to the tank is the manipulated
variable.

Functions of Automatic Control

• In any automatic control system, the four basic functions that occur
are:
– Measurement
– Comparison
– Computation
– Correction
System :
A system is a combination or an
arrangement of different physical
components which act together as a
entire
• E.g., unit to achieve certain objective.
– A classroom is a physical system. A room along with the
combination of benches, blackboard, fans, lighting arrangement
etc. can be called as a classroom which acts as elementary system.
– In a classroom, professor is delivering his lecture, it becomes a
control system as; he tries to regulate, direct or command the
students in order to achieve the objective which is to input good
knowledge to the students.
Plant :
– The portion of a system which is to be controlled or regulated
is called as the plant.
– A plant may be a piece of equipment, perhaps just a set
of machine parts.
– The purpose of plant is to perform a particular operation.
– E.g., mechanical device, a heating furnace, a chemical
reactor, or a spacecraft.
Process:
– Any operation to be controlled is called a process.
– Examples are chemical, economic, and biological processes.
Controller
:
– The element of the system itself or external to the system which
controls the plant or the process is called as controller.
– E.g., ON/OFF switch to control bulb.
Input
:
– It is an applied signal or an excitation signal applied to control
system from an external energy source in order to produce a
specified output.
– For each system, there must be excitation and system accepts it as
an input
Output :
– It is the particular signal of interest or the actual response
obtained from a control system when input is applied to it.
– for analysing the behaviour of system for such input, it is
necessary to define the output of a system.
Disturbances
:
– Disturbance is a signal which tends to adversely affect the value of the output of
a system.
– Disturbances are undesirable and unavoidable effects beyond our control,
generated from outside process-environment, and from within.
– If such a disturbance is generated within the system itself, it is called as internal
disturbance.
– The disturbance generated outside the system acting as an extra input to the
system in addition to its normal input, affecting the output adversely is called as
an external disturbance.
– The presence of the disturbance is one of the main reasons of using control.
 1) Natural Control
System
— Universe
— Human Body
2) Manmade Control System
— Vehicles
— Aeroplanes
3) Manual Control Systems
– Room Temperature regulation Via Electric
Fan
– Water Level Control
4) Automatic Control System
– Room Temperature regulation Via A.C
– Human Body Temperature Control
 5) Open-Loop Control
System
– Washing Machine
– Toaster
– Electric Fan

6) Closed-loop Control System

– Refrigerator
– Auto-pilot system
– Driverless cars

7) Linear Vs Nonlinear Control System

A Control System in which output varies linearly with
the input is called a linear control system.
 8) Time invariant vs Time
variant
– When the characteristics of the system do not depend upon time itself then the system is
said to time invariant control system.
– Time varying control system is a system in which one or more parameters vary with
time.
9) Continuous Data Vs Discrete Data System
– In continuous data control system all system variables are
function of a
continuous time t.
– A discrete time control system involves one or more variables that are known
only at discrete time intervals.
9) Deterministic vs Stochastic Control System
– A control System is deterministic if the response to input is predictable and
repeatable.
– If not, the control system is a stochastic control system.
• Any physical system which does not automatically correct for
variation in its output, is called an open-loop system.
• Such a system may be represented by the block diagram as shown in
Fig.

• In these systems, output is dependent on input but controlling action

or input is totally independent of the output or changes in output of
the system.
• In these systems the output remains constant for a constant input
signal provided the external conditions remain unaltered.
• In any open-loop control system the output is not compared with the
reference input. As a result, the accuracy of the system depends on
calibration.
• In the presence of disturbances, an open-loop control system will not
perform the desired task. Open-loop control can be used, in practice,
only if the relationship between the input and output is known and if
there are neither internal nor external disturbances.
• Clearly, such systems are not feedback control systems. Note that any
control system that operates on a time basis is open loop.
• For instance, traffic control by means of signals operated on a time
basis is an example of open-loop control.
 Advantages: The advantages of open loop control system are,
1) Such systems are simple in construction.
2) Very much convenient when output is difficult to measure.
3) Such systems are easy from maintenance point of view.
4) Generally these are not troubled with the problems of stability.
5) Such systems are simple to design and hence economical.

Disadvantages: The disadvantages of open loop control system are,

1. These systems are inaccurate and unreliable because accuracy of such systems are
totally dependent on the accurate pre-calibration of the controller.
2. These systems give inaccurate results if there are variations in the
external environment.
3. These systems cant sense internal disturbances in the system, after the
controller stage.
4. Recalibration of the controller is necessary, time to time to maintain the quality
and accuracy of the desired output.
 1) Automatic Toaster
System
• In this system, the quality of toast depends upon the time for which
the toast is heated.
• Depending on the time setting, bread is simply heated in this system.
• The toast quality is to be judged by the user and has no effect on the
inputs.
 2) Traffic Light
Controller
• A traffic flow control system used on roads is time dependent.
• The traffic on the road becomes mobile or stationary depending on
the duration and sequence of lamp glow.
• The sequence andduration are controlled by relays which are
predetermined and not dependent on the rush on the road.
 3) Residential Heating
System
• The indoor temperature is the response variable of interest, and it is
affected by the main disturbance input—the outdoor temperature.
• The desired temperature is set on a calibrated dial. This positions the
valve that admits the steam for circulation through the radiator.
• The valve dial is calibrated when the environment temperature has
certain value.
• When this value changes significantly, the controlled temperature will
deviate from the desired value by a large error and hence precise control
will not be realized.
Feedback Control Systems.
• A system that maintains a prescribed relationship between the output
and the reference input by comparing them and using the difference
as a means of control is called a feedback control system.
Closed-Loop Control Systems.
• Feedback control systems are often referred to as closed-loop control
systems.
• In practice, the terms feedback control and closed-loop control are
used interchangeably.
• In a closed-loop control system the actuating error signal (which is
the difference between the input signal and the feedback signal) is fed
to the controller so as to reduce the error and bring the output of the
system to a desired value.
• The term closed-loop control always implies the use of feedback
control action in order to reduce system error.
The various signals are,
r(t) = Reference input
e(t) = Error signal
c(t) = Controlled output
m(t) = Manipulated
signal b(t) = Feedback
signal
• The part of output, which is to be decided by feedback element is fed
back to the reference input. The signal which is output of feedback
element is called feedback signal, b(t).
• It is then compared with the reference input giving error signal e(t) =
r(t) ± b(t)
• When feedback sign is positive, systems are called positive feedback
systems and if it is negative systems are called negative feedback
systems.
• This error signal is then modified by controller and decides the
proportional manipulated signal for the process to be controlled.
• This manipulation is such that error will approach zero. This signal
then actuates the actual system and produces an output. As output is
controlled one, hence called controlled output c(t).
 Advantage
s
1. Accuracy of these systems is always very high because controller modifies
and manipulates the actuating signal such that error in the system will be zero.
2. closed loop system senses environmental changes, as well as internal disturbances
and accordingly modifies the error.
3. There is reduced effect of nonlinearities and distortions.
4. Bandwidth (operating frequency zone) for such system is veryhigh.
Disadvantages
1. systems are complicated and time consuming from design point of view and hence
costlier.
2. Due to feedback, system tries to correct the error from time to time. Tendency to
overcorrect the error may cause oscillations without bound in the system.
3. System has to be designed taking into consideration problems of instability due to
feedback.
4. The stability problems are severe and must be taken care of while designing the
system.
 1. Human
Being
• The best example is human being. If a person wants to reach for a
book on the table, Position of the book is given as the reference.
• Feedback signal from eyes, compares the actual position of hands
with reference position. Error signal is given to brain.
• Brain manipulates this error and gives signal to the hands. This
process continues till the position of the hands get achieved
appropriately.
2. Home Heating System
• In this system, the heating system is operated by a valve.
• The actual temperature is sensed by a thermal sensor and compared
with the desired temperature.
• The difference between the two, actuates the valve mechanism to
change the temperature as per the requirement.
3. Manual Speed Control System
• A locomotive operator driving a train is a good example of a
manual speed control system.
• The objective is to maintain the speed equal to the speed limits set.
• The entire system is shown in the block diagram in the Fig.
 Open Loop Closed Loop
Any change in output has no effect Changes in output, affects the input
on the input i.e. feedback does not which is possible by use of feedback.
exists.
Output measurement is not Output measurement is necessary.
required for operation of system.
Feedback element is absent. Feedback element is present.
Error detector is absent. Error detector is necessary.
It is inaccurate and unreliable. Highly accurate and reliable.
Highly sensitive to the disturbances. Less sensitive to the disturbances.
Highly sensitive to the environmental Less sensitive to the environmental
changes. changes.
Bandwidth is small. Bandwidth is large.
Simple to construct and cheap. Complicated to design and hence costly.
Generally are stable in nature. Stability is the major
consideration while designing
Highly affected by nonlinearities. Reduced effect of nonlinearities.
To achieve the required objective, a good control system must satisfy
1.
the following requirements.

Accuracy
– A good control system must be highly accurate.
:
– The open loop systems are generally less accurate
and hence feedback is introduced to reduce the error in the
system.
2. Sensitivity :
– A good control system should be very insensitive to environmental
changes, age etc. But, must be sensitive to the input commands.
– The performance should not be affected by small changes in the
certain parameters of the system.
3) External disturbance
or noise
– All the physical systems: are subjected to external disturbances and
noise signals during operation.
– A requirement of a good control system is that system is
insensitive to noise and external disturbances but sensitive to the
input commands.
– Itshould be able to reduce the effects of undesirable
disturbances.
4) Stability :
– A concept of stability means output of system must follow
reference input and must produced bounded output for bounded
input.
– A good control system is one which is stable in nature.
 5)
Bandwidth
– This requirement is related to the frequency response of
the :system.
– For the input frequency range, it should give satisfactory output.
6) Speed :
– A system should have good speed. This means output of
the system should approach to its desired value as quickly as
possible.
– System should settled down to its final, value as quicklyas
possible.
7) Oscillations :
– The system should exhibits suitable damping i.e. the controlled
output should follow the changes in the reference input without
unduly large oscillations or overshoots.
• The concept of a control system is to sense deviation of the output
from the desired value and correct it, till the desired output is
achieved.
• The deviation of the actual output from its desired value is called an
error. The measurement of error is possible because of feedback.
• The feedback allows us to compare the actual output with its desired
value to generate the error.
• The controller is an element which accepts the error in some form and
decides the proper corrective action.
• The output of the controller is then applied to the process or final
control element. This brings the output back to its desired set point
value.
• The controller is the heart of a control system. The accuracy of the
entire system depends on how sensitive is the controller to the error
detected and how it is manipulating such an error.
Most industrial controllers may be classified according to their control
actions as:
1. Two-position or on-off controllers
2. Proportional controllers
3. Integral controllers
4. Proportional-plus-integral controllers
5. Proportional-plus-derivative controllers
6. Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative controllers
• The most elementary controller mode is the two-position or ON/OFF
controller mode.
• It is the simplest, cheapest.
• The most general form can be given by:
P=0% ep < 0
P = 100 ep > 0
%
Ex. ON/OFF
switch

• The relation shows that when the measured value is less than the
set-point (i.e. ep > 0), the controller output will be full (i.e. 100%),
• when the measured value is more than the setpoint (i.e. ep < 0), the
controller output will be zero (i.e. 0%).
 • In this control mode, the output of the controller is simple proportional
to the error e(t).
• The relationbetween the error e(t) and the controller output p is
determined by constant called proportional gain constant denoted as Kp.
• The output of the controller is a linear function of the error e(t).
• Thus each value of the error has a unique value of the controller output.
• The range of the error which covers 0 % to 100 % controller output is
called proportional band.
• The basic relationship between output of the controller and error signal
is given by,
p(t) =
Kp e(t) Taking Laplace
transform,
P(s) = Kp E(s)

Kp = Proportional gain constant

• Though there exists linear relation between controller output and the
error, for a zero error the controller output should not be zero, otherwise
the process will come to halt.
• Hence there exists some controller output Po for the zero error. Hence
mathematically the proportional control mode is expressed as,
p(t) = Kp e(t) Kp = Proportional gain constant
+ Po Po = Controller output with zero
error
• In the proportional control mode, error reduces but can not go to zero.
• It finally produces an offset error. It can not adapt with the changing
load conditions. To avoid this, another control mode is often used in
the control systems which is based on the history of the errors. This
mode is called integral mode or reset action controller.
• In such a controller, the value of the controller output p(t) is changed
at a rate which is proportioned to the actuating error signal e(t).
Mathematically it is expressed as,

dp(t
=K
i
) e(t)
Ki =dt Constant relating error and rate
Taking Laplace transform,
sP(s) = Ki E(s)or P(s) = (Ki/s) E(s)
• The constant Ki is also called integral constant.
• Integrating the above equation, actual controller output at any time t
can be obtained as,
t

p(t ) = Ki e(t )dt +

Where ∫
p(0)when integral action starts i.e. at t =
p(0) = Controller output
0. 0
 • The controller produces a control action that is proportional to the
rate at which the error is changing de(t)/dt.
• The mathematical equation for the mode is,
de(t
p(t ) = Kd
where Kd = Derivative gain constant.
)
dt
Taking Laplace
transform
P(s) = Kd s E(s)
• This is a composite control mode obtained by combining the
proportional mode and the integral mode.
• The mathematical expression for such a composite control is,
t

p(t ) = Kpe(t )+ Kp K0i e(t )dt + p(0)

∫
Taking Laplace
transform,
⎡ Kp ⎤
P(s) =⎢ Kp K ⎥ E(s
⎣ ⎦ is
+
⎡ K ⎤)
P(s) = Kp 1 + i
⎥
E(s) s ⎦
⎢⎣
• The series combination of proportional and derivative control modes
gives proportional plus derivative control mode.
• The mathematical expression for the PD composite control is,
p(t ) = Kpe(t )+ Kp de(t )
+
Kd dt
• Taking Laplace p(0)
(s) = [Kp + pKK d
Ptransform,
]E(saddition
• sThe ) of a derivative mode to a proportional controller
modifies its response to inputs.
• A PD controller provides an element to the response which is largest
when the rate of change of the error is greatest and diminishes as it
becomes smaller.
• The derivative mode is never used alone because it is not capable of
maintaining a control signal under steady error conditions.
• It is always used with the proportional mode and often additionally
w i th the integral mode.Hareesha N G, Dept of Aero Engg, DSCE, 44
• The composite controller including the combination of the
proportional, integral andderivative control mode is called
PID control mode and the controller is called three mode controller.
• It is very much complex to design but very powerful in action.
• Mathematically such a control mode can be expressed as,
t
de(t +
p(t ) = Kp e(t )+ p K ∫ e(t )dt + K K
p
)
K i
0
d
p(0)
dt
+ Kp Ki ⎤
P(s) =⎢ + Kp Kd s E(s)
⎡ ⎣
p
s ⎥⎦
K
K +s+K
P(s) = p s2 [ d i
K
s ]E(s)
• This mode has advantages of all the modes.
• The integral mode eliminates the offset error of the
proportional mode and the response is also very fast due to derivative
mode.
• The sudden response is produced due to derivative mode.
• Thus it can be used for any process condition.
• With the PID control action, there is no offset, no oscillations with
• least settlingistime.
So there improvement in both transient as well as
state steady
response.
 The Fulcrum can be adjusted horizontally by turning
A
knob A
B The Float can be adjusted vertically by turning knob B

Desired Value (DV ) = The required level of water in the tank

Measured Value (MV) = The actual level of water in the tank.
Offset or Error (E) = The difference between the required and actual
level (DV-MV)
Gain (K) = The ratio of float movement to valve movement
• The water level and the Float continue to drop and the Supply Valve
continues to open until the water flow into the tank equals the flow out of the
tank at which point the water level stops falling.
• The system has now reached steady state but the tank level is now lower
than the required level (DV>MV) and there is an Offset.
• In a Proportional only system under load there will always be an Offset
and that offset will vary dependant on the size of the load.

C8o/2u1/r2t0e1s7y: Hareesha N G, Dept of Aero Engg, DSCE, 47

• Proportional control will always result in an Offset between
Measured Value and Desired Value and for every load there will be
a different steady state water level.
• As the Gain increases the Offset decreases.
• As the Gain increases the stability decreases until the system
becomes unstable.
• With Proportional only control a compromise must be reached
between size of Offset and stability by adjusting the Gain.
• In some systems an Offset is acceptable, as in the water tank
described above, and Proportional only control is acceptable.
• However in other systems an offset of any size is unacceptable and
some other form of control is required.

8/21/2017 Hareesha N G, Dept of Aero Engg, DSCE, 48

• With the system we described above, under load, assuming the Gain
of system has been adjusted to its optimum value, the water level will
settle with an Offset from the Desired Value.
• By adjusting knob B so that the float moves upwards, relative to the
water level, the Supply Valve will open more, the flow in will
increase and the Offset will reduce.
• Eventually a new height of the Float will be found where the flow into
the tank equals the flow out , the Measured value equals the Desired
Value and Offset will be zero.

8/21/2017 Hareesha N G, Dept of Aero Engg, DSCE, Blore

• The speed at which the Float height is adjusted can be fast or slow.
• If it is too fast the system can become unstable (hunting) and if it is
too slow time will be wasted.
• With Integral control the speed at which Offset is removed is made
directly proportional to the size of the Offset.
• In the water tank system, we could achieve this by operating knob B
with a variable speed servo motor.
• The amount of integral action applied would be controlled by
adjusting the ratio between Motor speed and size of Offset.

8/21/2017 Hareesha N G, Courtesy:

pt of Aero Engg, DSCE, Blore http://aeroquad.com
50
• Not all systems can be controlled by Proportional and Integral control
only.
• In the water tank system, an increase in load results in an immediate
drop in water level and the Float.
• The Supply Valve is immediately opened allowing water into the tank.
• In some systems there is a delay or lag in response to a change in
load.
• For example, a wind tunnel has a large heavy fan. If more power is
applied to increase the fan's speed there will be a significant delay
before the new speed is achieved due to the time needed to overcome
the inertia of the fan.
• To overcome the inertia more power (than actually required) is
required to maintain the desired speed (DV), to accelerate the fans
speed change.
• The additional power is then reduced to the level required to maintain
the required speed.
• In the water tank system, under Proportional and Integral control,
knob B is operated by a variable speed servo motor.
• If there was inertia in the system, due to friction in the linkage
between the Float and the Supply Valve, Derivative action would
temporarily apply a higher speed to the servo motor than was
necessary to remove the Offset.

Summary:
1. Derivative action speeds up the removal of the Offset.
2. It is required in systems which have large time delays due to
Inertia or large capacities.
3. It tends to make a system more stable as it is increased it can
cause hunting and instability
 It arrest the change of the Measured Value
Proportional
Arrests but always with an Offset from the
action (P)
Measured Value
Integral action
Restores It removes the Offset
(I)
Derivative
Accelerates It speeds up the removal of the Offset
action (D)
1. Modern Control Engineering, Katsuhiko Ogatta,Pearson
Education,2004.
2. Control System Engineering, U.A.Bakshi
3. Control Systems, W. Bolton, Elsevier Ltd.
4. http://aeroquad.com/showwiki.php?title=A-Guide-To-Proportional-
Integral-and-Derivative-PID-Control
 Course Objectives
• To learn the basics of various types of control
systems and automatic systems.
• To learn to build the mathematical model of
system from differential equation and vice versa
and shall know the better effects of feedback due
to parameter variations.
• To apply the basic knowledge to formulate the
input output relationship of various component
used in control system and their applications in
building control system.
• To perform and study a time domain analysis
of control system and different performance
measures and finally know about behavior of
the system.
• To learn the concept of stability , poles and
zeros , using routh Hurwitz criteria and
relative stability by bode plot, polar plot,
Nyquist plot and be able to design and analyze
the given system
 Syllabus
• Module I: The Control System: Open loop & closed
control; servomechanism, Physical examples. Transfer
functions, Block diagram algebra, Signal flow graph,
Mason’s gain formula Reduction of parameter
variation and effects of disturbance by using negative
feedback
• Module II: Time Response analysis: Standard test
signals, time response of first and second order
systems, time response specifications, steady state
errors and error constants Design specifications of
second order systems: Derivative error, derivative
output, integral error and PID compensations, design
considerations for higher order systems
• Module III: Control System Components:
Constructional and working concept of ac
servomotor, synchros and stepper motor
Stability and Algebraic Criteria concept of
stability and necessary conditions, Routh
Hurwitz criteria and limitations Root Locus
Technique: The root locus concepts,
construction of root loci.
• Module IV: Frequency response Analysis: Frequency
response, correlation between time and frequency
responses, polar and inverse polar plots, Bode plots
Stability in Frequency Domain: Nyquist stability
criterion, assessment of relative stability: gain margin
and phase margin, constant M&N circles
• Module V: Introduction to Design: The design problem
and preliminary considerations lead, lag and lead-lag
networks, design of closed loop systems using
compensation techniques in time domain and
frequency domain.
THANK YOU!