INTRODUCTION

TO

HEAT & MASS

TRANSFER
 HEAT & MASS
TRANSFER
By:
Dr. Abdul Fatah Abbasi
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Mehran University of Engineering & Technology
Jamshoro, Sindh.
PAKISTAN
SUBJECT CONTENTS
 Chapter – 1
Introduction
 Importance of the subject

 Three modes of heat transfer

 Steady & unsteady heat transfer

 Fourier’s law of heat conduction

 Basic terminology

 Thermal Conductivity

 Dimensions and units

 Chapter-2
Conduction Heat Transfer
 Heat conduction through
 Plane wall
 Cylinder
 Sphere
 Effects of variable thermal conductivity
 Overall heat transfer coefficient
 Critical radius of insulation
 Heat source problems of ,Wall,Cylinder, sphere, Fins.
 Lumped system analysis for transient heat conduction.
 Chapter-3
Convection Heat Transfer
 Convection heat transfer numbers
 Bulk temperature
 Heat transfer in laminar turbulent flows
in various shapes:Plates,Tubes
 Boundary Layers:
 Velocity boundary layer
 Thermal boundary layer
 Boiling and Condensation heat transfer
 Chapter-4
Heat Exchangers
 Introduction to heat exchangers
 Types of heat exchanger
 Analysis of heat exchangers
 LMTD Method
 NTU Method
 Chapter-5
Radiation Heat Transfer
 Boltzmann’s law

 Properties of Radiation

 Environmental radiation

 Momentum and heat transfer analogy

 Kirchoff’s law and shape factor

 Chapter-6
Mass Transfer
 Analogy between Heat & Mass Transfer

 Mass Diffusion & Fick’s Law

 Steady Mass Diffusion through a wall

 Transient Mass Diffusion

 Mass convection
Recommended Books
 Heat and Mass Transfer
By Yunus Cengel
 Heat Transfer
By Necati Ozisiki
 Heat Transfer
By Bhal Chandra
 Fundamentals of Heat & Mass Transfer
By Incropera, DeWitt, Bergman and Lavine
Reference Books
 Heat and Mass Transfer
By R.K. Rajput
 Heat Transfer
By Holman
What is HEAT ?
and
Transfer of HEAT
 Heat

 The energy in transient due to temperature

gradient is known as heat.

 It is also called form of energy.

 Its units are, Calorie and Joul

Transfer Of Heat
 It is branch of thermal engineering which
deals with the mechanism responsible for
transferring heat energy from one region to
another due to temperature difference
between regions.

 In heat transfer the driving force/potential is

temperature difference.
Thermal Energy
 The term heat and the associated phrases such as
 heat flow,
 heat addition, heat rejection,
 heat absorption, heat gain,
 heat loss, heat storage,
 heat generation,
 electrical heating,
 latent heat,
 body heat, and
 heat source
 These terms are in common use today, and the attempt to
replace heat in these phrases by thermal Energy .
Thermal energy & Heat Transfer
 Thermal energy refer to the heat and the transfer of
thermal energy as heat transfer.

 The amount of heat transferred during the process is
denoted by Q .

 The amount of heat transferred per unit time is called


heat transfer rate, and is denoted by Q

 The over dot stands for the time derivative, or “per unit
time.” The heat transfer rate Qh as the unit J/s, which is
equivalent to W.
Total Heat & Heat Transfer Rate
 When the rate of heat transfer Q  is available,
then the total amount of heat transfer Q during a
time interval can be determined from

t
Q 
0
 dt
Q

 For special case of constant heat transfer rate:

 t
QQ
Heat Flux
 The rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to
the direction of heat transfer/flow is called heat flux


Q
 
q
W
A m2

 Example:

Q 24
 
q 
A 6
q  4W / m
 2
 Heat transfer
and
Thermodynamics
 Heat transfer and Thermodynamics
 The energy transfer is always from the higher temperature
medium to the lower temperature medium.

 The energy transfer stops when the two mediums reach the
same temperature.

 The science that deals with the determination of the rates

of such energy transfers due to non-equilibrium of
temperature is Heat Transfer.
 Heat transfer and Thermodynamics
 The science of thermodynamics deals with the amount of
heat transfer as a system undergoes a process from one
equilibrium state to another, and makes no reference to how
long the process will take.

 A thermodynamic analysis simply tells us how much heat

must be transferred to realize a specified change of state to
satisfy the conservation of energy principle.

 Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states and changes

from one equilibrium state to another.
 For Example:
 We are normally interested in how long
it takes for the hot coffee in a thermos to
cool to a certain temperature, which
cannot be determined from a
thermodynamic analysis alone.

 Heat flows in the direction of

decreasing temperature.
 Application of Heat Transfer
 To estimate the flow of heat energy through the boundary
of a system under steady and unsteady condition.

 In every branch of engineering we encountered with the

heat transfer problems such as design of :
 Thermal & nuclear power plants

 Heat engines

 Steam generators

 Condensers

 Heat exchangers
 Furnaces

 Electric equipments

 Heat shields for space vehicles

 I.C Engines

 Refrigeration air conditioning units

 Designing of cooling system for electric motors, generators and

transformers

 Heating and cooling of fluids in chemical operation

 Minimization of building heat losses by using improved insulation

techniques

 Dispersion of atmospheric pollutants

Applications of Heat Transfer
Modes of Heat Transfer
Modes of Heat Transfer
 Heat transfers in three ways:

1. Conduction
2. Convection (Free and Forced)
3. Radiation

o Majority of real situation problems occurs as

a result of combination of three modes of
heat transfer.
Conduction Heat Transfer
 Conduction is the transfer of heat from one part of the
substance to an other part of the substance with
physical contact.

 Heat is conducted by following mechanisms:

 By Lattice vibration

 By transport of free electrons

 By molecular collusion and diffusion (liquid/gases)

Conduction Mechanism
 Free electrons provide an energy flux in the direction of
decreasing temperature.

 The outer electrons of metal atoms free to move when the

metal is heated.

 This sea of electrons gain kinetic energy and transfer it

throughout the metal.
Conduction Mechanism
When you heat a metal strip at one end, the heat travels to
the other end.
The faster moving molecules in the hottest part of the body,
transfer of heat by impact of some of their energy to
adjacent molecules.

As you heat the metal, the particles vibrate, these vibrations
make the adjacent particles vibrate, and so on, the
vibrations are passed along the metal and so is the heat,
we call this Conduction.
Conduction Mechanism

 For metals (conductors), especially good electrical

conductors, the free electronic mechanism is
responsible for the major portion of the heat flux
except at low temperature.

 For non-metals (Insulators) such as wood and

plastic, do not have this free electronic mechanism
therefore they do not conduct heat like metals.
Metal is a conductor, wood is an insulator.
Metal conducts the heat away from your hands.
Wood does not conduct the heat away from your
hands like the metal, so the wood feels warmer
than the metal.
 Conduction Mechanism in different
Substances
 In cases of gases and liquids:

The mechanism of heat conduction in

gases and liquids is simple because
K.E of the molecules that is the
function of temperature.

 These higher energetic molecules are

in continuous random exchanging
energy and momentum to lower
energetic molecules.
Factors effect the conduction Rate

 Geometry of the medium

 Thickness of the material

 Composition of the medium

 Temperature difference across the medium

Fourier’s Law of
Heat Conduction
 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction
 This law states that “The rate of
heat conduction through a plane
layer is proportional to the
temperature difference across the
layer and the heat transfer area,
but inversely proportional to the
thickness of the layer”.
General form equation

In differential form

Heat Flux
 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction
 Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing
temperature, and the temperature gradient becomes
negative when temperature decreases with increasing
thickness(x).

 The negative sign ensures that heat transfer in the positive

(x) direction and is a positive quantity.

 The heat transfer area (A) is always normal to the direction

of heat transfer.

 The rate of heat transfer doubled if temperature difference

and area is doubled, but is halved if the wall thickness is
doubled
Essential Features of Fourier’s Law
 It is applicable to all matters (solid, liquid and gas)

 It is based on the experimental evidence and can not be

deviated from basic principle.

 It is a vector expression, which indicate the flow direction

to the decreasing temperature.

 It helps to define thermal conductivity (K) / transport

property of the medium.
Problem:
The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long, 8 m wide,
and 0.25 m thick, and is made of a flat layer of concrete whose
thermal conductivity is k=0.8 W/m · °C (as shown in Fig.). The
temperatures of the inner and the outer surfaces of the roof
one night are measured to be 15°C and 4°C, respectively, for
a period of 10 hours. Determine (a) the rate of heat loss
through the roof that night and (b) the cost of that heat loss to
the home owner if the cost of electricity is Rs. 15/kWh.
Assumptions:
1. Steady operating conditions exist during the entire night since the
surface temperatures of the roof remain constant at the specified
values.
2. Constant properties can be used for the roof.
3. No heat transferred from walls.

Data Required Formula

H = 8m Q = ??
 T2  T1
Q  kA
W = 6m L
Cost = ??
T1 = 15oC
 T1  T2
T2 = 4oC
Q  kA
L
K = 0.8 W/moC

L = 0.25m
Solution

 T1  T2
Q  kA
L
 15  4
Q  0.8(6  8)
0.25
Q  1.69 kw
Amount of heat lost through the roof during period and its cost

Q  Q  Time
Q  1.69  10
Q  16.9 kwh

Cost  16.9  15
Cost  253.5 rupees
Problem
The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15-m
thick fireclay brick having a thermal conductivity of 1.7 W/m K.
Measurements made during steady-state operation reveal
temperatures of 1400 and 1150 K at the inner and outer
surfaces, respectively. What is the rate of heat loss through a
wall that is 0.5 m x1.2 m on a side?
 T2  T1
q k
''
x
L
1400  1150
q x  1.7
''

0.15
q x''  2833W / m 2

The heat flux represents the rate of heat transfer through a section of unit area,
and it is uniform (invariant) across the surface of the wall.
The heat loss through the wall of area A= HxW

Q
q 
''
x
A
Q  q x''  A
Q  (0.5 1.2)  2833
Q  1700W
Thermal Conductivity
 Thermal Conductivity
 The thermal conductivity of material defined as:
 “The amount of energy conducted through a body of a unit
area and unit thickness in unit time per unit temperature
difference”.
Q dx W
k m oC
A dt

 Basically thermal conductivity is a property of material

which depends upon following factors:
 Material structure
 Moisture content
 Density of material
 Operating conditions (pressure and temperature)
How Thermal conductivity of a material is to be measured
 Thermal Conductivity & Specific Heat
 Different materials store heat energy differently
 The property Specific heat (Cp) is measure of ability of a
material to store heat.
 Example:
 For water, Cp=4.18 kJ/kg
 For Iron, Cp=0.45 kJ/kg
 Specific heat of water is 10 times higher than iron.

 Thermal conductivity (k) is measure of ability to conduct

heat.
 For water, k = 0.608 W/moC
 For Iron, k = 60 W/moC
 Which indicates that iron can conduct heat 100 times
faster than the water.
Thermal Conductivity of different Materials
 Thermal conductivity is a measure of a material’s ability
to conduct heat / how fast heat will flow in the material.

 Good conductors have large value of thermal

conductivity
 Pure crystals (diamond)
 Metals (pure metals)

 Poor conductors have lower thermal conductivity

 Gases (k=0.006 to 0.05 w/moC)
 Insulating materials (k= 0.023 to 2.9)
 Liquids (k=0.2 to 0.5)
Thermal conductivity and Temperature
 For solids, it decreases
with the increase in
temperature.

 For liquids, it decreases

with temperature due to
decrease in density .

 For gases, it increases

with the increase in the
temperature.
Thermal conductivity and Temperature
Thermal Diffusivity
 “The ratio of heat conducted through material to heat
stored per unit volume”.
k m2
 unit 
Cp sec

 Larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the propagation

of heat into the material.

 Smaller value of thermal diffusivity means heat is

mostly absorbed by the material.

 Therefore, small amount of heat will be conducted

further.
Thermal Resistance Network
 Thermal Resistance Network
 The thermal resistance of the wall against heat conduction
or simply the conduction resistance of the wall.

 Thermal resistance of a medium depends on the

 geometry
 Thermal properties of the medium

 Heat transfer problem can easily solved by thermal

resistance concept without involving differential equation
for heat transfer.


 Thermal Resistance Network
 The thermal resistance equation is analogous to electric
resistance.
 In which, temperature difference corresponds to voltage.
 The heat transfer rate corresponds to electric current.

 T1  T2
Qcond , wall 
Rwall

L
Rwall 
kA

V1  V2
I
Re
 Thermal Resistance Network and Heat
transfer modes
 Conduction Resistance

 T1  T2
Qcond ,wall 
Rwall
L
Rwall 
kA
 Convection Resistance
 Ts  T
Qconv 
Rconv
1
Rconv 
hAs
 Radiation Resistance
 Thermal Resistance Network
 For plane wall convection on both sides:
Consider steady 1-D heat flow through a plane wall
exposed to convection on both Sides
 Fluid temperatures:
 T1 & T2
 Convection heat transfer
coefficients on both sides
h1 & h2
Thickness of the wall
L=x
wall surface temperatures
Ts1 & Ts2
 Thermal Resistance Network
 Area of the wall A
 Thermal conductivity, k

 Under steady state condition:

Rate of heat convection into wall =
Rate of heat conduction through the wall =
Rate of heat convection from the wall

Q conv1  Q cond  Q conv2

 Mathematically,
T1  T2
Q  h1 AT1  T1   kA
  h2 AT2  T 2 
L
 Thermal Resistance Network
 Re-arrange the equation:
 T1  T1 T1  T2 T2  T 2
Q  
1 h1 A L kA 1 h2 A
 T1  T1 T1  T2 T2  T 2
Q  
Rconv,1 Rwall Rconv, 2

 After simplification

 T1  T 2
Q 
Rtotal

1 L 1
Rtotal   
h1 A kA h2 A
 Thermal Resistance Network

 Note that thermal resistance in series like electrical

resistance

R  R1  R2  R3           Rn
 Therefore, larger the thermal resistance larger the
temperature drop.
R
T  Q V  IR
 Thermal Resistance for Multilayer
Plane Walls

  T1  T 2
Q
Rtotal

1 L1 L2 1
Rtotal  Rconv1  R1  R2  Rconv2    
h1 A K 1 A K 2 A h2 A
Problem
Consider a 3-m-high, 5-m-wide,and 0.3-
m-thick wall whose thermal conductivity
is k = 0.9 W/m · °C (as shown in Fig).on
a certain day, the temperatures of the
inner and the outer surfaces of the wall
are measured to be 16°C and 2°C,
respectively. Determine the rate of heat
loss through the wall on that day.
Noting that the heat transfer through the wall is by conduction
and the area of the wall is,

A = 3 m x5 m = 15 m2,

The steady rate of heat transfer through the wall can be

determined from heat conduction equation:

 T1  T2
Q  kA
L
  0.9  15  16  2
Q
0.3
  630W
Q

We could also determine the steady rate of heat transfer

through the wall by making use of the thermal resistance
concept
 T1  T2
Q
Rwall
L 0. 3
Rwall    0.02222 O C / W
kA 0.9  15
 (16  2)
Q
0.02222
Q  630W

Discussion:
This is the same result obtained earlier. Note that heat
conduction through a plane wall with specified surface
temperatures can be determined directly and easily without
utilizing the thermal resistance concept. However,
the thermal resistance concept serves as a valuable tool in
more complex heat transfer problems
Problem:
Consider a 0.8-m-high and 1.5-m-wide
glass window with a thickness of 8 mm
and a thermal conductivity of k=0.78
W/m ·°C. Determine the steady rate of
heat transfer through this glass
window and the temperature of its
inner surface for a day during which
the room is maintained at 20°C while
the temperature of the outdoors is
-10°C. Take the heat transfer
coefficients on the inner and outer
surfaces of the window to be h1=10
W/m2 · °C and h2=40 W/m2 · °C, which
includes the effects of radiation.
A  0.8  1.5  1.2 m 2
1 1
Ri  Rconv.1  
h1 A 10  1.2
Ri  0.08333 0 C / W

L 0.008
R glass  
kA 0.78  1.2
R glass  0.00855 0 C / W

1 1
RO  Rconv.2  
h2 A 40  1.2
RO  0.02083 0 C / W
Noting that all resistances are in series, therefore, total resistance is

Rtotal  Ri  R glass  RO
Rtotal  0.08333  0.00855  0.02083

Rtotal  0.1127 0C / W

 T1  T 2
Q
Rtotal
(20)  (10)
Q 
0.1127

Q  266W
After knowing the rate of heat transfer, the inner surface temperature of
the Window glass can be determined from

T  T1
Q  1
Rconv.1
T  T  Q R
1 1 conv.1

T1  20  (266  0.08333)
T1  2.2 0 C

Discussion Note that the inner surface temperature of the

window glass will be -2.2°C even though the temperature of
the air in the room is maintained at 20°C. Such low surface
temperatures are highly undesirable since they cause the
formation of fog or even frost on the inner surfaces of the
glass when the humidity in the room is high.
Thermal Contact Resistance
 Thermal Contact Resistance
Fig.(a) shows the perfect /ideal
thermal contact.

There is no temp. drop at inter-

face of the contact.

Fig.(b) shows actual thermal

contact between two surfaces.

Peak of the surface will form

good material contact.

Valleys will form gaps which are

filled with the air.
gaps are different sizes and shapes

These gaps act as insulators, because of low thermal

conductivity of air.

Thus, an interface offers some resistance to heat, which is

defined as:

“The resistance per unit interface area is Thermal

contact resistance (Rc)”

Experimentally thermal contact resistance fall between

0.0000005 to 0.0005 m2 0C/W
 Causes of Thermal contact Resistance
Surface roughness

Material properties

Temperature at interfaces

Types of fluid trapped in gaps

 Non-uniform interfaces:
Bolts
Screws
Rivets
Fastened plates
 Minimization of Thermal contact
Resistance
By decreasing surface roughness

By increasing interface pressure

By using thermal conducting materials in gaps:

Thermal grease (silicon oil)

Helium and Hydrogen
Soft material foil/chips

Silver
Tin
Copper
Nickle
Consider, heat transfer through two metal rods of cross-
sectional area A that are pressed against each other. Heat
transfer through the interface of these two rods is the sum of
the heat transfers through the solid contact spots and the
gaps in the noncontact areas and can be expressed as:

Q  Q contact  Q gap

It can also be expressed in an analogous manner to

Newton’s law of cooling as

Q  hc ATint erface
Q
hc 
A  T
Therefore, thermal contact resistance is

1 1
Rc  
hc Q
A  T

T 2 0
Rc  m . C /W
Q
A
Thermal contact resistance is inverse of thermal contact
Conductance.
Problem
The thermal contact conductance at the
interface of two 1cm thick aluminium
plates is measured to be 11,000 W/m2
°C. Determine the thickness of the
aluminium plate whose thermal
resistance is equal to the thermal
resistance of the interface between the
plates.
Solution:
The thickness of the aluminium plate
whose thermal resistance is equal to the
thermal contact resistance is to be
determined.

The thermal conductivity of aluminium at

room temperature is k = 237 W/m · °C.
 1 1
Rc  
hc 11000
Rc  0.909  10 4 m 2 0 C / W

L
R R  Rc
k
L  k  Rc Discussion: Note that the
interface between the two plates
L  237  0.909  10 4 offers as much resistance to heat
L  0.0215m transfer as a 2.15–cm-thick
aluminium plate. It is interesting
L  2.15Cm that the thermal contact
resistance in this case is greater
than the sum of the thermal
resistances of both plates.
Problem
Find the heat flow rate through a composite wall as shown in
Fig. Assume one dimensional heat flow.
kA=150W/m0C, kB=30W/m0c,kC= 65 W/m0C and kD= 50 W/m0C

600C
4000C B
3 Q
Q A D
C
7 10
3 8 cm 5
Data
Thermal conductivities of blocks
k A  150W / m 0 C
k B  30W / m 0 C
k C  65W / m 0 C
k D  50W / m 0 C
Thicknesses of block A,B,C and D
L A  3Cm  0.03m
LB  LC  8Cm  0.08 m
LD  5Cm  0.05m
Area of block A,B,C and D

AA  0.1  0.1  0.01m 2

AB  0.1  0.03  0.003m 2
AC  0.1  0.07  0.007 m 2
AD  0.1  0.1  0.01m 2

Heat Transfer through composite wall

 T overall
Q
Rth Total
Total thermal resistance (RTh)
Rtotal  R A  R Equavalent  R D

1 1 1
  
Reqiuvalent RB RC

LA 0.03
RA  
k A AA 150  0.01
R A  0.02 0 C / W

LB 0.08
RB  
k B AB 30  0.003
RB  0.89 0 C / W
 LC 0.08
RC  
k C AC 65  0.007
RC  0.176 0C / W

LD 0.05
RD  
k D AD 50  0.01
RD  0.10 C / W
The equivalent thermal resistance (RTh) for the parallel resistance

1 1 1 1 1
   
Reqiuvalent RB RC 0.89 0.176
Reqiuvalent  0.147
Now, total thermal resistance is given by
Rtotal  R A  Reqiuvalent  RD
Rtotal  0.02  0.147  0.1
Rtotal  0.267

 T overall 400  60 

Q 
Rth Total 0.267

Q  1273.4Watt