CLL-251 Heat Transfer (Conduction)

Dr. Manojkumar C. Ramteke

Department of Chemical Engineering
IIT Delhi

Reference Textbook: Heat Transfer by B. K . Dutta

1
4th Feb, 2021
 Course Strategy
Course Name: Heat Transfer for Chemical Engineers – CLL251 (Credit = 04)
Course coordinator: Dr Manojkumar Ramteke
Course Strategy:
1) Minor 1 = 30 marks
2) Two quizzes (best one from two) = 30 marks (No re-quiz if you miss both quizzes)
3) Major = 40 marks
4) All exams and quizzes will be conducted online on moodle.
5) Classes and tutorials will be conducted online on MS Teams.
6) Grading: Relative
7) Audit pass grade: 30 Marks and above
Syllabus:
Steady and Unsteady State Conduction, Heat Transfer Coefficient, Forced Convection,
Free Convection, Nucleation and Boiling, Radiation, Heat Exchangers, Evaporators
Book: Heat Transfer by B K Dutta (In examinations, the correlation only from this
book will be allowed)
All lectures will be recorded on MS teams (recording remains only for 20 days) and
students are responsible for downloading these in a given time. Tutorials will not be
recorded.
 Heat Transfer
1) Heating or cooling of materials is an indispensable part of processing, production, fabrication
or shopfloor jobs in engineering practice.
2) Important to study the heat transfer in order to minimize the loss or gain of heat during the
process in order to operate a process in a most economic way possible.
To Stack

Water

Vaporizer Absorption
Tower
Reactor
NH3
(800 oC)
Liquid Ammonia
at -33 oC
(275 oC after waste
Multi-stage
heat boiler)
Compressor
Economizer
Product
Nitric Acid
Steam
Turbine 3
Tail-gas
Air NITRIC ACID
Preheater
Tail-gas Turbine PRODUCTION
 Heat Transfer
1) In power plant, there are high rating boilers in which heat transfer occurs from the hot
combustion gases as well as from the white-hot refractory furnace walls to water boiling inside
an array of tubes. The steam leaving the turbine is condensed in huge surface condensers.
2) In the hot rolling mill of an integrated steal plant, large metal blocks are shaped into sheets
which are then cooled by flow of water.
3) Application of heat transfer is more varied in a nuclear power plant.

Heat Transfer is Extremely Important in Engineering Applications

1) Heat Transfer → is the transport of heat energy from one point in a medium to another in the
presence of a temperature gradient or a temperature difference
2) Driving Force → The temperature difference between the two points in the same medium, or
between two mediums which are in thermal contact
3) Heat Transfer involves a detailed study of the physical mechanism of transport of heat energy
in various practical situations and applications of the theoretical principles to sizing, design
and improvement of related equipment used in practice

Heat Transfer Thermodynamics

1) Looks at speed of heat 1) Looks at extent of heat transfer
transport 2) If equilibrium shifts from one place to another it gives
2) Gives the rate of heat transfer how much maximum will be the heat transfer. 4
 Modes of Heat Transfer
Conduction Convection Radiation

Most commonly present modes Important at higher temperatures

Conduction:
1)Conduction heat transfer is an atomic or molecular process.
2)It occurs in the presence of a temperature difference and is not accompanied by any
macroscopic or bulk motion in the medium.
3)Conduction is the only mode of heat transfer in a solid medium. It may also occur in a stagnant
liquid or a gaseous medium.
4)It is similar to diffusion and governed by Fourier’s law of heat conduction.

25 oC 500 oC
Convection:
1)Convection means the transport of heat energy by way of displacement of fluid elements from
one point to another point which is at a different temperature.
2)Convection has two types: Forced Convection and Free Convection.
3)Forced convection occurs when motion in the medium is caused by an external mechanical unit
such as pump, blower or agitator.
4)Free or natural convection occurs when motion in the medium is created by an adverse density
gradient, as a result of temperature difference. This happens when the temperature of a fluid at a
lower level becomes higher than that at the upper level. 5
25 C o
5)It is governed by Newton’s law of cooling.
Heat flux α temperature difference 500 oC
 Modes of Heat Transfer
Radiation:
1)A body at a temperature above absolute zero always emits energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
2)The rate of release of such energy is proportional to fourth power of the absolute temperature of
the body.
3)Governed by Stefan-Boltzmann law.
4)This mode becomes significant at higher temperature.
5)All bodies are not equally good emitters of radiation. A standard or perfect emitter is called a
blackbody, and acts as a reference with which any other body may be compared in respect of its
effectiveness as an emitter. This property is called as emissivity.
6)Another quantity which comes into play while calculating the rate of radiative heat exchange
between two bodies is called as view factor.
7)View factor takes into account the fraction of the area of a body which can be seen by another
body.

Net Heat Transfer

A B
500 ⁰C 100 ⁰C

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 Steady State Conduction in one Dimension
Conduction of heat means transport of heat energy in a medium from region at a
higher temperature to a region at a lower temperature without any macroscopic motion
in the medium
Conduction in Solids
1)Heat conduction is due to vibration of molecules at equilibrium positions.
2)In metals, heat conduction occurs more due to drift of free electrons than by molecular
vibrations. This is similar to molecules in gas and referred as electron gas.
3)Thus, materials having good electrical conductivity also possesses good thermal conductivity.
Gaseous Medium
1)Conduction occurs through collision of molecules having more thermal energy (i.e., fast moving)
with molecules having less thermal or kinetic energy (i.e., slow moving).
2)Similar phenomenon is partly responsible for heat conduction in liquid.
Fourier’s Law of Heat conduction: It states that if two plane parallel surfaces each
having an area A are separated by a distance l and are maintained at temperatures T1
and T2 respectively (T1 > T2), the rate of heat conduction Q at steady state through the
wall is given by

T1

(Watt) (W/moC) (m) Area, A

T2 7
Where, k is called thermal conductivity of the l
solid and is assumed to be constant
throughout the wall
 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction

T1

Area, A
T2
l

Differential form of Fourier’s Law

Thermal conductivity, W/m oC

Heat flux (rate of heat conduction per Temperature gradient in x-direction

8
unit area normal to the x-direction, a (from higher temperature to lower
direction of heat transfer) temperature)

Negative sign is due to fact that heat is transferred from higher to lower temperature
 Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity is a fundamental property of a material that gives a measure of
the effectivity of the material in transmitting heat through it. Besides its chemical
constitution, characteristics of a material (solid, liquid or gas), nature of the solid state
(crystalline or amorphous) and physical conditions (temperature, pressure) have
significant effect on thermal conductivity.

1) Crystalline materials have more thermal conductivity than amorphous material. Vibration of
crystal lattice transmits the energy.
2) Thermal conductivity of metals generally decreases with increase in temperature (except for
Aluminum). Thermal conductivity of metals decreases with impurity and pure metal has the
highest thermal conductivity.
3) Solid substances having low thermal conductivity used for reducing the rate of heat exchange
are called thermal insulators. High void volume fraction makes an insulator more effective.
The presence of gas is more responsible for insulating property than the thermal conductivity
of the material. The thermal conductivity of an insulating material increases with temperature.
Examples: Clay, Bricks, Zirconia, Alumina
4) Thermal conductivity of liquid generally decreases with temperature (exceptions: water and
glycerin over certain temperature range). Except liquid metals, water has a highest thermal
conductivity.
5) Thermal conductivity of the gases increases with temperature and decreases with molecular
weight. Among gases, hydrogen has the highest thermal conductivity 9
 Thermal Conductivity

1) Thermal conductivity range varies in order of magnitude with change in state.

Solid > Liquid > Gases
2) Typical values of thermal conductivity are: Silver k = 410 W/mK, Water k = 0.63 W/mK, Air k =
0.0262 W/mK
3) In heat transfer, thermal conductivity is used as an average value. However, it is given as a
linear or quadratic function of temperature.

where, a and b are constants, k0 is the thermal conductivity at T = 0 K.

4) When thermal conductivity varies with direction, the material is referred as anisotropic material
Steady State Conduction Through Composite Solid
Let us consider a composite wall consisting of three layers of materials, 1, 2 and 3,
having thicknesses, l1, l2, and l3, and thermal conductivities k1, k2, and k3, respectively.
The boundary temperatures are shown in the figure.

1 2 3

Area = A

T1 T2
T’ T’’

l1 l2 l3

T’ T’’ T2
T1
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The area of heat conduction A is constant. Therefore, the rates of heat flow at steady
state through individual layers are equal (Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q)
 Steady State Conduction Through Composite Solid
If the thermal conductivities of the layers are independent of temperature, the
temperature distribution in each layer must be linear (but of different slopes). The
rates of the heat flow through the walls are given by the Fourier’s law as follows:
1 2 3

Area = A

T1 T2
T’ T’’

Adding the above three equations:

Overall Temperature
Driving Force 12
Steady State Conduction Through Composite Solid

The analogy of the above relation with the flow of current through an electrical
conductor is apparent

The overall thermal resistance of the composite wall is given by:

13
The thermal resistance is additive similar to electrical resistances in series
 Steady State Conduction Through Composite Solid
Example: The wall of the cold storage consists of three layers – an outer layer of
ordinary bricks, 25 cm thick, a middle layer of cork, 10 cm thick, and an inner layer of
cement, 6 cm thick. The thermal conductivities of materials are brick: 0.7, cork: 0.043
and cement: 0.72 W/m ºC. The temperature of the wall is 30 ºC and that of the inner
layer is – 15 ºC. Calculate (a) the steady state rate of heat gain per unit area of the
wall, (b) the temperature at the interfaces of the composite wall, and (c) the
percentage of the total heat transfer resistance offered by the individual layers. What
additional thickness of the cork should be provided to make the rate of heat transfer
30 % less than the present value?

Assume
A =1

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Steady State Conduction Through Composite Solid
(b)

(c)

Second Part:

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 Steady State Conduction Through Variable Area
In case of a plane wall, the area for heat flow is constant. However, there are solids of
other geometries in which the area for heat flow is variable. Two common geometries
of practical importance are cylindrical and spherical, in which the area depends upon
the radius. Cylinder
Outer Surface
Temperature
Temperature of T0
Inner Surface
Differential
Ti r Element at
ri radius r
Inner Radius ∆r

r0
Outer Radius

L
Length
Heat flow occurs in radial direction. Area of heat flow varies from 2πriL (Inside) to
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2πr0L (Outside)
Steady State Conduction Through Cylinder

(1)

(2)

(3)
17
 Steady State Conduction Through Cylinder

(3)

Boundary Conditions:

Temperature Distribution
(4)

18
 Steady State Conduction Through Cylinder

The above equation is same as that of flat slab except the area is calculated
based on log mean radius of cylinder

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Steady State Conduction Through Composite
Cylindrical Wall

Ti T’ T’’ T0

1
2
3

Thermal resistance in layer 1 Thermal resistance in layer 3

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Thermal resistance in layer 2
 Steady State Conduction Through Sphere

T0
Ti r
ri
∆r

r0

(1)

(2)

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 Steady State Conduction Through Sphere
(2)

Boundary Conditions:

From (2) →

Temperature Distribution

For composite sphere →

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 Steady State Conduction in Bodies with Heat
Source
There are situations in which heat generation occurs in a conducting medium. A
few examples are:
1) A nuclear fuel element irradiated by high energy neutron to trigger nuclear
fission
2) An electrical conductor in which heat generation occurs because of the flowing
of current
3) A catalyst pellet in which heat generation occurs because of chemical reaction
taking place inside the pellet
4) In these cases, the thermal conductivity of the medium may depend on
temperature.

Consider a plane wall of thickness l and

∆x area A with internal heat generation. The
x temperature at one end is T1 and at
T1 T2 another end is T2. Assume that the heat
conduction occurs in the x direction. For
Area = A heat balance an elementary volume with
length ∆x is taken.
23
l
Steady State Conduction through Plane Wall with
Heat Source

For ∆x → 0: (1)

(2)
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 Steady State Conduction through Plane Wall with
Heat Source
(2)

Boundary Conditions:

Assumptions: k(T) remains constant = k, ψ(x) remains constant = ψV

(3)
From Boundary Conditions:

Temperature Distribution
is not linear: (4)

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Steady State Conduction From Cylinder with Heat
Source
Consider an electric wire carrying current. The wire of radius ri has a layer of
electrical insulation over it to a radius of r0. The temperature of the outer surface
of the insulation is T0. The thermal conductivity of the material of the wire is km
and that of insulation is kc. The volumetric rate of heat generation is the wire ψV
is assumed to remain uniform throughout the medium.
T0

ri r0
∆r

26
L
Steady State Conduction From Cylinder with Heat
Source

(1)

(2)

(3)
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Steady State Conduction From Cylinder with Heat
Source
(3)

Boundary Conditions:

To apply the second boundary condition heat balance for Insulation Layer is first solved

(4)

Boundary Conditions: (5)

From (3):

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(6)
Steady State Conduction From Cylinder with Heat
Source
(6)
For C2, first we have to solve (4)

From Boundary
Conditions (5)

(7)
From (6):

From (7):
(8)

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Steady State Conduction From Cylinder with Heat
Source
(8)
The above equation has two unknowns. Applying the continuity equation at the interface

(9)

From (8) and (9): 30

Steady State Conduction From Cylinder with Heat
Source

Substituting C2 and C3 in (6) and (8)

Temperature exactly at the boundary of metal and insulation

31
For temperature distribution in insulation, put C3 and C4 in equation (7)
Steady State Conduction Through Sphere with Heat
Source

T0
Ti r
ri
∆r (1)

r0

32
Steady State Conduction Through Sphere with Heat
Source

Boundary Conditions: (2)

From first boundary condition:

From second boundary condition:

Temperature Distribution:
(3)

Equation (3) gives the temperature distribution which is parabolic. The maximum
temperature occurs at the centre.
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 Steady State Conduction With Heat generation
Example: A current of 200 A is passed through a stainless-steel wire [k = 19 W/m ºC] 3
mm in diameter. The resistivity of the steel may be taken as 70 μΩcm, and the length
of the wire is 1 m. The wire is submerged in a liquid at 110 ºC and experiences a
convection heat-transfer coefficient of 4 KW/m2 ºC. Calculate the center temperature
of the wire.

All power generated in the wire must be dissipated by convection to the liquid

The resistance of the wire is calculated from

Where, ρ is the resistivity of the wire. The convective surface area of the wire

The heat generation rate per unit volume ψV is calculated as

Finally, the centre temperature of the wire is calculated as

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 Unsteady State Conduction in a Rectangular Solid
Let us assume that heat input occurs to the element through the surfaces ABGF,
ADEF and ABCD (which are normal to the x, y and z-axes, respectively). The output
of heat from the element occurs through three opposite surfaces. Consider a small
element of volume ∆x ∆y ∆z.
z
∆x
F G
E H
∆z (x, y, z)
B
A
y ∆y C
D
x
Following are the rate of heat input: Following are the rate of heat output:
Through the surface ABGF Through the surface CDEH

Through the surface ADEF Through the surface BCHG

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Through the surface ABCD Through the surface EFGH
The rate of heat generation in the element
The rate of heat accumulation in the element
 Unsteady State Conduction in a Rectangular Solid
Heat Balance:

(1)

From Fourier’s Law: (2)

It is assumed that the thermal conductivity of the solid k remains the same along the
three coordinate axes. Such material called isotropic. It is also assumed that ρ, CP
and k do not depend upon temperature.
From (1) and (2): Thermal Diffusivity

For No Heat generation

and Accumulation
Laplace
Equation
Unsteady State Conduction in a Cylindrical Surface

∆r
r

∆z
Rate of radial heat input through the curved surface at r =

Rate of axial heat input through the annual circular surface at z =

Rate of radial heat output through the curved surface at r +∆r =

Rate of axial heat output through the annual circular surface at z + ∆z =

Rate of heat generation in the element

Rate of heat accumulation in the element

Unsteady State Conduction in a Rectangular Solid
Heat Balance:

(1)

From Fourier’s Law: (2)

From (1) and (2):

Thermal Diffusivity
 Unsteady State Conduction in a Spherical Solid
Heat Balance:

(1)

From Fourier’s Law: (2)

From (1) and (2):

Thermal Diffusivity
 Transient Heat Flow in Semi-Infinite Solid
Consider the semi-infinite solid shown in Figure maintained at some initial
temperature Ti. The surface temperature is suddenly lowered and maintained at a
temperature T0, and we seek an expression for the temperature distribution in the
solid as a function of time.
(1)
Ti
Put θ = T – T0 in (1) ⇒ (2)
T0
Boundary Conditions:

x=0 x=∞
x

(3)
Boundary Conditions: Boundary Conditions:

Solution:

Cannot be solved analytically and represented

using error function
 Transient Heat Flow in Semi-Infinite Solid
z erf(z) z erf(z) z erf(z)
0.00 0.0000 0.30 0.3286 1.2 0.9103
(3)
0.01 0.0113 0.40 0.4284 1.4 0.9523

Boundary Conditions: 0.02 0.0226 0.50 0.5205 1.6 0.9763

0.04 0.0451 0.60 0.6039 1.8 0.9891
0.06 0.0676 0.70 0.6778 2.0 0.9953
0.08 0.0901 0.80 0.7421 2.2 0.9981
Integrating twice 0.10 0.1125 0.90 0.7969 2.5 0.9995
0.20 0.2227 1.0 0.8427 3.0 1.0000

(4)
Representing the equation in terms of error function

where

(5)
 Transient Heat Flow in Semi-Infinite Solid
It will be noted that in this definition η is a dummy variable and the integral is a
function of its upper limit. Performing the partial differentiation of (4) with respect to x

The heat flow:

At the surface (x = 0) the heat flow:

Total heat added over the time interval 0 - t:

Biot Number: Where, S is the characteristic dimension

It compares surface convection to internal conduction resistance. A very low value of

Biot number means internal conduction resistance is negligible in comparison with
surface convection resistance. This implies that the temperature will be nearly uniform
throughout the solid.
 Transient Heat Flow in Semi-Infinite Solid
Example: Calculate the temperature in plane 200 mm from the surface of a very thick
wall and also the heat flowing per unit area of this plane 10 hours after the surface
temperature of the wall changes from 25 ºC to 700 ºC and remains constant
thereafter. Also find the total heat energy taken up by the wall in 10 hours per unit
area. Assume for wall material, k = 0.7 W/m K and α = 0.003 m2/h.

From Table: erf (0.577) = 0.585

ºC
Rate of heat flow at x per unit area:

W/m2

Total heat added over the time interval 0 - t:

Total heat added over

10 h per unit area: J/m2
 Multi-dimensional Steady State Conduction
In many practical situations, real heat conduction takes place along more than one
dimension. This is especially true if the system has irregular boundaries and /or with
non-uniform temperatures along boundaries. The temperature in these systems may
vary in two or three coordinate directions and multi-dimension heat conduction
analysis must be made in order to understand temperature distribution or heat flow
through these systems.
Examples: Heat treatment of metallic parts of different shapes, composite bodies,
chimneys, air conditioning ducts.
a
Mathematical Analysis of 2-D Systems: y

For a plane rectangular plate shown in T=0

figure the temperature at any section (z =
constant) will be just function of x and y
i.e. T = T(x, y).
The general equation for the temperature
distribution in two-dimensions for steady b Energy Lines
state conduction is T=0 T=0

(1) x
T = f(x)
 Mathematical Analysis of 2-D Systems
Now let us consider a simple case of the rectangular plate with the temperature on its
sides, described by the boundary conditions as a
y
x = 0, T = 0
T=0
x = a, T = 0
y = b, T = 0
y = 0, T = f(x)
b Energy Lines
Since T is a function of x and y only, the T=0 T=0
solution will be of the form
T = X(x) Y(y) (2) x
Where X(x) is a function of x alone and Y(y) is a function of T = f(x)
y alone. This method of solution is called the separation of
variable method Isotherms

From (1) and (2) 1 𝑑2𝑋 1 𝑑2𝑌 (3)

=−
𝑋 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑌 𝑑𝑦 2
 Mathematical Analysis of 2-D Systems
1 𝑑2𝑋 1 𝑑2𝑌 (3)
From (1) and (2) =−
𝑋 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑌 𝑑𝑦 2

1) Since each side of the equation (3) is independent of the other (x and y being
independent variables) it follows that each side may be equalled to a constant.
2) In order to find a proper solution of (3), it is essential to select a proper value of
this constant.
3) If the value of this constant chosen is zero, (3) will give a linear relationship for
X(x) and Y(y) that may not satisfy certain boundary conditions.
4) Similarly with a positive constant, the solution of (3) will not satisfy the boundary
conditions.
5) A negative value of the constant say (-λ2) will satisfy all the prescribed values of
the boundary conditions because it will give the Fourier series expansion of f(x) in
terms of sine and cosine functions.
6) To put it simply, if temperature function is given along x-boundaries, the sign of the
separation function λ2 should be negative.
7) Alternately, if the temperature function is given along y-boundaries its sign should
be positive.

From (3) (4)

 Mathematical Analysis of 2-D Systems

From (3) (4)

The solution is given by (5)

Therefore (6)
Applying Boundary Conditions:

Since A≠ 0, sin(λa) = 0 ⇒ λa =π, 2π, 3π, …..⇒

The numbers n are known as Eigen values and each corresponding solution, Tn is
called as Eigen function.

From third Boundary Condition:

E =AC Since
F =AD
 Mathematical Analysis of 2-D Systems

The solution of the differential equation may thus be written as a sum of the solution as
 Mathematical Analysis of 2-D Systems

From the last boundary condition:

This is the Fourier sine series and the values of Kn can be determined as:

Corresponding isotherms are shown in the previous Figure. Also, the given example
considered only one boundary at T = f(x). This method can be used if more
boundaries are at prescribed temperatures. In such cases, solve temperature
distribution for each case with just one boundary at T = f(x) and then add all.
 Mathematical Analysis of 2-D Systems
Corresponding isotherms are shown in the previous Figure. Also, the given example
considered only one boundary at T = f(x). This method can be used if more
boundaries are at prescribed temperatures. In such cases, solve temperature
distribution for each case with just one boundary at T = f(x) and then add all.
y y
y T =0 T=0

T = f4(x) T =0
T = f1(y)
T=0 T=0
x x
T=0 T = f2(x)
y y
T(x, y)
T = f1(y) T = f3(y) T=0 T = f4(x)

T=0
x T=0
T = f3(y) T =0
T = f2(x)
x x
T=0 T=0
T(x, y) = T1(x, y) + T2 (x, y) + T3 (x, y) + T4 (x, y)
Thank You

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