Lec No(5): Discrete Mathematics (Graph Terminology Some Special Simple Graphs ) Math215

EXAMPLE 1: What are the degrees and what are the neighborhoods of the
vertices in the graphs G and H displayed in Figure 1?

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Solution:
In G,
deg(a) = 2, deg(b) = deg(c) = deg(f ) = 4, deg(d) = 1, deg(e) = 3, and deg(g) = 0.
The neighborhoods of these vertices are N(a) = {b, f }, N(b) = {a, c, e, f },
N(c) ={b, d, e, f }, N(d) = {c}, N(e) = {b, c, f }, N( f ) = {a, b, c, e}, and N(g) = ∅.
In H,
deg(a) = 4, deg(b) = deg(e) = 6, deg(c) = 1, and deg(d) = 5
The neighborhoods of these vertices are:
N(a) = {b, d, e}, N(b) = {a, b, c, d, e}, N(c) = {b}, N(d) = {a, b, e}, and
N(e) = {a, b, d}.
 A vertex of degree zero is called isolated.
Vertex g in graph G in Example 1 is isolated.
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A vertex is pendant if and only if it has degree one. Consequently, a pendant
vertex is adjacent to exactly one other vertex.
Vertex d in graph G in Example 1 is pendant.

EXAMPLE 2: How many edges are there in a graph with 10 vertices each
of degree six?
Solution: Because the sum of the degrees of the vertices is 6 ⋅ 10 = 60, it
follows that 2m = 60 where m is the number of edges. Therefore, m = 30.

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Terminology for graphs with directed edges reflects the fact that edges in
directed graphs have directions.

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Because the edges in graphs with directed edges are ordered pairs, the definition
of the degree of a vertex can be refined to reflect the number of edges with this
vertex as the initial vertex and as the terminal vertex.

EXAMPLE 3: Find the in-degree and out-degree of each vertex in the graph
G with directed edges shown in Figure 2.

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 The undirected graph that results from ignoring directions of edges is called
the underlying undirected graph.
 A graph with directed edges and its underlying undirected graph have the
same number of edges.

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Some Special Simple Graphs

 Complete Graphs: A complete graph on n vertices, denoted by , is a

simple graph that contains exactly one edge between each pair of distinct
vertices.
EXAMPLE 4: The graphs , for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, are displayed in
Figure 3.

EXAMPLE 5: Cycles

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EXAMPLE 7: Wheels

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 Bipartite Graphs:

EXAMPLE 8:

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EXAMPLE 9: Are the graphs G and H displayed in Figure 7 bipartite?

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EXAMPLE 10: Use Theorem 4 to determine whether the graphs in Example 9
are bipartite.

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 Complete Bipartite Graphs:
A complete bipartite graph is a graph that has its vertex set partitioned
into two subsets of m and n vertices, respectively with an edge between two
vertices if and only if one vertex is in the first subset and the other vertex is in
the second subset.
The complete bipartite graphs , are displayed in Figure 8.

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Some Applications of Special Types of Graphs

 Local Area Networks: The various computers in a building, such as

minicomputers and personal computers, as well as peripheral devices such as
printers and plotters, can be connected using a local area network. Some of
these networks are based on a star topology, where all devices are connected
to a central control device. A local area network can be represented using
a complete bipartite graph , as shown in Figure (a). Messages are sent
from device to device through the central control device.
Other local area networks are based on a ring topology, where each device is
connected to exactly two others. Local area networks with a ring topology
are modeled using n-cycles, as shown in Figure (b).
Finally, some local area networks use a hybrid of these two topologies.
Messages may be sent around the ring, or through a central device. Local
area networks with this redundancy can be modeled using wheels as
shown in Figure (c).

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Interconnection Networks for Parallel Computation :
For many years, computers executed programs one operation at a time.
Consequently, the algorithms written to solve problems were designed to
perform one step at a time; such algorithms are called serial.
Parallel processing, which uses computers made up of many separate
processors, each with its own memory, helps overcome the limitations of
computers with a single processor.
Parallel algorithms, which break a problem into a number of subproblems that
can be solved concurrently, can then be devised to rapidly solve problems
using a computer with multiple processors.
 Sometimes we need only part of a graph to solve a problem. Such a graph is
called a subgraph of the original graph.

Given a set of vertices of a graph, we can form a subgraph of this graph with
these vertices and the edges of the graph that connect them.

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REMOVING OR ADDING EDGES OF A GRAPH
Given a graph G = (V, E) and an edge e ∈ E, we can produce a subgraph of G
by removing the edge e. The resulting subgraph, denoted by G − e, has the
same vertex set V as G. Its edge set is E − {e}. Hence, G − e = (V, E − {e}).

Similarly, if E′ is a subset of E, we can produce a subgraph of G by removing

the edges in E′ from the graph. The resulting subgraph has the same vertex
set V as G. Its edge set is E − E′.
We can also add an edge e to a graph to produce a new larger graph when this
edge connects two vertices already in G. We denote by G + e the new graph
produced by adding a new edge e, connecting two previously nonincident
vertices, to the graph G. Hence, G + e = (V, E ∪ {e}).

The vertex set of G + e is the same as the vertex set of G and the edge set is
the union of the edge set of G and the set {e}.

REMOVING VERTICES FROM A GRAPH

When we remove a vertex v and all edges incident to it from G = (V, E), we
produce a subgraph, denoted by G − v. Observe that G − v = (V − {v}, E′),
where E′ is the set of edges of G not incident to v. Similarly, if V′ is a subset
of V, then the graph G − V′ is the subgraph (V − V′, E′), where E′ is the set of
edges of Gnot incident to a vertex in V′.
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EXAMPLE 11: Figure below displays an undirected graph G with four
different graphs that are the result of different operations on G. These are:

(a) G − {b, c}, constructed from G by removing the edge {b, c}

(b) G + {e, d}, constructed from G by adding the edge {e, d}
(c) the contraction of G, constructed from G by replacing the edge {b, c} with a
new vertex f , and replacing the edges {c, d}, {a, b}, {b, e}, and {c, e} with the new
edges {a, f }, {f, d}, and {f, e}
(d) G − c, constructed from G by removing the vertex c and the edges {b, c}, {c,
d}
and {c, e}
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GRAPH UNIONS : Two or more graphs can be combined in various ways.
The new graph that contains all the vertices and edges of these graphs is
called the union of the graphs.

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Exercises

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9. How many edges does a graph have if its degree sequence is 4, 3, 3, 2, 2?
Draw such a graph.

10. Determine whether each of these sequences is graphic. For those that are,
draw a graph having the given degree sequence.
a) 3, 3, 3, 3, 2 b) 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 c) 4, 4, 3, 2, 1
d) 4, 4, 3, 3, 3 e) 3, 2, 2, 1, 0 f ) 1, 1, 1, 1, 1

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