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Graphs:
Graph Theory

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 Introduction to Graphs
Definition: A simple graph G = (V, E) consists of V, a
nonempty set of vertices, and E, a set of unordered
pairs of distinct elements of V called edges.
A simple graph is just like a directed graph, but with
no specified direction of its edges.

Sometimes we want to model multiple connections

between vertices, which is impossible using simple
graphs.
In these cases, we have to use multigraphs.

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 Introduction to Graphs
Definition: A multigraph G = (V, E) consists of a set
V of vertices, a set E of edges, and a function
f from E to {{u, v} | u, v  V, u  v}.
The edges e1 and e2 are called multiple or parallel
edges if f(e1) = f(e2).
Note:
• Edges in multigraphs are not necessarily defined
as pairs, but can be of any type.
• No loops are allowed in multigraphs (u  v).

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 Introduction to Graphs
Example: A multigraph G with vertices V =
{a, b, c, d}, edges {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and function f with
f(1) = {a, b}, f(2) = {a, b}, f(3) = {b, c}, f(4) = {c, d} and
f(5) = {c, d}:

1 4
a b 3 c d

2 5

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 Introduction to Graphs
If we want to define loops, we need the following
type of graph:
Definition: A pseudograph G = (V, E) consists of a
set V of vertices, a set E of edges, and a function
f from E to {{u, v} | u, v  V}.
An edge e is a loop if f(e) = {u, u} for some uV.

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 Introduction to Graphs
Here is a type of graph that we already know:
Definition: A directed graph G = (V, E) consists of a
set V of vertices and a set E of edges that are ordered
pairs of elements in V.
… leading to a new type of graph:
Definition: A directed multigraph G = (V, E) consists
of a set V of vertices, a set E of edges, and a function
f from E to {(u, v) | u, v  V}.
The edges e1 and e2 are called multiple edges if f(e1)
= f(e2).

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 Introduction to Graphs
Example: A directed multigraph G with vertices V =
{a, b, c, d}, edges {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and function f with f(1)
= (a, b), f(2) = (b, a), f(3) = (c, b),
f(4) = (c, d) and f(5) = (c, d):

1 4
a b 3 c d

2 5

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 Introduction to Graphs
Types of Graphs and Their Properties

Type Edges Multiple Edges? Loops?

simple graph undirected no no

multigraph undirected yes no
pseudograph undirected yes yes
directed graph directed no yes
dir. multigraph directed yes yes

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 Graph Models
Example I: How can we represent a network of (bi-
directional) railways connecting a set of cities?
We should use a simple graph with an edge {a, b}
indicating a direct train connection between cities a
and b.

Toronto Boston
Lübeck

New York
Hamburg
Washington
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 Graph Models
Example II: In a round-robin tournament, each team
plays against each other team exactly once. How can
we represent the results of the tournament (which
team beats which other team)?
We should use a directed graph with an edge (a, b)
indicating that team a beats team b.

Maple Leafs Bruins

Penguins Lübeck Giants

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 Graph Terminology

Definition: Two vertices u and v in an undirected

graph G are called adjacent (or neighbors) in G if {u,
v} is an edge in G.
If e = {u, v}, the edge e is called incident with the
vertices u and v. The edge e is also said to connect u
and v.
The vertices u and v are called endpoints of the edge
{u, v}.

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 Graph Terminology

Definition: The degree of a vertex in an undirected

graph is the number of edges incident with it, except
that a loop at a vertex contributes twice to the degree
of that vertex.
In other words, you can determine the degree of a
vertex in a displayed graph by counting the lines that
touch it.
The degree of the vertex v is denoted by deg(v).

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 Graph Terminology

A vertex of degree 0 is called isolated, since it is not

adjacent to any vertex.
Note: A vertex with a loop at it has at least degree 2
and, by definition, is not isolated, even if it is not
adjacent to any other vertex.
A vertex of degree 1 is called pendant. It is adjacent
to exactly one other vertex.

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 Graph Terminology
Example: Which vertices in the following graph are
isolated, which are pendant, and what is the maximum
degree? What type of graph is it?
i h
d
a e
g
b c f j

Solution: Vertex f is isolated, and vertices a, d and j

are pendant. The maximum degree is deg(g) = 5.
This graph is a pseudograph (undirected, loops).
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 Graph Terminology
Let us look at the same graph again and determine
the number of its edges and the sum of the degrees of
all its vertices:
i h
d
a e
g
b c f j

Result: There are 9 edges, and the sum of all

degrees is 18. This is easy to explain: Each new edge
increases the sum of degrees by exactly two.
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 Graph Terminology
The Handshaking Theorem: Let G = (V, E) be an
undirected graph with e edges. Then
2e = vV deg(v)
Note: This theorem holds even if multiple edges
and/or loops are present.

Example: How many edges are there in a graph with

10 vertices, each of degree 6?
Solution: The sum of the degrees of the vertices is
610 = 60. According to the Handshaking Theorem, it
follows that 2e = 60, so there are 30 edges.
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 Graph Terminology
Theorem: An undirected graph has an even number
of vertices of odd degree.
Idea: There are three possibilities for adding an edge
to connect two vertices in the graph:
Before: After:
Both vertices have Both vertices have
even degree odd degree
Both vertices have Both vertices have
odd degree even degree
One vertex has odd One vertex has even
degree, the other even degree, the other odd
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 Graph Terminology
There are two possibilities for adding a loop to a
vertex in the graph:
Before: After:
The vertex has The vertex has
even degree even degree
The vertex has The vertex has
odd degree odd degree

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 Graph Terminology
So if there is an even number of vertices of odd
degree in the graph, it will still be even after adding an
edge.
Therefore, since an undirected graph with no edges
has an even number of vertices with odd degree
(zero), the same must be true for any undirected
graph.
Please also study the proof on
4th Edition: page 446
5th Edition: page 547
6th edition: page 599
7th edition: page 653
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 Graph Terminology
Definition: When (u, v) is an edge of the graph G with
directed edges, u is said to be adjacent to v, and v is
said to be adjacent from u.
The vertex u is called the initial vertex of (u, v), and v
is called the terminal vertex of (u, v).
The initial vertex and terminal vertex of a loop are the
same.

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 Graph Terminology
Definition: In a graph with directed edges, the in-
degree of a vertex v, denoted by deg-(v), is the
number of edges with v as their terminal vertex.
The out-degree of v, denoted by deg+(v), is the
number of edges with v as their initial vertex.

Question: How does adding a loop to a vertex

change the in-degree and out-degree of that vertex?
Answer: It increases both the in-degree and the out-
degree by one.

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 Graph Terminology
Example: What are the in-degrees and out-
degrees of the vertices a, b, c, d in this graph:

deg-(a) = 1 deg-(b) = 4
a
deg+(a) = 2 b deg+(b) = 2

deg-(d) = 2 deg-(c) = 0
d c
deg+(d) = 1 deg+(c) = 2

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 Graph Terminology

Theorem: Let G = (V, E) be a graph with directed

edges. Then:
vV deg-(v) = vV deg+(v) = |E|

This is easy to see, because every new edge

increases both the sum of in-degrees and the sum of
out-degrees by one.

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 Special Graphs
Definition: The complete graph on n vertices,
denoted by Kn, is the simple graph that contains
exactly one edge between each pair of distinct
vertices.

K1 K2 K3 K4 K5

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 Special Graphs
Definition: The cycle Cn, n  3, consists of n vertices
v1, v2, …, vn and edges {v1, v2}, {v2, v3}, …, {vn-1, vn},
{vn, v1}.

C3 C4 C5 C6

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 Special Graphs
Definition: We obtain the wheel Wn when we add an
additional vertex to the cycle Cn, for n  3, and
connect this new vertex to each of the n vertices in Cn
by adding new edges.

W3 W4 W5 W6

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 Special Graphs
Definition: The n-cube, denoted by Qn, is the graph
that has vertices representing the 2n bit strings of
length n. Two vertices are adjacent if and only if the bit
strings that they represent differ in exactly one bit
position.
011 111
01 11 010 110
001 101
0 1
00 10 000 100

Q1 Q2 Q3

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