Mathematics in the Modern World Chapter 3: Problem Solving and Reasoning

Intended Learning Outcomes

1. Apply Inductive and Deductive Reasoning in solving problems
2. Solve problems using Polya’s strategy
3. Organize one’s methods and approaches for proving and solving problem.

Activity

Download the game Tower of Hanoi on your cellphones (or improvise using cardboards and
sticks). The puzzle requires that all disks be moved from the first to the third peg, taking note that the
larger disks should be at the bottom. Only one disk can be moved at a time and all of them should be
moved. The game was invented by Edouard Lucas in 1883.

Photo Credit

: [Link]

Processing

In solving a problem, we make use of a strategic plan before we actually try to move the disks. A
strategy involves looking forward to where or first action will lead us an in most cases, we follow a
general pattern for all problems we encounter.

Abstraction

A. LOGICAL REASONING
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
 the process of reasoning from one or more statements (premises) to reach a logically certain
conclusion.

Example:
1. All men are mortal. (First premise)
2. Socrates is a man. (Second premise)
3. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (Conclusion)
The first premise states that all objects classified as "men" have the attribute "mortal." The second
premise states that "Socrates" is classified as a "man" – a member of the set "men." The conclusion
then states that "Socrates" must be "mortal" because he inherits this attribute from his classification as
a "man."

Example:
Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 10, add 8 to the
product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 4.
Solution:
Let n represent the original number.
Multiply n by 10: 10n
Add 8 to the product: 8+10n

Divide the sum by 2: (8+10n)/2=4+5n

Subtract the quotient by 4: 4+5n-4=5n

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Mathematics in the Modern World Chapter 3: Problem Solving and Reasoning

We started with n and ended with 5n after following the given procedure. This means that the
given procedure produces a number that is five times the original number.

Example:
Each of the four friends Donna, Sarah, Nikkie, and Xhanelle, has a different pet (fish, cat, dog,
and snake). From the following clues, determine the pet of each individual:
1. Sarah is older than her friend who owns the cat and younger than her friend who owns the
dog.
2. Nikkie and her friend who owns the snake are both of the same age and are the youngest
members of their group.
3. Donna is older than her friend who owns the fish.
Fish Cat Dog Snake
Donna X2 X3 / X3
Sarah / X1 X1 X1
Nikkie X2 / X2 X2
Xhanelle X2 X3 X3 /

INDUCTIVE REASONING
 is a method of reasoning in which the premises are viewed as supplying some evidence for the
truth of the conclusion. The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is called conjecture.

Example:
Jennifer leaves for school at 7:00 a.m. Jennifer is always on time. Jennifer assumes, then, that she
will always be on time if she leaves at 7:00 a.m.

Example:
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.
a. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ?
b. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ?
Solution:
a. Each successive number is 5 units larger than the preceding number. Thus, it can be predicted that
the next number in the list is 5 units larger than 25, which is 30.
b. Observe that all the numbers are perfect squares. Thus, it can be predicted that the next number to
be 36=62.
Note: COUNTEREXAMPLE - method of disproving a statement
Example:
11×(1)(101) = 1111
11×(2)(101) = 2222
11×(3)(101) = 3333
11×(4)(101) = 4444
11×(5)(101) = 5555
11×(6)(101) = ?
Simple arithmetic shows that the answer is 6666; hence it is conjectured that the product of 11 and a
multiple of 101 is a number where all digits are equal. But is 11×(n)(101) = nnnn true for all n (n, a
natural number)?

ABDUCTIVE REASONING
 is a form of logical inference which starts with an observation or set of observations then seeks to
find the simplest and most likely explanation.

Example:
The doctor hears her patients symptoms, including the regular shortness of breath on cold days
and when exercising and abduces that the best explanation of these symptoms is that her patient is an
asthma sufferer.

B. PROBLEM SOLVING WITH PATTERNS

FIBONACCI NUMBERS
 are the sequence of numbers defined by the linear recurrence equation
with . As a result of the definition, it is conventional to define .

BINET'S FORMULA

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Mathematics in the Modern World Chapter 3: Problem Solving and Reasoning

 is an explicit formula used to find the th term of the Fibonacci sequence. It is so named because
it was derived by mathematician Jacques Philippe Marie Binet, though it was already known by
Abraham de Moivre.

PASCAL'S TRIANGLE
 is a triangular array of the binomial coefficients. In much of the Western world, it is named after
the French mathematician Blaise Pascal, although other mathematicians studied it centuries
before him in India, Persia (Iran), China, Germany, and Italy.

PASCAL'S TRIANGLE AND THE BINOMIAL THEOREM

BINOMIAL THEOREM
 or binomial expansion describes the algebraic expansion of powers of a binomial.
(a + b)0 = 1
(a + b)1 = a + b
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a + b)3 = (a + b)(a + b)2 = (a + b)(a2 + 2ab + b2) = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3

C. POLYA’S 4-STEP PROBLEM-SOLVING PROCESS

1. Preparation: Understand the problem
 Learn the necessary underlying mathematical concepts
 Consider the terminology and notation used in the problem:
1. What sort of a problem is it?

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Mathematics in the Modern World Chapter 3: Problem Solving and Reasoning

2. What is being asked?

3. What do the terms mean?
4. Is there enough information or is more information needed?
5. What is known or unknown?
 Rephrase the problem in your own words.
 Write down specific examples of the conditions given in the problem.
2. Thinking Time: Devise a plan
 You must start somewhere so try something. How are you going to attack the problem?
 Possible strategies: (i. e. reach into your bag of tricks.)
1. Draw pictures
2. Use a variable and choose helpful names for variables or unknowns.
3. Be systematic.
4. Solve a simpler version of the problem.
5. Guess and check. Trial and error. Guess and test. (Guessing is OK.)
6. Look for a pattern or patterns.
7. Make a list.
 Once you understand what the problem is, if you are stumped or stuck, set the problem aside
for a while. Your subconscious mind may keep working on it.
 Moving on to think about other things may help you stay relaxed, flexible, and creative rather
than becoming tense, frustrated, and forced in your efforts to solve the problem.
3. Insight: Carry out the plan
 Once you have an idea for a new approach, jot it down immediately. When you have time, try
it out and see if it leads to a solution.
 If the plan does not seem to be working, then start over and try another approach. Often the
first approach does not work. Do not worry, just because an approach does not work, it does
not mean you did it wrong. You actually accomplished something, knowing a way does not
work is part of the process of elimination.
 Once you have thought about a problem or returned to it enough times, you will often have a
flash of insight: a new idea to try or a new perspective on how to approach solving the
problem.
 The key is to keep trying until something works.
4. Verification: Look back
 Once you have a potential solution, check to see if it works.
1. Did you answer the question?
[Link] your result reasonable?
3. Double check to make sure that all of the conditions related to the problem are satisfied.
4. Double check any computations involved in finding your solution.
 If you find that your solution does not work, there may only be a simple mistake. Try to fix or
modify your current attempt before scrapping it. Remember what you tried—it is likely that
at least part of it will end up being useful.
 Is there another way of doing the problem which may be simpler? (You need to become
flexible in your thinking. There usually is not one right way.)
 Can the problem or method be generalized so as to be useful for future problems?

Assessment Tasks

1. Use Inductive reasoning to predict the next number:

a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18
b. 2, 9, 28, 65, 126
c. -2, 5, -10 17, -26
d. 3, 6, 11, 18, 27
e. -1, 2, 7, 14, 23, 34

2. Use Deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure always produces a number that I
equal to the original number: Pick a number then multiply it by 5. Add 10 then divide the result
by 5. Finally, subtract 2 from the result.

3. Use Polya’s Stratgey to solve the problem:

If it is now 9:00 AM, what time is it 500 hours from now?

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Mathematics in the Modern World Chapter 3: Problem Solving and Reasoning

References

Adam, J. A. (2003), Mathematics in Nature: Modeling Patterns in the Natural World., Princeton
University Press, New Jersey.

Baltazar, et. al (2018), Mathematics in the Modern World., C&E Publishing, Inc., Quezon City

Johnson, D. (2012), Mathematics: A Practical Odyssey, 7e. Brookes/Cole Cengage Learning, USA.

Smith, K.J. (2010), The Nature of Mathematics 12 th ed., Santa Rosa Junior College, Brookes/Cole
Cengage Learning, USA.

Stewart, I. ( 1995), Nature’s Numbers: The Unreal Reality of Mathematics, Basic Books, New York

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