Chapter 1.

Lesson 3
Problem Solving

Intended Learning Outcomes:

1. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about mathematics
and mathematical concepts;
2. Write clear and logical proofs;
3. Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following Polya’s four steps; and
4. Organize one’s methods and approaches for approving and solving problems.

Introduction

Everyone must have felt at least once in his or her life how wonderful it would be if we
could solve a problem at hand preferably without much difficulty or even with some
difficulties. Unfortunately the problem solving is an art at this point and there are no
universal approaches one can take to solving problems. Basically one must explore
possible avenues to a solution one by one until one comes across a right path to a
solution.

The ability to solve problems is a basic life skill and is essential to our day-to-day lives,
at home, at school, and at work. We solve problems every day without really thinking
about how we solve them. For example: it’s raining and you need to go to the store.
What do you do? There are lots of possible solutions. Take your umbrella and walk. If
you don't want to get wet, you can drive, or take the bus. You might decide to call a
friend for a ride, or you might decide to go to the store another day. There is no right
way to solve this problem and different people will solve it differently. Problem solving
is the process of identifying a problem, developing possible solution paths, and
taking the appropriate course of action.

Good problem solving skills empower you not only in your personal life but are critical in
your professional life. In the current fast-changing global economy, employers often
identify everyday problem solving as crucial to the success of their organizations. For
employees, problem solving can be used to develop practical and creative solutions,
and to show independence and initiative to employers.

Thus generally speaking, there is guessing and hence an element of luck involved in
problem solving. However, in general, as one gains experience in solving problems, one
develops one's own techniques and strategies, though they are often intangible. Thus
the guessing is not an arbitrary guessing but an educated one. In this chapter we are
going to learn a framework for problem solving and get a glimpse of strategies that are
often used by experts. Their strategies are based on the work of Polya.

3.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning

The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the examination of specific
examples is called inductive reasoning. The conclusion formed by using inductive
reasoning is often called a conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.

Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining
specific examples.

Some examples of inductive reasoning are shown as below.

1. A teacher notices that his students learn more when hands-on activities were
incorporated into lessons. He decides to include a hands-on component in his
future lessons regularly.
2. An architect discerns a pattern of cost overages for plumbing materials in jobs
and opts to increase the estimate for plumbing costs in subsequent proposals.
3. A stockbroker observes that Intuit stock increased in value four years in a row
during tax season and recommends clients buy it in March.
4. A recruiter conducts a study of recent hires that have achieved success and
stayed on with the organization. She finds that they graduated from three local
colleges, so she decides to focus recruiting efforts on those schools.
5. A defence attorney reviews the strategy employed by lawyers in similar cases
and finds an approach that has consistently led to acquittals. She then applies
this approach to her own case.

Requirements for Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning requires several skills. To develop or improve your inductive

reasoning, focus on the following skills:

 Paying attention to detail: No one can draw conclusions based on details

without first noticing those details; paying attention is crucial to inductive
reasoning. If you're trying to develop better inductive reasoning, start by noticing
more about the things around you.
 Recognizing patterns: Those who have strong inductive reasoning quickly
notice patterns. They can see how certain objects or events lining up in a certain
way can result in a common outcome.
  Making projections: Closely related to recognizing patterns is being able to
predict what the future will hold based on the information you have. Leaders can
typically predict that certain decisions will lead to more group cooperation and
greater success. Financial projections are one example of making projections.
 Committing information to memory: Inductive reasoning is often directly
connected to your ability to recall past events and the details leading up to those
events. To bolster your memory, take notes so you can reference your
observations later on.
 Using emotional intelligence: Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to
perceive the emotions that are behind people's actions. People with high levels of
EI are more understanding of others and better able to get to the heart of issues
between two or more people.

When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next number in the list according to
some pattern you have observed, you are using inductive reasoning.

Illustrative Example: Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the
following lists.

a. 2, 4, 6, 8, ?
b. 3, 4, 6, 9, ?
c. 5, 8, 14, 23, ?

Solution

a. Each successive number is 2 larger than the preceding number. Thus we predict
that the next number in the list is 2 larger than 8, which is 10.
b. The first two numbers differ by 1. The second and the third numbers differ by 2. It
appears that the difference between any two numbers is always 1 more than the
preceding difference. Since 6 and 9 differ 3, we predict that the next number in
the list will be 4 larger than 9, which is 13.
c. The first two numbers differ by 3. Then, the second and third numbers differs by
6. It appears that the difference between any two numbers is 3 more than the
preceding difference. Since 14 and 23 differ 9, we predict that the next number in
the list will be 12 larger than 23, which is 35.

Inductive reasoning is not used just to predict the next number in a list. In the next
example, we use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about an arithmetic
procedure.

Illustrative Example: Consider the following procedure.

1. Pick a number.
2. Multiply the number by 8.
3. Add 6 to the product.
4. Divide the sum by 2.
5. Subtract 3 to the quotient.
 Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive
reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the
resulting number and the size of the original number.

Solution

Original Multiply by 8 Add 6 Divide by 2 Subtract 3

Number
1 8 14 7 4
2 16 22 11 8
3 24 30 15 12
4 32 38 19 16

We started with 1 and followed the procedure to produce 4. Starting with 2 as our
original number produces a final result of 8. Starting with 3 produces a final result of
12. Starting with 4 produces a final result of 16. In each of these cases the resulting
number is four times the original number. We conjecture that following the given
procedure produces a number that is four times the original number.

Illustrative Example 3: Use the data below and inductive reasoning to answer each of
the following questions.

Length of Period of
pendulum, in pendulum, in
units heartbeats
1 1
4 2
9 3
16 4
25 5
36 6
49 7
a. If the pendulum has a length of 16 units, what is its period?
b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its period?

Solution

a. In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root of its length.
Thus, we conjecture that a pendulum with a length of 16 units will have a period
of 4 heartbeats.
b. In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period that is twice that of
a pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A pendulum with a length of 16 units has a
period that is twice that of a pendulum with a length of 4 units. It appears that
quadrupling the length of a pendulum doubles its period.
Counterexamples

A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If you can find one
case for which a statement is not true, called a counterexample, then the statement is
a false statement. In the next example, we verify that each statement is a false
statement by finding a counterexample for each.

Illustrative Example: Verify that each of the following statements is false statement by
finding a counterexample.
For all numbers x:
a. |𝑥 | > 0
b. 𝑥 2 > 𝑥
c. √𝑥 2 = 𝑥
Solution
A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need only to find one
counterexample to verify that the statement is false.
a. a. Let x =0. Then|0| = 0. Because 0 is not greater than 0, we have found a
counterexample.Thus “for all numbers x, |𝑥 | > 0” is a false statement.
b. For x =1 we have12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, we have found a
counterexample.Thus “for all numbers x, 𝑥 2 > 𝑥” is a false statement.
c. Consider x = -3. Then√(−3)2 = √9 = 3. Since 3 is not equal to -3, we have found
a counterexample. Thus “for all numbers x, √𝑥 2 = 𝑥” is a false statement.

Deductive Reasoning

Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is

distinguished from inductive reasoning in that it is the process of reaching a conclusion
by applying general principles and procedures.

Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general
assumptions, procedures, or principles.

Some examples of deductive reasoning are shown below.

1. All numbers ending in 0 or 5 are divisible by 5. The number 35 ends with a 5, so

it must be divisible by 5.
2. All birds have feathers. All robins are birds. Therefore, robins have feathers.
3. It's dangerous to drive on icy streets. The streets are icy now, so it would be
dangerous to drive on the streets.
4. All cats have a keen sense of smell. Fluffy is a cat, so Fluffy has a keen sense of
smell.
5. Acute angles are less than 90 degrees. This angle is 40 degrees, so it must be
an acute angle.
Inductive Reasoning vs. Deductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is different from deductive reasoning. With deductive reasoning,

you start with a generalization or theory and then test it by applying it to specific
incidents. Deductive reasoning is using general ideas to reach a specific conclusion.
Inductive reasoning uses specific ideas to reach a broad conclusion. You may have
heard this explained in school as going from big to small when using deductive
reasoning and going from small to big when using inductive reasoning.

Scientists may use deductive reasoning to test a hypothesis in a lab. Many law
enforcement, military, or corporate leaders must be able to use inductive reasoning by
taking a quick sweep of a situation and making a vital, time-sensitive decision. Inductive
reasoning allows individuals to accurately see the signs of something bigger at play.

Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning

Using specific observations to reach a Using general ideas to reach a specific
broad conclusion conclusion.

Used in law enforcement to narrow down

Used in science to reach a hypothesis
suspects

Illustrative Example: Determine whether each of the following arguments is an

example of inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.

a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced mangoes every other year. Last
year the tree did not produce mangoes, so this year the tree will produce
mangoes.
b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor estimated
that my home improvement will cost Php 500,000.00. Thus, my home
improvement will cost more than Php 500,000.00.

Solution

a. This argument reaches a conclusion based on specific examples, so it is an

example of the inductive reasoning.
b. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a general assumption, this argument
is an example of deductive reasoning.
Practice Exercises 3.1

Name: ________________________________ Date: __________ Score: __________

I. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each list.

1) 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, ____

2) 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, ____

3) 90, 80, 71, 63, 56, ____

4) 2, 7, -3, 2, -8, -3, ____

5) 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ____

II. Use inductive reasoning to decide whether each statement is true or false. Write true if the
statement is true. If false, give a counterexample.

_______________1) The sum of any two even counting numbers is always an even counting
number.

_______________2) The product of an odd counting number and an even counting number is
always an even counting number.

_______________3) The product of two odd counting numbers is always an odd counting
number.

_______________4) The sum of two odd counting numbers is always an odd counting number.

_______________ 5) The product of a negative even number and positive odd number is
negative even number.

III. Find the number that provides a counterexample to show that the given statement is false.
1
_________________ 1) For all numbers 𝑥, 𝑥 > 𝑥

_________________ 2) For all number 𝑥, 𝑥 + 𝑥 > 𝑥

_________________ 3) For all numbers 𝑥, 𝑥 3 ≥ 𝑥

_________________ 4) For all numbers 𝑥, |𝑥 + 3| = |𝑥| + 3

_________________ 5) For all numbers 𝑥, −𝑥 < 𝑥

IV. Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive
reasoning or deductive reasoning.

_______________ 1) Dogs don’t eat banana. Sam is a dog. Therefore, Sam does not
eat banana.
_______________ 2) All Steven Spielberg movies are worth watching. The movie
Jurassic Park is a Steven Spielberg movie. Therefore, Jurassic
Park is worth watching.
_______________ 3) It is usually hot during summer season in the Philippines. It is
summer now in the Philippines. Thus, it is hot now in the
Philippines.
_______________ 4) All readers of Harry Potter novels are over 13 years old. Mario
reads Harry Potter novels. Therefore, Mario is over 13 years old.

_______________ 5) Mark hasn’t bought any snack. His parents haven’t bought any
snack. Therefore, there won’t be anything to eat for the picnic.
_______________ 6) John did not win the game 3 days ago. John did not win the game
yesterday. Thus, John will win the game today.
_______________ 7) Thirty-five is divisible by 5. Twenty is divisible by 5. Therefore,
numbers ending in 0 or 5 are divisible by 5.
_______________ 8) All rainy days are cloudy. Yesterday was not cloudy. Therefore,
yesterday was not rainy.
_______________ 9) All prime numbers are odd. Two is a prime number. Therefore, 2
is an odd number.
_______________ 10) All congressmen are politicians. Some corrupt are politicians.
Some corrupt people aren’t congressmen.
3.2 Problem Solving

George Polya (1887 – 1985) was a mathematics educator who strongly believed that
the skill of problem solving can be taught. He developed a framework known as Polya’s
Four-Steps in Problem Solving. This process addressed the difficulty of students in
problem solving. He firmly be believed that the most efficient way of learning
mathematical concepts is through problem solving and students and teachers become a
better problem solver.

This section presents the four phases that can be identified in the process of solving
problems:

Step 1: Understanding the problem. Needless to say that if you do not understand
the problem you can never solve it. It is also often true that if you really understand the
problem, you can see a solution.

Below are some of the questions that can help us understand a problem.

• Can you restate the problem in your own words?

• Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
• Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve the problem?
• Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem?
• What is the goal?

Step 2: Devising a plan. Polya mentioned that there are many reasonable ways to
solve problems. The skill at choosing an appropriate strategy is best learned by solving
many problems. You will find choosing a strategy increasingly easy. A partial list of
strategies is included:

• Guess and check

• Look for a pattern
• Make an orderly list
• Draw a picture
• Eliminate possibilities
• Solve a simpler problem
• Use symmetry
• Use a model
• Consider special cases
• Work backwards
• Use direct reasoning
• Use a formula
• Solve an equation
• Be ingenious
Step 3: Carrying out the problem. This step is usually easier than devising the plan. In
general, all you need is care and patience, given that you have the necessary skills.
Persist with the plan that you have chosen. If it continues not to work discard it and
choose another. Don’t be misled; this is how mathematics is done, even by
professionals.
• Be patient
• Work carefully
• Modify the plan or try a new plan
• Keep trying until something works
• Implement the strategy or strategies in Step 2
• Try another strategy if the first one isn’t working
• Keep a complete and accurate record of your work
• Be determined and don’t get discouraged if the plan does not work immediately

Step 4: Looking back. Polya mentioned that much can be gained by taking the time to
reflect and look back at what you have done, what worked, and what didn’t. Doing this
will enable you to predict what strategy to use to solve future problems.
• Look for an easier solution
• Does the answer make sense?
• Check the results in the original problem
• Interpret the solution with the facts of the problem
• Recheck any computations involved in the solution
• Can the solution be extended to a more general case?
• Ensure that all the conditions related to the problem are met
• Determine whether there is another method of finding the solution
• Ensure the consistency of the solution in the context of the problem

Illustrative example: Suppose the NCAA basketball championship is decided on a

best of five series game. In how many different ways can a team win the
championships?

Solution

Step 1: Understand the Problem.

There are many different orders to win the championships. The team may have
won three straight games (WWW) or maybe they could lose the first two games
and won the last three games (LLWWW). There are also other possibilities such
as WWLW, WLWW, or WLWLW.

Step 2: Devise a Plan.

Make an organized list of all possible orders and ensure that each of the different
orders is accounted for only once.
Step 3: Carry out the Plan.

Each entry in the list must contain three Ws and may contain one or two losses.
Use a strategy to each other. One strategy is to start to write Ws, then write L if it
is not possible to write W. This strategy produces ten (10) different orders shown
below.

WWW (Start with three wins)

WWLW (Start with two wins)
WWLLW (Start with two wins)
WLWW (Start with one win)
WLLWW (Start with one win)
WLWLW (Start with one win)
LWWW (Start with one loss)
LWWLW (Start with one loss)
LWLWW (Start with one loss)
LLWWW (Start with two losses)

Step 4: Look back.

The list above is organized and contains no duplications. It includes all
possibilities, we can conclude that there are ten (10) different ways in which a
basketball team can win the NCAA championships in the best of 5 games.

Illustrative Example: Determine the digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point in
7
the decimal representation 27.

Solution

Step 1: Understand the Problem.

7
Express the fraction 27 as a decimal and look for a pattern that will enable us to
determine the digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point.

Step 2: Devise a Plan.

Dividing 27 into 7 by long division or by using a calculator produces the decimal

0.259259259... . Since the decimal representation repeats the digits 259 over
and over forever, we know that the digit located 100 places to the right of the
decimal point is either a 2, a 5, or a 9. A table may help us to see a pattern and
enable us to determine which one of these digits is in the 100th place. Since the
decimal digits repeat every three digits, we use a table with three columns.
 7
The First 15 Decimal Digits of 27

Step 3: Carry out the Plan.

Only in column 3 is each of the decimal digit locations evenly divisible by 3. From
this pattern we can tell that the 99th decimal digit (because 99 is evenly divisible
by 3) must be a 9. Since a 2 always follows a 9 in the pattern, the 100thdecimal
digit must be a 2.

Step 4: Look Back.

The above table illustrates additional patterns. For instance, if each of the
location numbers in column 1 is divided by 3, a remainder of 1 is produced. If
each of the location numbers in column 2 is divided by 3, a remainder of 2 is
produced. Thus we can find the decimal digit in any location by dividing the
location number by 3 and examining the remainder. For instance, to find the digit
7
in the 3200th decimal place of 27, merely divide 3200 by 3 and examine the
remainder, which is 2. Thus, the digit 3200 places to the right of the decimal point
is a 5.

Illustrative Example: Two times the sum of a number and 3 is equal to thrice the
number plus 4. Find the number.

Solution

Step 1: Understand the Problem.

We need to make sure that we have read the question carefully several times.
Since we are looking for a number, we will let 𝑥 be a number.

Step 2: Devise a Plan.

 We will translate the problem mathematically. Two times the sum of a number
and 3 is equal to thrice the number plus 4.

2(𝑥 + 3) = 3𝑥 + 4

Step 3: Carry out the Plan.

We solve for the value of 𝑥, algebraically.

2(𝑥 + 3) = 3𝑥 + 4
2𝑥 + 6 = 3𝑥 + 4
3𝑥 − 2𝑥 = 6 − 4
𝑥=2

Step 4: Look Back.

If we take two times the sum of 2 and 3, that is the same as thrice the number 2
plus 4 which is 10, so this does check. Thus, the number is 2.

Illustrative Example: Three siblings Ivan, Ilya, and Iara. Ivan gave Ilya and Iara as
much money as each had. Then Ilya gave Ivan and Iara as much money as each had.
Then Iara gave Ivan and Ilya as much money as each had. Then each of the three had
Php 128. How much money did each have originally?

Solution
Step 1: Understand the Problem.

The problem is a little bit confusing and needs to be carefully analyzed.

Step 2: Devise a Plan.

We will be working backwards.

Step 3: Carry Out the Plan.

There are four stages to this problem. We will number it from fourth to first.

Fourth: Each has Php 128.

Third: Iara gave Ivan and Ilya as much money as each has.
Second: Ilya gave Ivan and Iara as much money as each has.
First: Ivan gave Ilya and Iara as much money as each has.

Stages Ivan Ilya Iara

Fourth Php 128 Php 128 Php 128
Third 64 64 256
 Second 32 224 128
First 208 112 64

Initially Ivan had Php 208, Ilya had Php 112, and Iara had Php 64.

Step 4: Look Back.

We check the result.

Stages Ivan Ilya Iara

First Php 208 Php 112 Php 64
Second 208-112-64=32 112+112=224 64+64=128
Third 32+32=64 224-32-128=64 128+128=256
Fourth 64+64=128 64+64=128 256-64-64=128

Thus, Ivan, Ilya and Iara’s initial money are Php 208, Php 112 and Php 64,
respectively.

Illustrative Example: In a basketball league consisting of 10 teams, each team plays

each of the other teams exactly three times. How many league games will be played?

Solution

Step 1: Understand the Problem.

There are 10 teams in the league, and each team plays exactly three games
against each of the other teams. The problem is to determine the total number of
league games that will be played.

Step 2: Devise a Plan.

Try the strategy of working a similar but simpler problem. Consider a league with
only four teams (denoted by A, B, C, and D) in which each team plays each of
the other teams only once. The diagram at the left illustrates that the games can
be represented by line segments that connect the points A, B, C, and D. Since
each of the four teams will play a game against each of the other three, we might
conclude that this would result in4 ∙ 3 = 12 games. However, the diagram shows
only six line segments. It appears that our procedure has counted each game
twice. For instance, when team A plays team B, team B also plays team A. To
produce the correct result, we must divide our previous result, 12, by 2. Hence,
4∙3
four teams can play each other once in 2 = 6 games.
Step 3: Carry out the Plan.

Using the process developed above, we see that 10 teams can play each other
10∙9
once in a total of 2 = 45 games. Since each team plays each opponentexactly
three times, the total number of games is 45 ∙ 3 = 135.

Step 4: Look Back.

We could check our work by making a diagram that includes all10 teams
represented by dots labelled A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, and J. Because this
diagram would be somewhat complicated, let’s try the method of making an
organized list. The figure at the left shows an organized list in which the notation
BC represents a game between team B and team C. The notation CB is not
shown because it also represents a game between team B and team C. This list
shows that 45 games are required for each team to play each of the other teams
once. Also notice that the first row has nine items, the second row has eight
items, the third row has seven items, and so on. Thus 10 teams require
9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 45 games if each team plays every other
team once, and 45 ∙ 3 = 135 games if each teamplays exactly three games
against each opponent.

Mathematical Problems Involving Patterns

An ordered list of numbers such as 5, 7, 11, 17, 25, … is called a sequence. The
numbers in a sequence that are separated by commas are the terms of the sequence.
The three dots “…” indicate that the sequence continues beyond 25, which is the last
written term. It is customary to use the subscript notation, 𝑎𝑛 to designate the nth term
of a sequence. That is

𝑎1 represents the first term of a sequence

𝑎2 represents the second term of a sequence
𝑎3 represents the third term of a sequence
.
.
.
𝑎𝑛 represents the nth term of a sequence.

Illustrative Example: Write the first three terms of the sequence whose nth term is
given by the formula 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛 + 3.

Solution

𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛 + 3
𝑎1 = 2(1) + 3 = 5 Replace 𝑛 by 1.
𝑎2 = 2 ( 2 ) + 3 = 7 Replace 𝑛 by 2.
𝑎3 = 2 ( 3 ) + 3 = 9 Replace 𝑛 by 3.
Thus, the first three terms of the sequence are 5, 7, and 9.

A difference table shows the differences between successive terms of the sequence.
The differences in rows maybe the first, second, and third differences. In the first
differences, each number in the first row of the table is the differences between the
closest numbers just above it (subtract the upper left number to the upper right number).
If the first differences are not the same, compute the successive differences of the first
differences (called the second and third differences). The following examples will show
how to predict the next term of a sequence, and we look for a pattern in a row
differences.

Illustrative Example: Construct the difference table to predict the next term of each
sequence.

a) 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, …

b) 4, 7, 11, 16, 22, …
c) 6, 9, 14, 26, 50, …

Solution

a) 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, …

Sequence 3 7 11 15 19 23
\ / \ / \ / \ / \ /
First differences 4 4 4 4 4

Since 19 + 4 = 23, thus, the next term is 23.

b) 4, 7, 11, 16, 22, …

Sequence 4 7 11 16 22 29
\ /\ / \ / \ / \ /
First differences 3 4 5 6 7
\ / \ / \ / \ /
Second differences 1 1 1 1

Since 1 + 6 = 7 and 7 + 22 = 29, thus, the next term is 29.

c) 6, 9, 14, 26, 50, …

Sequence 6 9 14 26 50 91
\ / \ / \ / \ / \ /
First differences 3 5 12 24 41
\ / \ / \ / \ /
Second differences 2 7 12 17
\ / \ / \ /
Third differences 5 5 5
 Since 5 + 12= 17, 17 + 24 = 41, 41 + 50 = 91,thus, the next term is 91.

Illustrative Example: Determine the nth term formula for the following polygonal
numbers in the nth figure: (a) triangular number and (b) square number.

Solution

We first define what polygonal number is. A polygonal number is a type of figurative
number represented as dots or peddles arranged in the shape of a regular polygon.

a) Triangular Number

Observe that the number sequence is

𝑛=1 1
𝑛=2 1+2=3
𝑛=3 1+2+3=6
𝑛=4 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10
𝑛=5 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15
1
which can be generalized as 𝑇𝑛 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + (𝑛 − 1) + 𝑛 = 2 (𝑛2 + 𝑛)

Expanding the triangular number sequence: 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, 55, …

b) Square Number

Observe that the number sequence is

𝑛=1 12 =1
𝑛=2 22 =4
𝑛=3 32 =9
𝑛=4 42 = 16
𝑛=5 52 = 25
1
which can be generalized as 𝑆𝑛 = 2 (2𝑛2 − 0𝑛) = 𝑛2
 Expanding the triangular number sequence: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, …

Illustrative Example: A diagonal of a polygon is a line segment that connects vertices

(corners) of the polygon. Following are polygons: triangle, quadrilateral, pentagon, and
hexagon.

Determine the number of diagonals in a heptagon and an octagon.

Solution

The sequence of the diagonals is shown in the table.

Number of Sides 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of Diagonals 0 2 5 9

Applying the difference table, we get

Sequence 0 2 5 9 14 20
\ /\ / \ / \ / \ /
First differences 2 3 4 5 6
\ / \ / \ /\ /
Second differences 1 1 1 1

Thus, the pentagon has 14 diagonals, while the octagon has 20 diagonals. (You can
verify the result by creating heptagon and an octagon and count its diagonals.)
Practice Exercises 3.2

Name: ________________________________ Date: __________ Score: __________

I. Use Polya’s four-step problem solving strategy to solve each of the following
exercises.

1) In a UAAP Volleyball league consisting of 8 teams, each team plays each other
teams exactly two times in the elimination round. How many league games will
be played in the elimination round?

Step 1: Understand the Problem.

Step 2: Devise a Plan.

Step 3: Carry Out the Plan.

Step 4: Look Back.

2) If the hypotenuse of a right triangle measures 10 meters, and one leg is 2 meters
more than the other. Find the length of the legs.
Step 1: Understand the Problem.

Step 2: Devise a Plan.

Step 3: Carry Out the Plan.

Step 4: Look Back.

II. Write the first three terms of the sequence whose nth term is given by the formula.

1) 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛 − 3
𝑛+1
2) 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛

3𝑛
3) 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛−1

4) 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛

5) 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛2 + 𝑛 − 1

III. Use the difference table to predict the next term in the sequence.

1) 2, 6, 22, 56, 114, …

2) 3, 9, 15, 21, 27, …

3) 6, 11, 18, 27, 38, …

4) 1, 8, 21, 40, 65, …

5) 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, …

3.3 Recreational Problems

Recreational mathematics is a carried out mathematical activity which involves

mathematical puzzles and games. Most topics in recreational mathematics require no
deeper knowledge in advanced mathematics. Some of the topics are the magic square,
logic puzzles, aesthetics, culture mathematics, and others.

Recreational math goes beyond those games and into puzzles and brainteasers
that require math to solve but are not the typical “learn the formula and
apply” approach. Instead, using math to solve problems is part of the game itself.

Magic Square
One of the ancient “square” mathematical recreations of all is
the magic square.So the numbers in the Magic Square are
special, but why are they called magic? It seems that from
ancient times they were connected with the supernatural and
magical world. The earliest record of magic squares is from
China in about 2200 BC. and is called "Lo Shu". There's a
legend that says that the Emperor Yu saw this magic square
on the back of a divine tortoise in the Yellow River.
The black knots show even numbers and the white knots show odd numbers. Look
closely and you'll see that this ancient magic square is the same as our example above.
Magic squares were first mentioned in the Western world in the work of Theon of
Smyrna. They were also used by Arab astrologers in the 9th century to help work out
horoscopes. The work of the Greek mathematician Moschopoulos in 1300 A.D. help to
spread knowledge about magic squares.
Magic Squares are square grids with a special arrangement of numbers in them. These
numbers are special because every row, column and diagonal adds up to the same
number. So for the example below, 15 is the magic number.

8 1 6

3 5 7

4 9 2

Also, the two numbers that are opposite each other across the center number will add
up to the same number. So, in the square above, 8 + 2 = 10, 6 + 4 = 10, 1 + 9 = 10 and
3 + 7 = 10.
The “order” of a magic square tells how many rows or columns it has. So, a square with
3 rows and columns is Order 3, and a square with 4 rows and columns is Order 4 and
so on.
Palindrome
Another fascinating topic is the palindrome. A palindrome is a number (or word, or
phrase) sequence of characters (or symbols) which reads the same backward as
forward, for example 121, 12321, 1234321, etc. Palindrome maybe in the form of
palindromic number, palindromic triangle, palindromic primes, and others.
Palindromes of square are as follows:
12 = 1
112 = 121
1112 = 12,321
1,1112 = 1,234,321
11,1112 = 123,454,321
111,1112 = 12,345,654,321
1,111,1112 = 1,234,567,654,321

9-digit palindromic primes:

Plateau Primes Smoothly Undulating 5 Consecutive Digits
18888881 32323232323 120343021
199999991 72727272727 354767543
155555551 91919191919 759686957

8-like Digits Peak Primes Valley Primes

111181111 123494321 765404567
111191111 345676543 987101789
777787777 345686543 987646789

One of the most famous palindrome triangles is the Pascal’s Triangle named after a
French mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623-1662). Pascal's triangle is a triangular array
constructed by summing adjacent elements in preceding rows. Pascal's triangle contains the
values of the binomial coefficient. Pascal's triangle can be used to visualize many
properties of the binomial coefficient and the binomial theorem.

https://socratic.org/questions/how-do-you-use-pascals-triangle-to-expand-2x-6-7
Logic Puzzle

Logic puzzles come in all shapes and sizes, but the kind of puzzles we offer here are
most commonly referred to as "logic grid" puzzles. In each puzzle you are given a series
of categories, and an equal number of options within each category. Each option is
used once and only once. Your goal is to figure out which options are linked together
based on a series of given clues. Each puzzle has only one unique solution, and each
can be solved using simple logical processes (i.e. educated guesses are not required).

Illustrative Example: Each of four neighbors, Melody, Mark, Manfred, and Michael, has
a different occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist). From the following clues,
determine the occupation of each neighbor.

1) Mark gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
2) Manfred, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
3) The dentist and Manfred leave for work at the same time.
4) The banker lives next door to Michael.

Solution

From clue 1, Mark is not the banker or the dentist. In the following chart, write x1 (which
stands for “ruled out by clue 1”) in the Banker and the Dentist columns of Mark’s row.

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Melody
Mark X1 X1
Manfred
Michael

From clue 2, Manfred is not the editor. Write X2 (ruled out by clue 2) in the Editor’s
column of Manfred’s row. We know from clue 1 that the banker is not the last to get
home, and we know from clue 2 that Manfred is the last to get home; therefore, Manfred
is not the banker. Write X2 in the Banker’s column of Manfred’s row.

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Melody
Mark X1 X1
Manfred X2 X2
Michael

From clue 3, Manfred is not the dentist, write X3 for this condition. There are now Xs for
three of the four occupations in Manfred’s row; therefore, Manfred must be the chef.
Place a / in a box. Since Manfred is the chef, none of the other three people can be the
chef. Write X3 for these conditions. There are now Xs for three of the four occupations
in Mark’s row; therefore, Mark must be the editor. Insert a / to indicate that Mark is the
editor, and write X3 twice to indicate that neither Melody nor Michael is the editor.
 Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Melody X3 X3
Mark / X1 X3 X1
Manfred X2 X2 / X3
Michael X3 X3

From clue 4, Michael is not the banker. Write X4 for this condition. See the following
table. Since there are three Xs in the Banker column, Melody must be the banker. Place
a / in that box. Thus, Melody cannot be the dentist. Write X4 in that box. Since there are
3 Xs in the Dentist column, Michael must be the dentist. Place a / in that box.

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Melody X3 / X3 X4
Mark / X1 X3 X1
Manfred X2 X2 / X3
Michael X3 X4 X3 /

Melody is the banker, Mark is the editor, Manfred is the chef, and Michael is the dentist.

Sudoku

Sudoku is a puzzle game designed for a single player, much like a crossword puzzle.
The puzzle itself is nothing more than a grid of little boxes called “cells”. They are
stacked nine high and nine wide, making 81 cells total. The puzzle comes with some of
the cells (usually less than half of them) already filled in, like this:

Each little square is called a "cell." Most often, Sudoku cells are filled with numbers (1-
2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9).
Cryptarithm

A cryptarithmetic puzzle is a mathematical exercise where the digits of some numbers

are represented by letters (or symbols). Each letter represents a unique digit. The goal
is to find the digits such that a given mathematical equation is verified.

Illustrative Example: Find which digit is equivalent by each of the letters so that the
addition is correct.

SEND

+ MORE

MONEY

Solution

Note that it is not allowed to begin with zero. The numbers SEND, MORE, and MONEY;
S and M cannot be zero.

Also, the sum of two four-digit numbers cannot exceed 19, 998; so we can deduce that
M is 1.

SEND SEND

+ MORE + 1ORE

MONEY 1ONEY

We have S + 1 = O. Recall that we carry into the thousand place, S + 1 = 10 + O (Note

that 𝑆 ≠ 1 and 𝑂 ≠ 1, since M = 1).

We need to consider that there may or may not be a carry into the thousands place.
Thus, O=0.

SEND

+ 10RE

10NEY

We have E+0 = N, There is carry in the next column, since letter must represent a
different number and N must be equal to E + 1. (Note: 𝐸 ≠ 9 and 𝑁 ≠ 0). Since there is
no carry into the thousand column, we have S = 9.
 9END

+ 10RE

10NEY

In the ten column, we have N + R = E. Note that N = E + 1, thus 1 + N + R = 9 + N or R

= 8.

9END

+ 108E

10NEY

This means the D + E ≥ 12 (Since S = 9, R = 8, and D≠1). By the process of

elimination, the only possibility is when D = 7, E = 5, and N = 6, then Y = 2.

The resulting sum is

SEND 9567

+ MORE + 1085

MONEY 10652

Practice Exercises 3.3

Name: ________________________________ Date: __________ Score: __________

Solve and explain your answer.

1) Two different lines can intersect in at most one point. Three different lines can
intersect at most three points, four lines can intersect in at most six points, and
five lines can intersect at most-points. Determine the maximum number of
intersections for six different lines.
2) Suppose we need to measure exactly 1 liter of water. All that we have are two
containers. The smaller container holds 3 liters and the larger holds 5 liters. How
can we use these two containers to measure exactly 1 liter of water?

3) A palindromic number is a whole number that remains unchanged when its digits
are written in reverse order. Find all palindromic numbers that have exactly three
digits and are the square of a natural number.

4) Each of the five girls (Rose, Jenny, Sarah, Tina, and Vicky) have a favorite piece
of jewelry (diamond, gold, silver, ruby and opal). Use the clues below to find out
the favorite jewelry for each girl.
a) Rose has jewelry that starts with the same letter as her first name.
b) Sarah does not like gold or opals.
c) Tina’s grandmother gave her diamond earrings for her birthday.
d) Jenny’s jewelry is either gold or silver.
 5) A frog is at the bottom of a 17-foot well. Each time the frog leaps, it moves up 3
feet. If the frog has not reached the top of the well, then the frog slides back 1
foot before it is ready to make another leap. How many leaps will the frog need to
escape the well?

6) In the following addition problem, each letter represents one of the digits 0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. The leading digits represented by A and B are nonzero digits.
What digit is represented by each letter?

A
+ BB
A D D

References

Aufmann, Richard N. et al. 2013. Mathematical Excursions. Third Edition. USA:

Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.

Sirug, Winston S. 2018.Mathematics in the Modern World. Manila: Mindshapers Co.,

Inc.

Introduction to Problem Solving Skills. Retrieved on August 18, 2020 at

https://ccmit.mit.edu/problem-solving/

What is Inductive Reasoning?. Retrieved on August 18, 2020 at

https://www.thebalancecareers.com/inductive-reasoning-definition-with-examples-
2059683

Polya’s Problem Solving Techniques.Retrieved on August 18, 2020 at

https://math.berkeley.edu/~gmelvin/polya.pdf
An Introduction to Magic Squares. Retrieved on August 19, 2020 at
https://nrich.maths.org/magic-square-intro

Recreational Mathematics. Retrieved on August 19, 2020 at

https://www.celebrationofmind.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/JRMF-
MathPuzzlesBooklet-Book2-Green-082017-D-ForHomePrinter.pdf

Logic Puzzle.Retrieved on August 19, 2020 at

https://logic.puzzlebaron.com/

So, what is Sudoku exactly?.Retrieved on August 19, 2020 at

https://www.learn-sudoku.com/what-is-sudoku.html

Cryptarithmic Puzzles. Retrieved on August 19, 2020 at

https://developers.google.com/optimization/cp/cryptarithmetic

Images
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Suggested Learning Videos
Video: [Mr. Janes Math]. (2014, September 14). Logical Reasoning: Inductive vs
Deductive [Video File]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7wtp6EuXiL0
Video: [Solver Tutor]. (2016, March 4). Solving Problem by Inductive Reasoning [Video
File]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JDTLee-BYH8

Video: [mlkohlerAC]. (2013, July 25). Patterns in Problem Solving [Video file]. Retrieved
from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BhAt-7i36G8

Video: [ForaTv]. (2010, November 29). MythBusters’ Adam Savage on Problem Solving:
How I Do It [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BhAt-7i36G8
Video: [Audrey Barto]. Polya’s Problem Solving Process [Video File]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aCtQTLNRi2Q
Video: [Christopher Vaughen]. (2016, February 7). Problem Solving Examples [Video
File]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Effp2DQNPbk
Recommended Videos for more explanations of each topic:
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