Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 1
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

3. Gates and Boolean Algebra

Objectives

1. Analyze the INVERTER circuit.

2. Describe the operation of and construct the
truth tables for the AND, NAND, OR, and NOR
gates.
3. Draw timing diagrams for the various logic-
circuit gates.
4. Simplify complex logic circuits by applying
various Boolean algebra laws and rules.
5. Simplify intricate Boolean equations by
applying DeMorgan's theorems.
6. Use either of the universal gates (NAND or
NOR) to implement the circuit represented by
a Boolean expression.
7. Explain the advantages of constructing a logic
circuit diagram using the alternate gate
symbols, versus the standard logic-gate
symbols.
8. Describe the concept of active-Low and active-
High signals.

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 2
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Introduction
All Digital (logic) circuits operate in the binary
mode, i.e.
Digital circuits operate only in 2 states which are
called the: High (abbreviated H) state and Low
(L) state.

What this means is that input & output voltages

are within one of two voltage ranges which are
denoted as Logic H, also referred to as Binary 1,
and Logic L or Binary 0

This characteristic of digital circuits allows us to

use Boolean algebra as a tool to analyze and
design logic circuits.

The topics which follow introduces the basic logic

gates which are the building blocks of Digital
Electronics and the theory of Boolean Algebra,
which is used in the design and analysis of digital
circuits.

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 3
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Boolean Constants and Variables

In Boolean algebra, constants and variables can
ONLY have two values:
Logic 1 or Logic 0
Boolean 1 or 0 do not actually represent
numbers.

They are synonymous with:

True or False
On or Of f
Yes or No
High or Low

With High - Low being the most appropriate in

describing the behaviour of digital circuits

In Digital circuits, Boolean 1 and 0 thus represent

voltage levels, which are also referred to as the
LOGIC LEVELs.

Boolean algebra can be used to express the

effects of digital circuits on logic inputs.

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 4
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Electronic circuits that operate on binary data are

called:

Digital Logic Systems

There are in general, 2 types of Digital Logic

Systems:
(i) Combinational Logic systems *
(ii) Sequential Logic systems *

Circuits within the system that carry out

elementary logic operations are called gates.

NB:
• Combinational circuits: the output(s) at any instant is a
direct response to the input combinations at that instant.
There is no feedback between the output(s) and input(s).
• Sequential circuits: the output(s) at any instant depends not
only on the current values (states) of the inputs but also
their previous values, i.e. there is an element of memory.

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 5
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Truth-Tables

A truth table is a means to show how the outputs

of a logic system respond to a given input
combination of logic levels.

It lists all the possible input combinations of the

logic levels present and the corresponding output
logic levels.

Truth tables are typically used to describe the

behaviour of Combinational Logic circuits.

A truth table used to describe a N-input circuit

will have a 2N different input combinations.

In a 3-input truth table there are 8 different input

combinations.

In a 4-input truth table there are 16 different

input combinations.

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 6
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Question

How many possible input combinations will there

be in a truth-table that is used to describe a
combinational logic circuit with 6 inputs and 2
outputs?
(a) (b) (c)
A B x A B C x A B C D x
0 0 ? 0 0 0 ? 0 0 0 0 ? Truth Tables for
0 1 ? 0 0 1 ? 0 0 0 1 ? (a) two-input,
1 0 ? 0 1 0 ? 0 0 1 0 ? (b) three-input,
1 1 ? 0 1 1 ? 0 0 1 1 ? & (c) four-inputs.
1 0 0 ? 0 1 0 0 ?
1 0 1 ? 0 1 0 1 ?
1 1 0 ? 0 1 1 0 ?
1 1 1 ? 0 1 1 1 ?
1 0 0 0 ?
1 0 0 1 ?
1 0 1 0 ?
1 0 1 1 ?
1 1 0 0 ?
1 1 0 1 ?
1 1 1 0 ?
1 1 1 1 ?

Answer : There will be ____ input

combinations.

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 7
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Logic Gates
A logic gate is a two state device that relates the
outputs of a binary system to its input.

The fundamental logic gates are:

AND, OR and the NOT.

Any Digital circuit can be synthesized by using a

combination of these basic gates.

OR is also called Logical Addition or OR addition

Equation symbol used is a: + (plus sign)
AND is also known as Logical Multiplication or
AND multiplication.
Equation symbol for AND is: . (multiplication sign)

NOT is also called Logical Complementation or

inversion.
Equation symbol for NOT is:¯ (bar over the
variable names)

These three logic gates are the basic 'building

blocks' of both Combinational Logic and
Sequential Logic circuits.

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 8
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

OR Gate
• An OR gate has a minimum of 2 inputs.

• It has only 1 output.

Boolean equation

• The OR gate output is logic H or 1 whenever

any of its inputs is at logic H or 1.
• The output is only L when all its inputs are L.

Example of waveforms of input signals & output

response of a 2 input OR gate.

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 9
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

An Application example of the OR gate

Process of monitoring temperature & Pressure

The alarm is to be activated whenever the
Temperature OR Pressure exceeds a certain limit.

The temperature or pressure transducer produces an

electrical signal which is proportional to the respective
quantity monitored.

The amplitude of the signals are compared with a

reference value at the comparators. Whenever the
reference is exceeded, a logic High or 1 will be
produced.

The Alarm will thus be triggered if pressure OR

temperature OR both exceeds the reference value.

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 10
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

AND Gate
• An AND gate has a minimum of 2 inputs.
• It has only 1 output.

Boolean equation

• The AND gate output is at logic H or 1 only

when all its inputs are at logic H or 1.
• The AND output is Low or 0 when any of its
inputs is Low.
Question
For a 3-input AND gate, what will be its outputs
for the following input values?
Inputs -> 0 0 1, output = ______
Inputs -> 0 1 1, output = ______
& for inputs 1 1 1, output = ______

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 11
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

NOT Gate
• Is the simplest possible logic gate.

• Is also known as the inverter

• Has only one input and one output.

Boolean equation

• The NOT gate inverts or complements the input

logic level.

• A logic H or 1 applied at the input becomes a L

or 0 and conversely, a L applied becomes a H.

Example of input waveform and output response

from an OR gate.

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 12
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Describing Logic Circuits Algebraically

Any logic circuit can be described using the
boolean operations of OR, AND, and NOT
gates.
Two Examples:

An AND gate followed by an OR gate

An OR gate followed by an AND gate

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 13
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Circuits containing INVERTERs

In (a) above, inputs A and B are ORed together

with output INVERTED

In (b), inputs A and B are ORed together with A

input INVERTED.

Try this example: What is output Boolean

expression?

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 14
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

The Output Boolean expression of the circuit

shown previously is:

The Boolean Expression is obtained as follows:

"Working from input to output, each logic term (of the

final expression) is obtained progressively at the output
of each gate."

"For example, at the output of the first inverter, NOT A

is obtained and this variable is then combined with input
B at the 2-input AND gate to yield NOT A AND B."

"Progressing in this manner, the term at the output of

the 4-input AND gate is derived by ANDing NOT A AND
B with inputs C AND D. This intermediate product which
forms one part of the final expression, is applied to the
upper input of the output OR gate."

"Similarly, the other logic term which is applied at the

lower input of the final OR gate is likewise derived.
These 2 logic terms are then ORed together to yield the
Final Boolean expression."

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 15
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Evaluating Logic - Circuit Outputs

Given a logic circuit, the steps for evaluating or
determing the output logic state given a set of
input combinations, are:

Methodology

1 Obtain the Boolean expression.

2 Substitute each variable with the applied logic

state.

3 Perform all inversions of single terms.

4 Perform operations within parentheses.

5 Perform AND operation before OR operation

unless parentheses indicate otherwise.

6 If an expression has a bar over it, perform the

operation of the expression first and then
invert the result.

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 16
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Example

For the circuit shown below, evaluate the output

for A = 1, B = 1, C = 0 & D = 1.

1. First determine the Boolean expression which

is:

2. Substituting the variables with the input

logic levels, yields:

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 17
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Determining Output level from a Circuit Diagram

can be done without using the Boolean expression
as shown below:

In this case, the input logic levels are propagated

from the inputs to the output on a gate by gate
basis, i.e.

the output at each intermediate gate is evaluated

before it is considered as an input to the following
gate.

Question

If input D is changed to logic 0 will the output X

remains at the same logic 0 level?

Answer: Yes or No?

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 18
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Implementing Circuits from Boolean Expressions

To implement means to draw the circuit from the

given expression.

E.g. Implement the Boolean expression:

One approach is to draw the circuit starting

from the output (final) stage:

Working backwards, the inputs are then

derived.

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 19
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

NOR: Universal gate.

• Abbreviated from NOT-OR.
• Has one output & a minimum of 2 inputs.

• Is an OR gate connected to a NOT gate.

• The NOR gate output is H (or 1) only when all

its inputs is L (or 0).

• The NOR gate output is L when any of its inputs

is H.

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 20
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Questions:

1. Given: what is the output waveform X?

2. Complete the truth-table for a 3-input NOR

gate?

Inputs Output

A B C X

L L L

L L H

L H L

L H H

H L L

H L H

H H L

H H H

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 21
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Answers to Previous Questions

1.

2. Truth-table for 3-input NOR

Inputs Output

A B C X

L L L H

L L H L

L H L L

L H H L

H L L L

H L H L

H H L L

H H H L

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 22
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

NAND: Universal gate.

• Abbreviated from NOT-AND.
• Has only one output & a minimum of 2 inputs.

• Is derived from an AND gate in connected

cascade with a NOT gate.
• The NAND output is only L (or 0) when all its
inputs are H (or 1).

Question:
For a 3-input NAND gate, what is the output logic
level, if all the inputs are at logic High?

Answer:
The output will be L (or 0)

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 23
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Boolean Theorems
• Two groups:
Single variable and multi-variables theorems.

Single variable theorems:

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 24
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Multivariable Theorems:
• These theorems involve more than one
variable.

Theorems

x+y=y+x theorems 9 &

9 10 are the
10 x.y=y.x commutative
laws.

x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z = x+y+z theorems 11 &

11 12 are the
associative
12 x(yz) = (xy)z = xyz laws.

theorem 13 is
13a x(y + z) = xy + xz the distributive
law.
13b (w + x)(y + z) = wy+xy+wz+xz

14 x + xy = x

15a x + xy = x + y

15b x + xy = x + y

• Theorems 9 to 15 are similar to those found in

ordinary algebra.

• Theorems 14 and 15 have no equivalence in

ordinary algebra.

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 25
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Example: Simply the following Boolean equations.

Question:
Using the Boolean theorems, simply the
expression:

Express your Answer in the simplest form.

Answer: Z = AB + AD

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 26
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Schematically equivalent to:

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 27
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Universality of NAND and NOR Gates

All Boolean expressions can be implemented
using AND, OR, and NOT gates.

Since the AND, OR, and NOT functions can be

configured from the NAND function, then any
digital circuit can be implemented using only
NAND gates.

For this reason, the NAND gate is referred to as a

'Universal' gate.

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 28
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Similarly, NOR gates are also universal in that

any digital circuit can be implemented solely from
it.

Joining the inputs of a NOR gate together turns it

into a NOT gate.

A NOR followed by NOT is equivalent to the OR

function.

From DeMorgan’s theorems, inverting the inputs

to the NOR function is equivalent to the AND
function.

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 29
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Example:
Given a typical AND-OR circuit combination as
shown below:

Replacing each AND and OR gate with the

equivalent NAND gate configuration, yields:

By eliminating double inversions, a circuit

requiring only 3 NAND gates is obtained.

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 30
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Alternative Logic - Gate Representation

Alternate logic symbols are sometimes use in
place of the standard logic symbols.
These symbols when used appropriately, allows
the operation of a logic circuit to be determined
more readily.

Easy way to obtain alternate symbol is:

1. AND is replaced by OR & vice versa.
2. Bubbles at inputs &/or output are replaced
with no bubbles & vice versa.

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 31
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Example

To obtain the alternate symbol for a 3-input

NAND gate,

Conventional symbol of 3-input

NAND gate.

replace it with the OR symbol

complement its inputs and output.
This yields -->

Alternate symbols allows the operation of a logic

gate to be interpreted from a different
perspective.

Taking the NAND gate example, if the standard

symbol (bubble at the output) is used, the
operation can be described as :

• The output goes Low only when all inputs are

High.

If the alternate symbol (shown above) is used,

the gate operation would be described as:

• The output is High when any input is Low.

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 32
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

By judiciously using the appropriate symbols in a

digital circuit, be it the standard or alternate
symbol, the operation of the circuit can be made
more readily understandable.

Question
What is the alternate symbol of the OR gate?

Answer by selecting (a), (b), (c), (d)

Hint
• AND is replaced by OR and OR is replaced by
AND.
• Where there are ‘bubbles’, remove them.
• Where there are ‘no bubbles’, replaced with
‘bubbles’.

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 33
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Which Gate Representation to use?

A typical NAND implementation is shown below:

Output Z = AB . CD
Expression is logically correct but does not clearly
show the circuit operation.
Replacing NAND 3 with the equivalent symbol,

Double inversion between the NAND gates 1\2 &

NAND gate 3 is equivalent to no inversion:

The operation can now be easily determined.

Question
What logic levels are required at A B C D for
output Z to be = 1 ?

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 34
Singapore Polytechnic Digital Electronics

Answer:

A = H and B = H or,
C = H and D = H or,
All inputs = H
In order for Z to be H

DE Slides/Chpt 3 Ch 3 - 35