organisms belong to each species.

BIODIVERSITY
• It also refers to the similarity in numbers or equal
•Biodiversity is coined from the words “biological abundance of species in a particular area.
diversity”
• Species dominance: It refers to a dominant species
. •It describes how varied living things are in a certain distributed across a given area
area - plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms as well
as the community they form and the habitat they are GENETIC DIVERSITY
living in.
• It pertains to the difference in the genetic composition
•A particular kind of species of living things is typically
of each organism (e.g. Beagle, Shih Tzu, German
recognizable, being distinctly different from one another
Shepherd, Doberman) • Are all the same species but they
differ in the variety of their genes.
LEVEL OF BIODIVERSITY
ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY
1. Species Diversity
2. Genetic Diversity • It refers to the different kinds of places where
3. Ecosystem Diversity organisms live and the interconnections that bind these
organisms together (e.g. lakes, rivers, ponds are all
freshwater ecosystems.)
SPECIES DIVERSITY
TAXONOMY
It deals with the different kinds of organisms e.g.
dragonflies, sunflowers, dogs are all different species. • Is the science of classifying organisms to construct
internationally-shared classification systems with each
• A species is the fundamental unit of diversity.
organism placed into more and more inclusive
• It reflects the richness and evenness of abundance of groupings.
species in a certain place.
• It comes from the Greek words taxis meaning
• High diversity places consist of numerous kinds of arrangement, and nomos meaning laws.
species.
• Mainly about classifying, grouping, and naming of
• Low diversity places may be highly populated but organisms.
may not be diverse
CAROLUS LINNAEUS
MEASURES OF DIVERSITY
• The “father of taxonomy” since 1700’s.
• Species richness: is the simplest measurement of
• His two most important contributions to taxonomy
species diversity.
were:
• It relates to the number of species inhabiting a given
-The Hierarchical Taxonomic System of
area or habitat as shown
Classification
• Species evenness: It measures how many individual
 -The system of Binomial Nomenclature (a 2-part Common Name:
naming method)
Tiger
Specific Name:
Hierarchical Taxonomic System of Classification
Panthera – genus
Did (DOMAIN)eukarya Tigris – Species
Hierarchical Taxonomic System of Classification
King (KINGDOM)animalia Domain is the largest category into which organisms
have been classified.
Philip(PHYLUM)chordata Kingdom is the taxonomic rank after domain.

-the six-kingdom classification:

Come(CLASS)mommalia
Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protist, Fungi, Plant, and
Animal kingdoms.
Over(ORDER)primates
Phylum -consists of different classes.

For(FAMILY)hominidae -Each Class has several Orders, and each order has
different families.

Good(GENUS)homo -A Family consists of several Genera (sing. genus), with

each genus being composed of the smallest group of
various species.
Soup(SPECIES)sapiens
Species- a group of similar organisms and capable of
reproducing of their own kind.
SCIENTIFIC NAMES

Binomial Nomenclature

• Provides the identity of organisms and indicate their

Hierarchical Taxonomic Classification System
true nature.
DOMAIN EUKARYA (kingdom Animalia)
• The scientific name based on the binomial system of
classification is composed of two names, where the first VERTEBRATE animal with a backbone

name as based on its genus and second name refers to INVERTEBRATE animal without a backbone
the species where the organism belongs.
Invertebrates: Sponges (Phylum Porifera)
• Both names are in Latin or latinized.
• They live in shallow and deep oceans.
• Scientific names are written either italicized (e.g.,
• The young of sponges are motile, while adults are
Panthera leo) or underlined (e.g., Panthera leo), with
attached to solid materials like rocks.
only the first letter of the genus written in uppercase.
• The body of a hard sponge is supported by a “skeleton”
BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
composed of spicules, that are made of glasslike silica or called human roundworm), which is the most common
calcium carbonate. roundworm infection, and affects as many as one billion
people worldwide.
• A network of protein fibers supports soft sponges.
Invertebrates: Segmented Worms (Phylum Annelida)
Invertebrates: Cnidarians (Phylum Cnidaria)
• These worms are characterized by a segmented or
• Members of Phylum Cnidaria consist of animals
repeated body parts which enable them to move easily
whose tentacles contain stinging cells called
with flexibility.
nematocysts.
• Segmented worms include the common earthworm and
• Examples of these are jellyfish or sea jellies,
leeches.
corals, and sea anemones.
• They have a digestive system, nervous system, and
• Corals forms colonies of various colors and
circulatory system.
secrete a hard skeleton.
Invertebrates: Mollusks (Phylum Mollusca )
• These accumulate to form coral reefs which are of
great importance as they are one of the most worlds • These soft-bodied invertebrates are mostly covered
most productive ecosystem with shells.

Invertebrates: Flatworms (Phylum • They have complex respiratory, reproductive,

Platyhelminthes) circulatory, digestive, and excretory systems functioning
together for their survival.
• As their names suggest, they are flat and ribbonlike
organisms. • Mollusks consists of three classes: The Gastropods,
Bivalves and Cephalopods.
• Flatworms are found in freshwater, in wet places and
marine waters. Invertebrates: Mollusks (Phylum Mollusca )

• They include the free-living or nonparasitic worms, the • Gastropods, also called univalves and has only one
parasitic flukes, and the tapeworms group. shell.

• Planaria is an example of a free-living flatworms. • • Bivalves are mollusks consists of two shells attached
Tapeworms are also parasitic flatworms like flukes with to each other.
incomplete digestive system.
• The cephalopod group includes the squid and cuttlefish
with internal skeleton.

Invertebrates: Roundworms (Phylum Nematoda)

• Compared to flatworms, roundworms, also known as

nematodes, have long, cylindrical, and slender bodies.
Invertebrates: Echinoderms (Phylum
• A roundworm has a complete digestive system, which Echinodermata )
includes both a mouth and an anus.
• They are recognizable by their pentameric radial
• The roundworm digestive system also includes a large symmetry.
digestive organ known as the gut.
• They have a star-like appearance and are spherical or
• Example of roundworms. Ascaris lumbricoides (also elongated.
• They are exclusively marine animals and organisms are having a cartilaginous skeleton.
spiny-skinned.
• The class includes a diverse group of fishes including
• Examples of an echinoderm include a starfish, a sand sharks, rays, skates, and chimaeras.
dollar, a brittle star, a sea urchin, and a sea cucumber.
• They are mostly marine fishes.
Invertebrates: Arthropods (Phylum
FISHES (Phylum Chordata )
Arthropoda )
• The other group of fishes are bony fishes, which are
• Phylum Arthropoda is considered the most successful
included in the class Osteichthyes.
of all animal phyla as they are present in almost all types
of habitats. • These are cold-blooded animals with backbone and
are found in either saltwater or freshwater.
• Arthropods walk or crawl, some can fly, while others
swim in salty and freshwaters. AMPHIBIANS (Phylum Chordata )

• They have segmented body with a head, a thorax, and • Class Amphibia refers to coldblooded animals that live
abdomen segments. Appendages on at least one part in water and part on land, from which amphibians
segment. got their name.

• A nervous system and a hard exoskeleton made of • Most lay small, shell-less eggs surrounded by jellylike
chitin, which gives them physical protection and substance in wet places or in water.
resistance to drying out.
• These hatch into larvae with gills and tails
Invertebrates: Arthropods (Phylum Arthropoda )
AMPHIBIANS (Phylum Chordata )
• Examples of arthropods are Chelicerata: horseshoe
• The species in this group include frogs, toads,
crabs, spiders, scorpions, sea spiders and mites.
salamanders, and newts.
• Myriapoda: millipedes, centipedes, pauropods and
• All can breathe and absorb water through their very
symphylans (known as glasshouse symphylans or
thin skin
garden centipedes)
REPTILES (Phylum Chordata )
• Crustacea: brine shrimp, barnacles, lobsters, crabs,
shrimp and remipedes. • Class Reptilia include coldblooded animals that exhibit
more adaptations for living on land.
Vertebrates: Chordates (Phylum Chordata )
•Animals that belong to Phylum Chordata have four • They lay eggs with shells to protect them from drying

characteristics that are present in any stages in their life up.

cycle. • They even have smooth or rough scales that cover

•These are the notochord, the dorsal hollow nerve cord, their body to minimize loss of water.

gill slits, and a post-anal tail. • They include crocodiles, snakes, lizards, turtles, and

FISHES (Phylum Chordata ) tortoise.

• Fishes can be classified into either Class Osteichthyes BIRDS (Phylum Chordata )
or Class Chondricthyes. • Birds belong to Class Aves, and most are adapted to

• Include Chondrichthyes is a class of jawed fishes fly.

• Their adaptation for flight includes wings and feathers,
large flight muscles attached to their breastbone, and
reduced bone weight.

• Flightless birds are birds which cannot fly. They rely

on their ability to run or swim and have evolved from
their flying ancestors.

• These are Penguin, Ostrich, Kiwi, Kakapo and

Cassowary.
ARCHAEA DOMAIN ( Kingdom Archaebacteria)
MAMMALS (Phylum Chordata )
• Organisms of this kingdom are all microscopic,
• Class Mammalia differ from other animals because
meaning we cannot see them with our unaided eyes. •
they have mammary glands that produce milk to nourish
Archaebacteria has no nucleus and even organelles.
their young and most have hair or fur.
• Their genetic materials float freely in cytoplasm. •
• They inhale air, have fourchambered hearts and are
They live and settle in diverse places, some even in the
warm-blooded.
most extreme environments.
• Most of them also give birth to live young and care for
• Methanogens, halophiles, and thermophiles are
them (Campo et al. 2013, 228-264).
examples of Archaebacteria.

• Methanogens can survive in places where there is little

to no oxygen, like the digestive tracts of animals and
ponds.

•An important characteristic of this group is they

produce methane gas.

•Halophiles are adapted to very salty environments.

•Examples of halophiles are Haloccocus dombrowski
and Halobacterium salinarium

•Thermophiles can live in places with high temperature.

•These include volcanic hot springs with temperatures

from 80 to 110˚C

BACTERIA DOMAIN ( Kingdom Eubacteria)

• Members of Eubacteria are unicellular and

microscopic.

•They do not have true nucleus and organelles and are

regarded as the true bacteria.

•Their cell walls are made of peptidoglycan.

• Members of Domains Eubacteria and Archaebacteria

are called prokaryotes.
( Photoautotrophs)
DOMAIN EUKARYA

•Eukarya consists of organisms that have a true nucleus

and structures called organelles that are surrounded with
by membranes.

•Organisms in the domain Eukarya keep their genetic

material in a nucleus and include the plants, animals,
fungi, and protists. KINGDOM PROTISTA ( Heterotrophs)

DOMAIN EUKARYA ( Kingdom Protista) • Heterotrophs are those that obtain energy from organic
matter by feeding on other organisms.
• Members of Kingdom Protista come from unrelated
ancestors thus, this grouping is referred to by biologists • Some heterotrophic protists can also locomote by
as an artificial grouping. means of pseudopodia, cilia, or flagella, hence, they are
referred to as animal-like protists because of their
•They can be classified into three groups: plant-like,
heterotrophic and locomotory nature.
animal-like, and fungi-like protists.

•The grouping is based on their method of obtaining

energy and ability to locomote.

DOMAIN EUKARYA • Examples of these include Amoeba which uses

pseudopodia to locomote, Paramecium that uses cilia,
( Kingdom Protista)
and Trypanosoma that uses flagella.
1. Phototrophs (Plant-like)
KINGDOM PROTISTA ( Heterotrophs)
2. Heterotrophs (Animal-like)
3. Protozoan (Fungi-like)

KINGDOM PROTISTA ( Photoautotrophs)

• Photoautotrophs are like plants in that they have KINGDOM PROTISTA ( Heterotrophs)
chlorophyll, and they can produce their own food
• A group of protists called Sporozoa has members
through photosynthesis.
that are non-locomotory because of the absence of
• These protists are generally considered as plant-like. any locomotory structure.

• This group includes the algae, dinoflagellates, and • An example of this is Plasmodium, four species
euglenoids. of which are known causative agents of malaria.

• Some of them have the ability to locomote KINGDOM PROTISTA ( Protozoan)

(locomotory) like dinoflagellates that can cause red tide,
• The third group of protists are the fungi-like
while others are non-locomotory like the algae
protists that are classified based on their similarity
in characteristics to fungi in that they reproduce by
KINGDOM PROTISTA forming spores and are considered as saprotrophic.
• Saprobes or saprotrophs are organisms that derive
energy from organic matter, hence, they are
Vascular plants that have vascular tubes to
considered as heterotrophs. transport water and food.

Nonvascular Plants that don’t have vascular

KINGDOM PROTISTA ( Protozoan)
tubes.
• Examples of this are slime molds and water
molds. Both are known decomposers in their ANGIOSPERMS
habitats.
• Reproduction: Angiosperms reproduce with
DOMAIN EUKARYA ( Kingdom Fungi)
flowers.
• Fungi are eukaryotic, non-vascular, non-motile
• Seeds: Angiosperms have seeds that are enclosed
and heterotrophic organisms.
within fruits.
•They may be unicellular or filamentous.
• Flowers: Angiosperms have colorful and often
•They reproduce by means of spores and exhibit the fragrant flowers.
phenomenon of alternation of generation.
• Fruit Production: Angiosperms produce fruits,
• Fungi lack chlorophyll and hence cannot perform which are protective structures that develop from
photosynthesis. fertilized flowers.

• Diversity: Angiosperms are more diverse and

include a wide variety of plants, such as trees,
DOMAIN EUKARYA ( Kingdom Fungi)
shrubs, herbs, and grasses.
•Yeast is the type of fungi which exist as the single
cell, reproduce asexually, and are used in food,
beverages, etc.
ANGIOSPERMS (classified
according to their lifespan)
•On the other hand, molds are multicellular with
•Annual- live for a year or one growing season and
hyphae that makes the vegetative form of the
die.
fungus called mycelium and may function for the
absorption of nutrients. •Biennials- develop roots, stems, and leaves during
the first year, produce seeds on the second year then
DOMAIN EUKARYA ( Kingdom Fungi)
die.
•An important mold to mention is Penicillium
•Perennials- live for many years, usually producing
notatum, which is used in making penicillin, a drug
woody stems.
that kills diseasecausing bacteria.

DOMAIN EUKARYA GYMNOSPERMS

•Reproduction: Gymnosperms reproduce with
( Kingdom Plantae) cones.
 •Seeds: Gymnosperms have "naked" seeds that are
not enclosed in fruits.
ECOSYSTEM

•Flowers: Gymnosperms do not have flowers. •All organisms in a community plus abiotic factors.
•Fruit Production: Gymnosperms do not produce
- ecosystem are transformers of energy &
fruits.
processors of matter.
•Diversity: Gymnosperms are less diverse and are
•Ecosystem are self-sustaining.
mainly represented by evergreen trees
-capture energy

-transfer energy

-cycle nutrients.

•Every ecosystem includes both living and

nonliving factors.
BIOTIC Factors
ABIOTIC Factors

FOOD CHAIN
A food chain is a linear sequence of
organisms through which nutrients and
energy pass as one organism eats another.

Food Chain
•Plants are capable of converting energy from the
sun into chemical energy in the form of glucose.
They are called producers (autotrophs). The process
is called photosynthesis.

Humans and other animals depend on other

organisms to obtain energy. They are called
consumers (heterotrophs).

HERBIVORE animals that eat plants.

CARNIVORE animals that eat meat.

OMNIVORE animals that eat both plants and meat.

ENERGY TRANSFER THROUGH
•Decomposers
AN ECOSYSTEM
– act on the remains and excretion of all organisms
and reduce them to simplest forms so that they can • A food web shows an interlocking pattern
be reused. of food chains.
•Examples: Fungi and bacteria • It allows one to see the precise feeding
relationship among populations.
Organism that feeds directly on the producers is
called the first-order consumer. • It is very rare for an organism to feed only
on one type of food.
Organism that eats the first-order consumer is
referred to as the second-order consumer.
FOOD WEB
Those that eat the second-order consumers are the
third-order consumers and so on. • Energy does not flow in simple straight
paths.
•These orders of consumers, together with
the producers, constitute the trophic levels, • Animals often feed at different trophic
or level of energy transfer. •Those levels.
organisms at the top most trophic level in
BIG CONCEPT:
the pyramid are called apex consumers.
•The sun is the source of energy which is
TROPHIC LEVEL
being converted into biomass by the plants.
Is the position which an organism (having a
•As trophic level in the food pyramid
similar feeding mode) occupies in a food
increases, the biomass decreases.
chain.
•There should be stability in the
ENERGY PYRAMID environment to sustain and recycle biomass.
•The decreasing number of plants usually
• An energy pyramid, also known as a
can cause the drop of plant-eater population
trophic or ecological pyramid, is a graphical
due to scarcity of food.
representation of the energy found within
the trophic levels of an ecosystem. • Human activities such as illegal logging,
fishing and mining, as well as the
• The transfer of matter expressed as
conversion of agricultural and forest lands
biomass and the transfer of food energy
into industrial or residential uses can
from one trophic level to another is not
threaten the stability of the environment.
100%.
-Biomass is the total mass of organic
molecules minus water of an organism in a
food chain and food web.
• Only about 10% of energy are transferred
to the next trophic level.

FOOD WEB
 In respiration, animals and plants
breathe in oxygen during respiration.
Animals breathe in oxygen and give off
carbon dioxide. This happens day and
night. On the other hand, plants take in
carbon dioxide and give off oxygen
during photosynthesis.
In combustion, carbon returns to the
atmosphere through burning of fossil fuel
like coil, coal and emissions from
CYCLING OF MATERIALS IN automobiles and factories.
In decomposition, the dead organisms
THE ECOSYSTEM like plants and animals and waste
products decay into the ground.
Fungi and bacteria then breakdown this
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES organisms with the presence of oxygen and
releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
• The process by which the biotic (living Human activities such as deforestation and
things) and abiotic (nonliving things) factors burning of fossils contribute to carbon
interact with each other with the help of the dioxide emissions in the atmosphere
energy transferred from the sun to producers resulting to global warming.
to consumers in the ecosystem.
Trees play significant role in mitigating
• Oxygen-Carbon Cycle global warming by absorbing carbon
• Hydrologic/Water Cycle dioxide, that is why planting of trees and
other plants are necessary to reduce carbon
• Nitrogen Cycle
dioxide in the atmosphere.

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
OXYGEN-CARBON CYCLES
1. EVAPORATION
1. PHOTOSYNTHESIS 2. CONDENSATION
2. RESPIRATION 3. PRECIPITATION
3. COMBUSTION
The water goes into the atmosphere, through
4. DECOMPOSITION
evaporation and transpiration. In
In photosynthesis, green plants take in evaporation, the sun warms the surface of
carbon dioxide and water using the water in the oceans, rivers and lakes and
chlorophyll in their leaves and uses land.
energy from the sunlight to manufacture
The water now becomes water vapor and
their own food.
release into the atmosphere.
In transpiration, the water from the leaves
evaporates from the tiny opening of a leaf
NITROGEN CYCLE
called stomata.
Nitrogen comprises 78% of the earth’s atmosphere.
The cooler temperature in the troposphere
One of the many importance of nitrogen is for plant
causes the water vapor to lose its heat and
growth.
turn back to liquid water, which is known as
condensate, in the process called Through a series of nitrogentransformations,
Condensation. nitrogen is made available to plants.

A cloud forms as more water vapor Nitrates (N03), Nitrites (NO2), and Ammonium
condenses into water droplets. (NH4) are forms of nitrogen that results of the
nitrogen cycle.
Precipitation is water or liquid that forms in
the atmosphere that falls back to earth as There are five processes of Nitrogen cycle that
precipitates because of gravity, either in a happen in the environment.
rain, snow, hail, fog or sleet. The steps which are not necessarily sequential
include nitrogen fixation, nitrogen assimilation,
ammonification, nitrification, and
Infiltration is where some of the water
Denitrification.
from the rain seeps into the ground. The
`water soaks and becomes ground water Nitrogen fixation:
supply. Furthermore, some of the water run The inert form of nitrogen (N2) deposited in soil
off the river, lakes and oceans (surface and water caused by precipitation breaks down and
runoff). combines with hydrogen to form a more useful
Surface runoff occurs when water can no form of ammonia (NH3).
longer infiltrate the ground because of water The Nitrogen fixation process is promoted by the
of impermeable rocks or when the ground is symbiotic bacteria (called nitrogen fixing bacteria).
already saturated with water.
Nitrogen fixation :
Around 90% of water vapor came from
evaporation of water from big bodies of Common examples of these symbiotic are rhizobia
water like oceans, lakes and rivers. associated with nodule formulation, these plants
symbiotically with legumes ; and nitrogen -fixing
Animals do not contribute as much as plants bacteria mainly exist in neutral to alkaline soils,
but through breathing, perspiration and aquatic environment and some plants.
urination adds water vapor in the
atmosphere. When animals exhale, they Nitrification:
release water vapor, which contributes to the In this process, ammonia is transformed with the
amount of water that will undergo the water help of bacteria in the soil into a very useful form of
cycle. nitrogen, namely nitrate.

Initially, a bacterial nitrous body (Nitrosomonas)

promoted the oxidation of the ammonia to form
nitrite (NO2-)

With the help of other bacteria (Nitrobacter), nitrite

further converts nitrate.

Assimilation:
Available forms of nitrogenous compounds in the
soil are used by plants to form plant and animal
protein.

Ammonification:
The decomposition of organic matter by bacteria
allows the nitrogen present in the body of the
decomposing material to be converted into
ammonia (NH3) for use in other biological
processes.

Denitrification:
The process of returning nitrogen to the
atmosphere of. Under the action of denitrification
by bacterial species such as Clostridium and
Pseudomonas, nitrogen compounds such as nitrates
(NO3-) are converted into nitrogen (N2).