16.

543 Communication Theory I

Lecture Notes 10

Introduction to Spread Spectrum, CDMA and IS-95

Dr. Jay Weitzen

1
What is Spread Spectrum?

2
 Spread Spectrum Technology

„ Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading

can wipe out narrow band signals for duration of the
interference
„ Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad band
signal using a special code

interference
spread power signal
power signal spread
interference
detection at
receiver
f f

3
 Spread Spectrum Technology

„ Side effects:
• coexistence of several signals without dynamic
coordination
• tap-proof
„ Alternatives: Direct Sequence (DS/SS), Frequency Hopping
(FH/SS)
„ Spread spectrum increases BW of message signal by a factor
N, Processing Gain

Bss  Bss 
Processing Gain N = = 10 log10  
B  B 
4
Effects of spreading and interference

user signal
broadband interference
narrowband interference
P P

i) ii)
f f
P sender P P

iii) iv) v)
f f f
receiver

5
Spreading and frequency selective fading

channel
quality

2 narrowband
1 5 6
3 channels
4

Narrowband frequency
guard space
signal
channel
quality
2
2
2
2
2
1 spread spectrum
channels
spread frequency
spectrum
6
 DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) I

„ XOR the signal with pseudonoise (PN) sequence (chipping sequence)

„ Advantages
• reduces frequency selective Tb
fading
• in cellular networks user data
– base stations can use the 0 1 XOR
same frequency range Tc
– several base stations can chipping
detect and recover the signal sequence
0 1 1 0 10 1 0 1 1 010 1
„ But, needs precise power control =
resulting
signal
0 1 1 0 10 1 1 0 0 101 0

7
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) II

transmitter
Spread spectrum
Signal y(t)=m(t)c(t) transmit
user data signal
X modulator
m(t)
chipping radio
sequence, c(t) carrier

receiver correlators
sampled
received products data
sums
signal demodulator X integrator decision
radio
carrier
Chipping sequence,
c(t)
8
 DS/SS Comments III

„ Pseudonoise(PN) sequence chosen so that its autocorrelation is

very narrow => PSD is very wide
• Concentrated around τ < Tc
• Cross-correlation between two user’s codes is very small

9
 DS/SS Comments IV

„ Secure and Jamming Resistant

• Both receiver and transmitter must know c(t)
• Since PSD is low, hard to tell if signal present
• Since wide response, tough to jam everything
„ Multiple access
• If ci(t) is orthogonal to cj(t), then users do not interfere
„ Near/Far problem
• Users must be received with the same power

10
FH/SS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
I

„ Discrete changes of carrier frequency

• sequence of frequency changes determined via PN sequence
„ Two versions
• Fast Hopping: several frequencies per user bit (FFH)
• Slow Hopping: several user bits per frequency (SFH)
„ Advantages
• frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period
• uses only small portion of spectrum at any time
„ Disadvantages
• not as robust as DS/SS
• simpler to detect

11
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
II

Tb

user data

0 1 0 1 1 t
f
Td
f3 slow
f2 hopping
(3 bits/hop)
f1

Td t
f

f3 fast
f2 hopping
(3 hops/bit)
f1

t
Tb: bit period Td: dwell time

12
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
III

transmitter narrowband Spread transmit

signal signal
user data
modulator modulator

frequency hopping
synthesizer sequence
receiver

received data
signal demodulator demodulator

hopping frequency
sequence synthesizer

13
14
 Performance of DS/SS Systems

„ Pseudonoise (PN) codes

• Spread signal at the transmitter
• Despread signal at the receiver
„ Ideal PN sequences should be
• Orthogonal (no interference)
• Random (security)
• Autocorrelation similar to white noise (high at τ=0 and low for τ
not equal 0)

15
 PN Sequence Generation

„ Codes are periodic and generated by a shift register and XOR

„ Maximum-length (ML) shift register sequences, m-stage shift
register, length: n = 2m – 1 bits

R(τ)

τ −>
-1/n Tc nTc
-nTc

Output
+
16
 Generating PN Sequences

m Stages connected to modulo-

Output 2 adder
+ 2 1,2

3 1,3
„ Take m=2 =>L=3
„ cn=[1,1,0,1,1,0, . . .], usually 4 1,4
written as bipolar cn=[1,1,-
1,1,1,-1, . . .] 5 1,4

6 1,6
1
Rc (m ) =
L

∑
L n =1
cn cn + m
8 1,5,6,7

1 m=0
=
− 1 / L 1 ≤ m ≤ L − 1
17
 Problems with m-sequences

„ Cross-correlations with other m-sequences generated by different

input sequences can be quite high
„ Easy to guess connection setup in 2m samples so not too secure
„ In practice, Gold codes or Kasami sequences which combine the
output of m-sequences are used.

18
 Detecting DS/SS PSK Signals

transmitter
Spread spectrum
Signal y(t)=m(t)c(t) transmit
Bipolar, NRZ signal
m(t) X X

PN
sequence, c(t) sqrt(2)cos (ωct + θ)

receiver
received z(t) w(t) data
signal
X X LPF integrator decision
x(t)

sqrt(2)cos (ωct + θ) c(t)

19
 Optimum Detection of DS/SS PSK

„ Recall, bipolar signaling (PSK) and white noise give the optimum
error probability

„ Not effected by spreading

• Wideband noise not affected by spreading
2 Eb 
Pb = Q  
• Narrowband noise reduced by spreading
ℵ
 

20
 Signal Spectra

Bss  Bss  Tb
Processing Gain N = = 10 log10  =
B  B  Tc
„ Effective noise power is channel noise power plus jamming
(NB) signal power divided by N

Tb

Tc

21
 Multiple Access Performance

„ Assume K users in the same frequency band,

„ Interested in user 1, other users interfere

4 6

1
3 2

22
 Signal Model

„ Interested in signal 1, but we also get signals from other K-1 users:

„ At receiver,
xk ( t ) = 2 mk ( t − τ k ) ck ( t − τ k ) cos (ωc ( t − τ k ) + θ k )
= 2 mk ( t − τ k ) ck ( t − τ k ) cos (ωct + φk ) φk = θ k − ωcτ k

K
x ( t ) = x1 ( t ) + ∑ xk ( t )
k =2

23
 Interfering Signal

„ After mixing and despreading (assume τ1=0)

zk ( t ) = 2 mk ( t − τ k ) ck ( t − τ k ) c1 ( t ) cos (ωct + φk ) cos (ωct + θ1 )

„ After LPF

„ After the integrator-sampler

wk ( t ) = mk ( t − τ k ) ck ( t − τ k ) c1 ( t ) cos (φk − θ1 )

Tb
Ik = cos (φk − θ1 ) mk ( t − τ k ) ck ( t − τ k ) c1 ( t ) dt
∫
0

24
 At Receiver

„ m(t) =+/-1 (PSK), bit duration Tb

„ Interfering signal may change amplitude at τk

„ At User 1:
 τk Tb 
( )
cos φspreading
k =Ideally,
I„ k − θ1 b ∫0 (
t − τ k c1
−1 areckOrthogonal:
codes ) ( t ) dt +b0 ∫τ ck ( t − τ k ) c1 ( t ) dt 
 k 
Tb
I1 = ∫m1 ( t ) c1 ( t ) c1 ( t ) dt
0

Tb Tb
∫ c1 ( t ) c1 ( t ) dt = A ∫ ck ( t − τ k ) c1 ( t ) dt = 0
0 0

25
 Multiple Access Interference (MAI)

 1 
Pb = Q  

 ( K − 1) 3N +ℵ 2 Eb 

„ If the users are assumed to be equal power interferers, can be

analyzed using the central limit theorem (sum of IID RV’s)

26
Example of Performance Degradation

N=8 N=32

27
 Near/Far Problem (I)

„ Performance estimates derived using assumption that all users have

same power level
„ Reverse link (mobile to base) makes this unrealistic since mobiles are
moving
„ Adjust power levels constantly to keep equal

k 1

28
 Near/Far Problem (II)

 
(1) 
Pb = Q 
1 
K


 ∑ k =2 b
E ( k ) 3E (1) N +ℵ 2 E (1) 
b b 

„ K interferers, one strong interfering signal dominates performance

„ Can result in capacity losses of 10-30%

29
Multipath Propagation

30
 RAKE Receiver

„ Received signal sampled at the rate 1/Ts> 2/Tc for detection and
synchronization
„ Fed to all M RAKE fingers. Interpolation/decimation unit provides a data
stream on chiprate 1/Tc
„ Correlation with the complex conjugate of the spreading sequence and
weighted (maximum-ratio criterion)summation over one symbol

31
 RAKE Receiver

„ RAKE Receiver has to estimate:

• Multipath delays
• Phase of multipath components
• Amplitude of multipath components
• Number of multipath components
„ Main challenge is receiver synchronization in fading channels

32
Case Study: Spread Spectrum and CDMA in
IS-95 Cellular Systems

Adapted from Slides from Scott Baxter and others.

33
 Multiplexing

channels ki
„ Multiplexing in 4 dimensions
• space (si) k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

• time (t)
c
• frequency (f)
t c
• code (c)
t
„ Goal: multiple use
s1
f
of a shared medium s2
f
c
„ Important: guard spaces needed!
t

s3
f

34
 Frequency multiplex

„ Separation of spectrum into smaller frequency bands

„ Channel gets band of the spectrum for the whole time
„ Advantages:
• no dynamic coordination needed k3 k4 k5 k6

• works also for analog signals

c
„ Disadvantages: f
• waste of bandwidth
if traffic distributed unevenly
• inflexible
• guard spaces

35
 Time multiplex

„ Channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount

of time
„ Advantages:
• only one carrier in the
medium at any time
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
• throughput high even c
for many users
f
„ Disadvantages:
• precise
synchronization
necessary
t

36
 Time and frequency multiplex

„ A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount

of time (e.g. GSM)
„ Advantages:
• better protection against tapping
• protection against frequency
selective interference
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
• higher data rates compared to
code multiplex c
f
„ Precise coordination
required

37
 Code multiplex

k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

„ Each channel has unique code c

„ All channels use same spectrum at same time
„ Advantages:
• bandwidth efficient
• no coordination and synchronization
f
• good protection against interference
„ Disadvantages:
• lower user data rates
• more complex signal regeneration
t
„ Implemented using spread spectrum technology

38
 Multiple Access Technologies/Summary
FDMA

Power
• FDMA (example: AMPS) nc
y
u e
T im eq
• Frequency Division Multiple Access e Fr

• each user has a private frequency

TDMA
• TDMA (examples: IS-54/136, GSM)
• Time Division Multiple Access Power
y
• each user has a private time on a private Ti m qu
e nc
frequency e Fr e

• CDMA (IS-95, J-Std. 008) CDMA

• Code Division Multiple Access
• users co-mingle in time and frequency Power

but each user has a private code e nc

y
Tim u
e F req

39
 CDMA: Using A New Dimension

„ All CDMA users occupy the same frequency CDMA

at the same time! Frequency and time are
not used as discriminators
„ CDMA operates by using CODING to
discriminate between users
„ CDMA interference comes mainly from
nearby users
„ Each user is a small voice in a roaring
crowd -- but with a uniquely recoverable Figure of Merit: C/I
code (carrier/interference ratio)
AMPS: +17 dB
TDMA: +14 to +17 dB
GSM: +7 to 9 dB.
CDMA: -10 to -17 dB.
CDMA: Eb/No ~+6 dB.

40
 DSSS Spreading: Time-Domain View
Input A: User’s Data Originating Site
At Originating Site: 1
• Input A: User’s Data @ Input B: Spreading Code
XOR
19,200 bits/second Exclusive-OR
Gate
• Input B: Walsh Code #23
@ 1.2288 Mcps
• Output: Spread Spread Spectrum Signal
spectrum signal

via air interface Input A: Received Signal Destination Site

• At Destination
Site: Input B: Spreading Code
XOR
Exclusive-OR
• Input A: Received Gate

spread spectrum signal

• Input B: Walsh Code #23 Output: User’s Original Data
@ 1.2288 Mcps
• Output: User’s Data @ 1
19,200 bits/second just
as originally sent
Drawn to actual scale and time alignment

41
 Spreading from a Frequency-Domain View

TRADITIONAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM

Spread Spectrum
Narrowband
„ Traditional technologies try Slow Signal Slow
to squeeze signal into Information
Sent
Information
Recovered
minimum required TX RX
bandwidth
„ CDMA uses larger SPREAD-SPECTRUM SYSTEM
bandwidth but uses Wideband
resulting processing gain to Slow
Signal
Slow
increase capacity Information
Sent
Information
Recovered
TX RX

Fast Fast
Spreading Spreading
Sequence Sequence

Spread Spectrum Payoff:

Processing Gain

42
 CDMA Uses Code Channels

Building a
„ A CDMA signal uses many chips to convey just CDMA Signal
one bit of information
„ Each user has a unique chip pattern, in effect a Bits
code channel from User’s Vocoder

„ To recover a bit, integrate a large number of chips

interpreted by the user’s known code pattern Forward Error
Correction
„ Other users’ code patterns appear random and
integrate in a random self-canceling fashion, don’t Symbols
disturb the bit decoding decision being made with
the proper code pattern
Coding and
Spreading
Chips

43
 CDMA: The Code “Magic” “behind the Veil”
QPSK RF

Users Σ Summing
Analog
BTS

Demodulated
Received
CDMA Signal
1
Despreading Sequence
if 0 = (Locally Generated, =0) Decision:
if 1 =
Received energy: Correlation Matches!
matches (=0) 1
Σ
+10

opposite -26
Opposite
Time ( =1)
Integration
-16
This figure illustrates the basic technique of
CDMA signal generation and recovery.
The actual coding process used in IS-95 CDMA includes
a few additional layers, as we’ll see in following slides.
44
 Spreading: What we do, we can undo

ORIGINATING SITE DESTINATION

Spread Data Stream

Input Recovered
Data Data

Spreading Spreading
Sequence Sequence

„ Sender combines data with a fast spreading sequence, transmits

spread data stream
„ Receiver intercepts the stream, uses same spreading sequence
to extract original data

45
 “Shipping and Receiving” via CDMA

Shipping Receiving

FedEx

FedEx
Data Mailer Mailer Data

„ Whether in shipping and receiving, or in CDMA, packaging is

extremely important!
„ Cargo is placed inside “nested” containers for protection and to
allow addressing
„ The shipper packs in a certain order, and the receiver unpacks in
the reverse order
„ CDMA “containers” are spreading codes

46
 CDMA’s Nested Spreading Sequences

ORIGINATING SITE DESTINATION

Spread-Spectrum Chip Streams
X+A X+A+B X+A+B+C X+A+B X+A

Input Recovered
Data Data
X X

Spreading Spreading Spreading Spreading Spreading Spreading

Sequence Sequence Sequence Sequence Sequence Sequence
A B C C B A
„ CDMA combines three different spreading sequences to create
unique, robust channels
„ The sequences are easy to generate on both sending and receiving
ends of each link
„ “What we do, we can undo”

47
 One of the CDMA Spreading Sequences:
Walsh Codes
WALSH CODES
# ---------------------------------- 64-Chip Sequence ------------------------------------------
0 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
1 0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
2 0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011

„ 64 “Magic” Sequences, each 64 chips long 3

4
5
6
0110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110
0000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111
0101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010
0011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100
7 0110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001

„ Each Walsh Code is precisely Orthogonal 8

9
10
0000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000000011111111
0101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101010110101010
0011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011001111001100

with respect to all other Walsh Codes

11 0110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110011010011001
12 0000111111110000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000
13 0101101010100101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101
14 0011110011000011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011
15 0110100110010110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110

• it’s simple to generate the codes, or

16 0000000000000000111111111111111100000000000000001111111111111111
17 0101010101010101101010101010101001010101010101011010101010101010
18 0011001100110011110011001100110000110011001100111100110011001100
19 0110011001100110100110011001100101100110011001101001100110011001
20 0000111100001111111100001111000000001111000011111111000011110000

• they’re small enough to use from ROM 21

22
23
24
0101101001011010101001011010010101011010010110101010010110100101
0011110000111100110000111100001100111100001111001100001111000011
0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110
0000000011111111111111110000000000000000111111111111111100000000
25 0101010110101010101010100101010101010101101010101010101001010101
26 0011001111001100110011000011001100110011110011001100110000110011
27 0110011010011001100110010110011001100110100110011001100101100110
28 0000111111110000111100000000111100001111111100001111000000001111

Unique Properties:
29 0101101010100101101001010101101001011010101001011010010101011010
30 0011110011000011110000110011110000111100110000111100001100111100
31 0110100110010110100101100110100101101001100101101001011001101001
32 0000000000000000000000000000000011111111111111111111111111111111

Mutual Orthogonality
33 0101010101010101010101010101010110101010101010101010101010101010
34 0011001100110011001100110011001111001100110011001100110011001100
35 0110011001100110011001100110011010011001100110011001100110011001
36 0000111100001111000011110000111111110000111100001111000011110000
37 0101101001011010010110100101101010100101101001011010010110100101
38 0011110000111100001111000011110011000011110000111100001111000011
39 0110100101101001011010010110100110010110100101101001011010010110
40 0000000011111111000000001111111111111111000000001111111100000000
41 0101010110101010010101011010101010101010010101011010101001010101
42 0011001111001100001100111100110011001100001100111100110000110011

EXAMPLE: 43
44
45
0110011010011001011001101001100110011001011001101001100101100110
0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111
0101101010100101010110101010010110100101010110101010010101011010
46 0011110011000011001111001100001111000011001111001100001100111100
47 0110100110010110011010011001011010010110011010011001011001101001

Correlation of Walsh Code #23 with Walsh Code #59 48

49
50
0000000000000000111111111111111111111111111111110000000000000000
0101010101010101101010101010101010101010101010100101010101010101
0011001100110011110011001100110011001100110011000011001100110011
51 0110011001100110100110011001100110011001100110010110011001100110
52 0000111100001111111100001111000011110000111100000000111100001111
#23 0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110 53 0101101001011010101001011010010110100101101001010101101001011010
54 0011110000111100110000111100001111000011110000110011110000111100
#59 0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001 55 0110100101101001100101101001011010010110100101100110100101101001
56 0000000011111111111111110000000011111111000000000000000011111111
Sum 0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111 57 0101010110101010101010100101010110101010010101010101010110101010
58 0011001111001100110011000011001111001100001100110011001111001100
59 0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001
60 0000111111110000111100000000111111110000000011110000111111110000

Correlation Results: 32 1’s, 32 0’s: Orthogonal!! 61

62
0101101010100101101001010101101010100101010110100101101010100101
0011110011000011110000110011110011000011001111000011110011000011
63 0110100110010110100101100110100110010110011010010110100110010110

48
 Other Sequences: Generation & Properties
An Ordinary Shift Register
„ Other CDMA sequences are
generated in shift registers
Sequence repeats every N chips,
„ Plain shift register: no fun, where N is number of cells in register
sequence = length of register
A Tapped, Summing Shift Register
„ Tapped shift register generates a
wild, self-mutating sequence 2N-1
chips long (N=register length) Sequence repeats every 2N-1 chips,
• Such sequences match if where N is number of cells in register
compared in step (no-brainer,
A Special Characteristic of Sequences
any sequence matches itself) Generated in Tapped Shift Registers
• Such sequences appear Compared In-Step: Matches Itself
approximately orthogonal if Sequence:

compared with themselves not Self, in sync:

Sum: Complete Correlation: All 0’s
exactly matched in time
Compared Shifted: Little Correlation
• false correlation typically <2% Sequence:
Self, Shifted:
Sum: Practically Orthogonal: Half 1’s, Half 0’s

49
 Another CDMA Spreading Sequence:
The Short PN Code

32,768 chips long

26-2/3 ms. CDMA QPSK Phase Modulator
(75 repetitions in 2 sec.) Using I and Q PN Sequences
I
Q I-sequence cos ωt

QPSK-
chip modulated
„ The short PN code consists of two Σ RF
input
PN Sequences, I and Q, each Output
32,768 chips long
• Generated in similar but Q-sequence * sin ωt
differently-tapped 15-bit shift
registers * In BTS, I and Q are used in-phase.
In handset, Q is delayed 1/2 chip to
• They’re always used together, avoid zero-amplitude crossings which
modulating the two phase axes would require a linear power amplifier
of a QPSK modulator

50
 Third CDMA Spreading Sequence: Long Code
Generation & Masking to establish Offset
Long Code Register
(@ 1.2288 MCPS)

AND Public Long Code Mask

1100011000 PERMUT ED ESN

SUM
= (STATIC)

User Long Code

Modulo-2 Addition Sequence
(@1.2288 MCPS)
„ Generated in a 42-bit register, the PN Long code is more than 40 days
long (~4x1013 chips) -- too big to store in ROM in a handset, so it’s
generated chip-by-chip using the scheme shown above
„ Each handset codes its signal with the PN Long Code, but at a unique
offset computed using its ESN (32 bits) and 10 bits set by the system
• this is called the “Public Long Code Mask”; produces unique shift
• private long code masks are available for enhanced privacy
„ Integrated over a period even as short as 64 chips, phones with different
PN long code offsets will appear practically orthogonal
51
 Putting it All Together: CDMA Channels
FORWARD CHANNELS

LONG CODE:
Data WALSH CODE: Individual User
Scrambling SHORT PN OFFSET: Sector

REVERSE CHANNELS
WALSH CODES:
used as symbols
LONG CODE OFFSET: for robustness
individual handset SHORT PN:
BTS used at 0 offset
for tracking

„ The three spreading codes are used in different ways to create the
forward and reverse links
„ A forward channel exists by having a specific Walsh Code
assigned to the user, and a specific PN offset for the sector
„ A reverse channel exists because the mobile uses a specific offset
of the Long PN sequence
52
 Other Technologies:
Recovering the Signal / Avoiding Interference

AMPS-TDMA-GSM
„ In conventional radio technologies, the 1

desired signal must be strong enough to 4 1

override any interference 6

7 2
7
3
„ AMPS, TDMA and GSM depend on 1 5 6
4 5
physical distance separation to keep 2
1
4 1
interference at low levels 3 7 2
6 3
„ Co-channel users are kept at a safe 1 5
distance by careful frequency planning 1

„ Nearby users and cells must use different

frequencies to avoid interference Figure of Merit: C/I
(carrier/interference ratio)
AMPS: +17 dB
TDMA: +14 to 17 dB
GSM: +7 to 9 dB.

53
 C/I and Frequency Reuse
• The Carrier-to-Interference ratio, “C/I”,
is a primary quality statistic in every
wireless technology
• All wireless technologies depend on
frequency reuse to multiply capacity
• If the radio signal is delicate, a high C/I
is required and cells sharing the same
frequency must be physically far apart
• If the radio signal is robust, or uses B D
special techniques to distinguish users,
then cells sharing the same A C
frequencies can be closer without ill
effects.

Tech- Modulation Channel Quality Sites A B C D

nology Type Bandwidth Indicator
AMPS Analog FM 30 kHz. C/I ≅ 17 dB
NAMPS Analog FM 10 kHz. C/I ≅ 17 dB
-50
DAMPS DQPSK 30 kHz. C/I ≅ 17 dB
GSM GMSK 200 kHz. C/I ≅ 6-9 dB RSSI,
CDMA QPSK, OQPSK 1,250 kHz. Eb/No ≅ 6dB dBm C/I
-120

54
 Wireless Technologies: A Summary
MAJOR TECHNOLOGIES DEPLOYED IN NORTH AMERICA
Standards First Modul- Service Band- Users/
Technology
Documents Used ation Types width Carrier
AMPS EIA/TIA 553 Analog
Advanced IS-19 mobile 1983 FM Voice 30 1
Mobile Phone IS-20 base sta. 17 dB C/I kHz
Service
NAMPS Analog
Voice 10
Narrowband IS-88 1990 FM 1
SMS kHz
AMPS 17 dB C/I
Voice
D-AMPS IS-54B 1993 Digital Data 3
Digital AMPS DQPSK 30 (6 in
North American 14 dB C/I +CAVE kHz future?)
TDMA IS-136 1995 (fragile) +DCCH
+SMS
GSM ETSI/TIA/ITU Digital Voice 8
European multiple 1992 GMSK SMS 200 (16 in
2nd-Generation documents 6 dB C/I Cell Bcst kHz future?)
TDMA (robust) frq hop’g
IS-95B, Digital Voice
CDMA SMS 1250 22 8kb
Code Division Joint Std. 008, 1995 QPSK
Spread Data kHz 17 13kb
Multiple Access + features stds Spectrum +more

55
 Major Global Analog Wireless Technologies

AMPS NAMPS
TACS NMT450 NMT900 C-450
IS553 IS-91
Frequency Band 800 800 900 450 900 450
Channel Spacing 30 kHz. 10 kHz. 25 25 12.5 20
Speech Modulation FM FM FM FM FM FM
Freq. Deviation 12 kHz. 5 kHz. 9.5 5.0 5.0 4.0
Signaling Modulation [Link] [Link] [Link] [Link] [Link] [Link]
Signalling Bit Rate 10 kb/s 10 kb/s 8 kb/s 1200 b/s 1200 b/s 5280 b/s
Overlay Signalling? no no no no no yes
Paging/Access CCH (f) CCH (f) CCH (f) CCH (f) CCH (f) CCH (f)
In-Call Supervision SAT DSAT SAT ? ? overlay
In-Call Control ST DSAT ST ? ? overlay
Call Control ST DSAT ST ? ? overlay
Handoff Logic BTSLCR BTSLCR BTSLCR BTSLCR BTSLCR BTSLCR

56
 Major Global Digital Wireless Technologies
GSM, D-AMPS
CDMA Japan
DCS1800 IS-54 IS-95
PCS1900 IS-136 JStd008 PDC CT-2 DECT
Access Method TDMA TDMA CDMA TDMA TDMA TDMA
900 800 800 8/900
Frequency Band(s) 1800 865 1880
1900 1900* 1900 1400

Channel Spacing 200 30, 50* x 50/25i 100 1728

Modulation type GMSK DQPSK QPSK DQPSK GFSK GFSK
Signal Bandwidth 200+ 30 1250+ 50 100 1800
Signalling Modulation GMSK DQPSK QPSK DQPSK GFSK GFSK
Transmission, kb/s ~240 ~44 1229ss 42 72 1152
Paging/Access ch. CCH (t) CCH(f) CCH(c) CCH(f) BCH BCH
Signalling kb/s ~30 ~44 9.6 x 32 32
Info kb/s 14.4 x 9.6,14.4 11.2 32 32
Info frames/s ~200 50 50 50 packets 100
TCH, TCH, ACCH
In-Call signalling SDCCH
TCH
SACCH
hybrid hybrid
SACCH
Handoff Logic MAHO MAHO+ MDHO ? ? MDHO

57
 Spectrum Usage and System Capacity:
Signal Bandwidth, C/I and Frequency Reuse
AMPS, D-AMPS, N-AMPS
Each wireless technology 1 3 1 Users 2
(AMPS, NAMPS, D-AMPS, 7 3
1
GSM, CDMA) uses a specific Vulnerability:
6
5
4
modulation type with its own C/I ≅ 17 dB
unique signal characteristics 30 30 10 kHz Bandwidth
„ Signal Bandwidth Typical Frequency Reuse N=7
GSM
determines how many RF
signals will “fit” in the
operator’s licensed 8 Users
Vulnerability:
1
2
C/I ≅ 6.5-9 dB
spectrum 4
3

„ Robustness of RF signal 200 kHz

determines tolerable level of Typical Frequency Reuse N=4
interference and necessary
physical separation of CDMA Vulnerability: 1
EbNo ≅ 6 dB 1 1
cochannel cells 1
1 1
„ Number of users per RF 22 Users 1 1
1 1
signal directly affects 1
capacity 1250 kHz
1
1
1

Typical Frequency Reuse N=1

58
Capacity Comparison of Wireless Technologies:
800 MHz. Cellular Applications

Band 800 (A,B)

Fwd or Rev Spectrum 12.5 MHz
Technology AMPS TDMA CDMA
Req’d C/I or Eb/No, dB 17 17 6
Freq Reuse Factor N 7 7 1
RF Signal BW, kHz 30 30 1250
Total # RF Signals 416 416 9
RF Sigs per Cell @ N 59 59 9
# Sectors per Cell 3 3 3
# CCH per Sector 1 1 0
RF Signals per Sector 18 18 8
Voicepaths/RF Signal 1 3 17
Voicepaths per Sector 18 54 136
P.02 Erlangs per Sector 11.5 44 123.1
Voicepaths per Site 54 162 408
P.02 Erlangs per Site 34.5 132 369.3
Capacity vs AMPS @800 1 3.8 10.7

59
Capacity Comparison of Wireless Technologies:
1900 MHz. PCS Applications

Band 800 (A,B) 1900 (A,B,C) 1900 (D,E,F)

Fwd or Rev Spectrum 12.5 MHz 15 MHz 5 MHz
Technology AMPS TDMA CDMA TDMA GSM CDMA TDMA GSM CDMA
Req’d C/I or Eb/No, dB 17 17 6 17 6.5-9 6 17 6.5-9 6
Freq Reuse Factor N 7 7 1 7 4 1 7 4 1
RF Signal BW, kHz 30 30 1250 30 200 1250 30 200 1250
Total # RF Signals 416 416 9 500 75 11 166 25 3
RF Sigs per Cell @ N 59 59 9 71 18 11 23 8 3
# Sectors per Cell 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
# CCH per Sector 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
RF Signals per Sector 18 18 8 22 6 11 6 2 3
Voicepaths/RF Signal 1 3 17 3 7.5 17 3 7.5 17
Voicepaths per Sector 18 54 136 66 45 187 18 15 51
P.02 Erlangs per Sector 11.5 44 123.1 55.3 35.6 173.3 11.5 9.01 41.2
Voicepaths per Site 54 162 408 198 135 561 54 45 153
P.02 Erlangs per Site 34.5 132 369.3 165.9 106.8 519.9 34.5 27.0 123.6
Capacity vs AMPS @800 1 3.8 10.7 4.8 3.1 15.1 1.0 0.78 3.6

60
 CDMA Capacity Today: Single Carrier
• One-carrier operation is used by most CDMA
CDMA Carrier Frequencies systems during initial deployment
• operators’ initial traffic needs are light
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011
• manufacturers are still working to develop
practical multi-carrier BTS
f
• One-carrier operation is wasteful
One Carrier, • poor trunking efficiency with just one carrier
One BTS Cabinet • not using all of available spectrum
• Cellular: 5-6 carriers possible
• PCS A,B,C: 11 carriers possible
• PCS D,E,F: 3 carriers possible

One-Carrier Capacity Per Sector & BTS

•Assumptions: One sector/one carrier can support
13 originations, 9 users in soft handoff
•Capacity: very conservatively, 13 trunks (SH users
don’t count; their erlangs already counted on other
BTS or sectors)
•From Erlang-B tables, 13 trunks, P.02, 7.4 erlangs
•3 sectors x 7.4 erlangs = 22.2 erlangs total BTS

December, 1997 CDMA BSM, BSC, BTS 61

31
 Future CDMA Capacity: Multiple Carriers
• Multi-carrier operation is necessary to realize the
CDMA Carrier Frequencies true capacity potential of CDMA
• uses all of available spectrum
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 • Cellular: 5-6 carriers possible
• PCS A,B,C: 11; D,E,F: 3 carriers
f possible
• All carriers work together as a “pool” and new calls
Today: for 11 Carriers, may be assigned by the system to any carrier
11 BTS Cabinets! • Allows high-capacity applications
• system expansion without cell splitting
• costs competitive with wireline systems
• wireless local loop applications
• Multi-carrier operation faces major issues
• TX combiners or multicarrier linear amplifiers
• Innovative use of beacons and other
techniques to stimulate required hard handoffs
Number of Carriers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Orig. per Sector/Carrier 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13

Total Voice Paths/Sector 13 26 39 52 65 78 91 104 117 130 143

Total Erlangs per Sector 7.4 18.4 30.1 42.1 54.4 66.8 79.3 91.9 105 117 130

Total Erlangs per BTS 22.2 55.2 90.3 126 163 200 238 276 313 352 390

December, 1997 CDMA BSM, BSC, BTS 62

32
 CDMA Interference & Capacity Environments
0. 01 %
0. 01 % 0. 01 %
0. 01 % 0. 03 % 0. 01 %
0. 01 % 0. 03 % 0. 03 % 0. 01 %
0. 01 % 0. 03 % 0.2% 0. 03 % 0. 01 % 100%
0. 03 % 0.2% 0.2% 0. 03 %
0. 01 % 0.2% 6%
1 X 60 = 60
0.2% 0. 01 %
6%
0. 03 % 6% 0. 03 %
6 X 6 = 36
0. 01 % 0.2% 60% 0.2% 0. 01 %
0. 03 % 6% 6% 0. 03 % 12 X 0.2 = 2.4
0. 01 % 0.2% 6% 0.2% 0. 01 % ISOLATED CELL IN
18 X 0.03 = 0.54
0. 03 % 0.2% 0.2% 0. 03 %
RURAL AREA
0. 01 % 0. 03 % 0.2% 0. 03 % 0. 01 %
24 X 0.01 = 0.24
0. 01 % 0. 03 % 0. 03 % 0. 01 % 0. 01 % 0. 00 %
0. 01 % 0. 03 % 0. 01 % TOTAL = 99.18 % 0.1% 0. 01 % 0. 01 %
0. 01 % 0. 01 % 0.1% 0.1% 0. 03 %
0. 01 % 0.1% 1% 0.2% 0. 00 %
0. 01% 1% 6% 0. 01 %

HOMOGENEOUS URBAN AREA 0.1% 80% 0.1%

0. 01 % 6% 1% 0. 01 %
0. 00 % 0.2% 1% 0.1%
0. 01 % 0.1% 0.1%
0. 01 % 0. 01 % 0.1%

0. 00 % 0. 01 %

ALONG A HIGHWAY
63
 CDMA PCS 1900 MHz Spectrum Usage
Guard Bands
Paired Bands
Licensed Licensed
Channel
Numbers Unlicensed

1199

1199
299
300

400

699
700

800
900

299
300

400

699
700

800

900
0

0
B B B B B B
MTA MTA BTA Data Voice MTA MTA BTA
T T T T T T
A A A A A A

A D B E F C A D B E F C
15 5 15 5 5 15 10 10 15 5 15 5 5 15
1850 1910 1930 1990
MHz Reverse link (i.e., mobile transmits) MHz MHz Forward link (i.e., cell site transmits) MHz

„ A, B, and C licenses can accommodate 11 CDMA RF channels in

their 30 MHz of spectrum
„ D, E, and F licenses can accommodate 3 CDMA RF channels in
their 10 MHz of spectrum
„ 260 kHz guard bands are required on the edges of the PCS
spectrum to ensure no interference occurs with other applications
just outside the spectrum

64
 Code Channels in the Forward Direction
Switch BSC BTS (1 sector) Short PN Code
PN Offset 246
Walsh #0 I Q
Pilot FEC
Trans-
Walsh #32 mitter,
Sync FEC Sector X

Walsh #1
Paging FEC
A Forward Channel
Walsh #12 is identified by:
Vocoder FEC
Walsh #23
Σ ™ its CDMA RF
carrier Frequency
Vocoder FEC ™ the unique Short
Walsh #27 Code PN Offset of
Vocoder FEC the sector
™ the unique Walsh
Walsh #44
Vocoder FEC Code of the user

more more more

65
 Functions of the CDMA Forward Channels

Pilot Walsh 0 „ PILOT: WALSH CODE 0

Paging Walsh 1 • The Pilot is a “structural beacon” which
does not contain a character stream. It is a
Walsh 6 timing source used in system acquisition
and as a measurement device during
Walsh 11 handoffs
Walsh 19 „ SYNC: WALSH CODE 32
• This carries a data stream of system
Walsh 20 identification and parameter information
used by mobiles during system acquisition
Sync Walsh 32
„ PAGING: WALSH CODES 1 up to 7
Walsh 37 • There can be from one to seven paging
Walsh 41 channels as determined by capacity needs.
They carry pages, system parameters
Walsh 42 information, and call setup orders

Walsh 55 „ TRAFFIC: any remaining WALSH codes

• The traffic channels are assigned to
Walsh 56 individual users to carry call traffic. All
remaining Walsh codes are available,
Walsh 60 subject to overall capacity limited by noise

66
 Code Channels in the Reverse Direction
Switch BSC BTS (1 sector)
(Access A Reverse Channel is identified by:
Manager) Long Code Gen ™ its CDMA RF carrier Frequency
Access Channels Channel Element ™ the unique Long Code PN Offset
of the individual handset
Long Code Gen Long
Code
Vocoder Channel Element
Long
Receiver, Code
Long Code Gen Sector X
Vocoder Channel Element

Long Code Gen

Long Long
Vocoder Channel Element Code Code
Long
Code
Long
Long Code Gen Code
Vocoder Channel Element

more more more

67
 Functions of the CDMA Reverse Channels
There are two types of CDMA Reverse Channels:

„ TRAFFIC CHANNELS are used by individual users

during their actual calls to transmit traffic to the BTS
• a reverse traffic channel is defined by a user-
specific public or private Long Code mask
• there are as many reverse Traffic Channels as
there are CDMA phones in the world
BTS „ ACCESS CHANNELS are used by mobiles not yet in a
call to transmit registration requests, call setup
requests, page responses, order responses, and other
signaling information
• an access channel is defined by a public long
REG
code mask specific to the BTS sector
• Access channels are paired with Paging 1-800
Channels. There can be up to 32 access 242
4444
channels per paging channel

68
 Basic CDMA Network Architecture

Switch Access Manager BTS

GPS or BSC/BSM GPS
GPSR
SLM CM GPSR
BSM CDSU CDSU DISCO TFU

DMS-BUS TFU1 CDSU

Ch. Card ACC

Packets
CDSU DISCO 1 CDSU
LPP ENET LPP CDSU Σα Txcvr
A
RFFE
A
CDSU DISCO 2

Chips
Σβ Txcvr RFFE

DS0 in T1
CDSU B B
DTCs CDSU Σχ Txcvr
C
RFFE
C
SBS
IOC Vocoders
Vocoder Channel RF
Selectors Element

PSTN

69
 Forward Traffic Channel:
Generation Details from IS-95
bits symbols chips

I PN
CHANNEL ELEMENT
Power
Control Walsh
9600 bps function
Bit
4800 bps R = 1/2 19.2
2400 bps ksps Scrambling M 1.2288
1200 bps Convolutional Block Mcps
U
or Encoding and Interleaving
14400 bps Repetition Symbol X
7200 bps 28.8 Puncturing 19.2
3600 bps ksps (13 kb only) ksps
1800 bps
19.2
(From Vocoder)
1.2288 ksps
Q PN
User Address Long PN Code Mcps
Mask Decimator Decimator 800 Hz
Generation
(ESN-based)

70
 Reverse Traffic Channel:
Generation Details from IS-95

I PN
9600 bps (no offset)
4800 bps R = 1/3
1.2288
2400 bps 28.8 28.8 307.2 Mcps
1200 bps Convolutional ksps ksps Orthogonal kcps Data Burst 1/2 PN
Block
or Encoder & Randomizer Chip
Interleaver Modulation
14400 bps Repetition Delay
7200 bps D
3600 bps R = 1/2
1800 bps 1.2288 Q PN
User Address Long Mcps (no offset)
Mask PN Code
Generator Direct
Sequence
Spreading

71
 Variable Rate Vocoding & Multiplexing
DSP QCELP VOCODER

„ Vocoders compress speech, reduce bit 20ms Sample

rate, greatly increasing capacity Pitch
Filter
„ CDMA uses a superior Variable Rate Codebook
Vocoder
Coded Result Feed-
• full rate during speech back Formant
Filter
• low rates in speech pauses
• increased capacity bits Frame Sizes
• more natural sound 288 Full Rate Frame
„ Voice, signaling, and user secondary 144 1/2 Rate Frame
data may be mixed in CDMA frames 72 1/4 Rt.
36 1/8

Frame Contents: can be a mixture of

Voice Signaling Secondary

72
 Forward Power Control

BSC BTS (1 sector) Help!

Pilot
Trans-
Sync mitter, Forward
Paging Sector X RF
User 1 Σ I Q
User 2 Short PN
Vocoder/
Selector User 3
more

„ The BTS continually reduces the strength of each user’s forward

baseband chip stream
„ When a particular handset sees errors on the forward link, it
requests more energy
„ The complainer’s chip stream gets a quick boost; afterward,
continues to diminish

73
 Reverse Power Control
800 bits per second

BSC BTS RX RF Digital

Stronger than Reverse Closed
Open
setpoint? RF Loop Loop
Bad FER?
Raise Setpoint Setpoint TX RF Digital
Occasionally, Handset
as needed
„ Three methods work in tandem to equalize all handset signal levels
at the BTS
• Reverse Open Loop: handset adjusts power up or down based
on received BTS signal (AGC)
• Reverse Closed Loop: Is handset too strong? BTS tells up or
down 1 dB 800 times/second
• Reverse Outer Loop: BSC has FER trouble hearing handset?
BSC adjusts BTS setpoint

74
 Details of Reverse Link Power Control
Subscriber Handset
„ TXPO Handset Transmit Power BTS
Receiver>> Rake
R
• Actual RF power output of the LNA
≈
Viterbi
DUP x IF R Σ
handset transmitter, including TXPO PA ∼ LO R
Decoder

combined effects of open x ~

LO
Open Loop S

loop power control from Closed Loop Pwr Ctrl

receiver AGC and closed IF

x
I Long PN Vocoder
Orth
loop power control by BTS IF Mod
x
x Mod FEC

Q <<Transmitter
• can’t exceed handset’s
maximum (typ. +23 dBm) Typical TXPO:
+23 dBm in a coverage hole
TXPO = -(RXdbm) -C + TXGA 0 dBm near middle of cell
C = +73 for 800 MHz. systems -50 dBm up close to BTS
= +76 for 1900 MHz. systems
Typical Transmit Gain Adjust
„ TXGA Transmit Gain Adjust 0 dB

• Sum of all closed-loop -10 dB

power control commands
from the BTS since the
beginning of this call -20 dB
Time, Seconds
75
 What’s In a Handset?

Digital
Rake Receiver Symbols
Chips Traffic Correlator
PN xxx Walsh xx Symbols
Receiver
RF Section
IF, Detector
Traffic Correlator
PN xxx Walsh xx Σ Viterbi
Decoder

Traffic Correlator Packets

AGC
PN xxx Walsh xx
RF Audio
Messages
Open Loop

Pilot Searcher
Duplexer
PN xxx Walsh 0 CPU Vocoder

RF Audio
Transmit Gain Adjust
Messages
Transmitter
Transmitter Digital Section
RF Section
Long Code Gen.

76
 The Rake Receiver
Handset Rake Receiver
PN Walsh
Voice,
RF PN Walsh Σ Data,
BTS Messages
PN Walsh
BTS
Searcher Pilot Ec/Io
PN W=0

„ Every frame, handset uses combined outputs of the three traffic

correlators (“rake fingers”)
„ Each finger can independently recover a particular PN offset and
Walsh code
„ Fingers can be targeted on delayed multipath reflections, or even on
different BTSs
„ Searcher continuously checks pilots

77
 CDMA Soft Handoff Mechanics
Switch BSC Handset Rake Receiver
PN Walsh
Voice,
Sel. RF PN Walsh Σ Data,
PN Walsh Messages
BTS
BTS Searcher
Pilot Ec/Io
PN W=0

„ CDMA soft handoff is driven by the handset

• Handset continuously checks available pilots
• Handset tells system pilots it currently sees
• System assigns sectors (up to 6 max.), tells handset
• Handset assigns its fingers accordingly
• All messages sent by dim-and-burst, no muting!
„ Each end of the link chooses what works best, on a frame-by-frame
basis!
• Users are totally unaware of handoff

78
 Softer Handoff
Handset Rake Receiver
Switch BSC PN Walsh
Voice,
RF PN Walsh Σ Data,
Sel. BTS Messages
PN Walsh

Searcher
PN W=0 Pilot Ec/Io

„ Each BTS sector has unique PN offset & pilot

„ Handset will ask for whatever pilots it wants
„ If multiple sectors of one BTS simultaneously serve a handset, this is
called Softer Handoff
„ Handset is unaware, but softer handoff occurs in BTS in a single
channel element
„ Handset can even use combination soft-softer handoff on multiple
BTS & sectors

79
 Overall Handoff Perspective

„ Soft & Softer Handoffs are preferred, but not always possible
• a handset can receive BTS/sectors simultaneously only on one
frequency
• all involved BTS/sectors must connect to a networked BSCs.
Some manufacturers do not presently support this, and so are
unable to do soft-handoff at boundaries between BSCs.
• frame timing must be same on all BTS/sectors
„ If any of the above are not possible, handoff still can occur but can
only be “hard” break-make protocol like AMPS/TDMA/GSM
• intersystem handoff: hard
• change-of-frequency handoff: hard
• CDMA-to-AMPS handoff: hard, no handback
– auxiliary trigger mechanisms available (RTD)

80
 What is Ec/Io?

„ Ec/Io
• “cleanness” of the pilot -25 -15 -10 0
– foretells the readability of the
associated traffic channels
• guides soft handoff decisions
Ec/Io dB
• digitally derived: ratio of good to
bad energy seen by the search
correlator at the desired PN offset
• Never appears higher than Pilot’s
percentage of serving cell’s
transmitted energy
• Can be degraded by strong RF
from other cells, sectors
Ec Energy of
desired pilot alone

– Imperfect orthogonality, other

PNs are ~-20 dB.
• Can be degraded by noise

Io Total energy received

81
 Pilot Sets and Soft Handoff Parameters

„ Handset views pilots in sets PILOT SETS

„ Handset sends message to system Active 6

Max. Members
whenever:
Candidate 5
• It notices a pilot in neighbor or
remaining set exceeds T_ADD Neighbor 20
• An active set pilot drops below Remaining
T_DROP for T_TDROP time
• A candidate pilot exceeds an active by
T_COMP
HANDOFF
„ Handoff setup processing time usually
substantially faster than 1 second PARAMETERS
T_ADD T_DROP
„ System may grant all requested handoffs,
or may apply special manufacturer-specific T_TDROP T_COMP
screening criteria

82
 Pilot Search Order, Speed, and Implications
SEARCH TIME FOR ONE PILOT
SEARCHING FOR PILOTS: AS A FUNCTION OF WINDOW SIZE
The searcher checks pilots Window Datafill Max Delay Search Time
Size (Chips) Value (µs) (ms)
in nested loops.
Active+Cand Actives and candidates 14 (±7) 4 5.7 19
are the innermost loop.
20 (±10) 5 8.1 15
Neighbor Neighbors are next,
advances one pilot each 28 (±14) 6 11.4 10
Remaining time Act+cand finish 40 (±20) 7 16.3 12
Remaining is slowest,
60 (±30) 8 24.4 18
advances one pilot each
time Neighbors finish 80 (±40) 9 32.6 19

100 (±50) 10 40.7 25

„ Actives & candidates have the biggest influence. 130 (±65) 11 52.9 30
• Keep window size as small as possible 160 (±80) 12 65.1 40
• During soft handoff, this set dominates searcher
226 (±113) 13 92 54
– Minimize excessive Soft HO!
„ Neighbor set is second-most-important 320 (±160) 14 130 76

• Keep window size as small as possible 452 (±226) 15 184 108

• Keep neighbor list as small as possible Notice that when the window size is set to
• But don’t miss any important neighbors! 28 chips, the search time has a minimum.
„ Remaining Set: pay your dues, but get no reward
• You must spend time checking them, but the system can’t assign one to you
83
Optional: Quick Primer on Pilot Search Windows
„ The phone chooses one strong sector’s PROPAGATION DELAY
signal and “locks” to it as “Primary PN” SKEWS APPARENT PN OFFSETS
• accepts its offset as being exactly the PN 33 4
announced by that BTS’ messages Chips Chips
A delay delayBTS
• measures the offsets of all other signals BTS
B
by timing comparison with it
„ In messages, system gives to handset a
neighbor list of nearby sectors’ PNs If the phone is locked to BTS A, the
„ Propagation delay “skews” the apparent PN signal from BTS B will seem 29 chips
offsets of all other sectors, making them earlier than expected.
seem earlier or later than expected If the phone is locked to BTS B, the
„ To overcome skew, when the phone signal from BTS A will seem 29 chips
searches for a particular pilot, it scans an later than expected.
extra wide “delta” of chips centered on the
expected offset (called a “search window”)
„ Search window values can be datafilled
individually for each Pilot set:
„ There are pitfalls if the window sizes are
improperly set
• too large: search time increases, slows
• too small: overlook pilots from far away
• too large: might misinterpret identity of a One chip is 801 feet or 244.14 m
distant BTS’ signal 1 mile=6.6 chips; 1 km.= 4.1 chips

84
 NORTEL CDMA System Architecture

MTX BSC-BSM BTS

GPS GPS
GPSR
SLM CM GPSR
BSM CDSU CDSU DISCO TFU

DMS-BUS TFU1 CDSU

Ch. Card ACC
CDSU DISCO 1 CDSU
LPP ENET LPP CDSU Σα Txcvr
A
RFFE
A
CDSU DISCO 2
CDSU Σβ Txcvr
B
RFFE
B
DTCs CDSU Σχ Txcvr
C
RFFE
C
SBS
IOC Vocoders
Selectors

PSTN & Billing

Other MTXs

85
 Signal Flow: Two-Stage Metamorphosis

MTX BSC-BSM BTS

GPS GPS
GPSR
SLM CM GPSR
BSM CDSU CDSU DISCO TFU

DMS-BUS TFU1 CDSU

Ch. Card ACC

Packets
CDSU DISCO 1 CDSU
LPP ENET LPP CDSU Σα Txcvr
A
RFFE
A
CDSU DISCO 2

Chips
Σβ Txcvr RFFE

DS0 in T1
CDSU B B
DTCs CDSU Σχ Txcvr
C
RFFE
C
SBS
IOC Vocoders
Vocoder Channel RF
Selectors Element

PSTN

86
 Architecture: The MTX

MTX „ Primary functions

• Call Processing
SLM CM • Mobility Management
– HLR-VLR access
DMS-BUS
– Intersystem call delivery (IS-41C)
CDMA
BSC – Inter-MTX handover (IS-41C)
LPP ENET LPP Unch. T1
• Billing Data Capture
Ch.T1 CDMA • Calling Features & Services
DTCs SBS
• Collecting System OMs, Pegs
IOC „ High reliability, redundancy
Ch MAP,
T1 VDUs
CCS7
Billing
PSTN &
Other MTXs
87
 Architecture: The BSC

BSC „ Primary functions

GPS
• vocoding
GPSR • soft handoff management
BSM CDSU
• FER-based power control
TFU1 CDSU
MTX BTSs • routing of all traffic and control
LPP CDSU DISCO 1 CDSU packets
CDSU
CDSU DISCO 2 „ Scaleable architecture
CDSU
• expand SBS to keep pace with
CDSU traffic growth
MTX SBS
(voice Vocoders
• expandable DISCO
trunks) Selectors

T1 channelized (24 DS0)

T1 unchannelized
BCN link (HDLC)
88
 Architecture: The BTS

„ Primary function: Air link

• generate, radiate, receive CDMA RF
BTS signal IS-95/[Link]. 8
GPS
GPSR
• high-efficiency T1 backhaul
• test capabilities
CDSU DISCO TFU
BSC „ Configurations
Ch. Card ACC • 1, 2, or 3 sectors
Σα Txcvr RFFE • 800 MHz.: indoor
A A
Σβ Txcvr RFFE • 1900 MHz.: self-contained outdoor,
B B
remotable RFFEs
Σχ Txcvr
C
RFFE
C
• future: 1900 MHz. indoor, 800 & 1900
multi-carrier options

89
 Architecture: The BSM
NORTEL CDMA
BSM BSM „ Primary functions: OA&M for CDMA
Ethernet LAN
components
• Configuration management
– BSC, BTS configuration and
X-Windows terminals
parameters
GNP TELCO
• Fault management
WORKSERVER

– Alarm Reporting
SHELF
---------
HIGH
AVAILABILITY

BSM Workstation
• Performance management
BCN Links
– interface for CDMA statistics
GPS BSC BTS GPS
and peg counts collection
• Security management
GPSR
GPSR
CDSU CDSU DISCO TFU

• Unix-based
TFU1 CDSU
Ch. Card ACC
CDSU DISCO 1 CDSU
CDSU Σα Txcvr
A
RFFE
A
CDSU DISCO 2
CDSU Σβ Txcvr
B
RFFE
B

CDSU Σχ Txcvr
C
RFFE
C
SBS
Vocoders
Selectors

90
 Summary of CDMA Capacity Considerations
DISCO has
MTX 192 ports
GPS
max. Each
BSC-BSM One T-1 can carry all
traffic originated by a BTS
Typical CM processor
capacity considerations
BTS uses 1, one-carrier BTS; special
consideration required if
GPS
SBS shelf 1,
daisy-chaining
CDMA LPP:
LPP CIU 1, GPSR
Link 2, Ctrl. 2,
One pair SLM CM BSM GPSR
4.
CIUs and BSM
One pair CDSU CDSU DISCO TFU
Sufficient channel
CAUs per elements required for
approx. 600 DMS-BUS TFU1 CDSU traffic of all sectors:
erlangs one CE per link; 20
Ch. Card ACC CE per Channel Card
CDSU DISCO 1 CDSU
LPP ENET LPP CDSU Σα64 Walsh
Txcvr
A
RFFE
Codes/sector
A
CDSU DISCO 2
CDSU Σβ64 Walsh
Txcvr
B
RFFE
Codes/sector
B
DTCs CDSU Σχ64 Walsh
Txcvr
C
Codes/sector
RFFE
C

DTC & ENET: SBS Forward RF Capacity:

IOC links use available
One port per Vocoders BTS TX power
Vocoder plus
one port per Selectors Sufficient vocoders/selectors
outgoing trunk. required in BSC SBS, one per
Reverse RF Capacity:
simultaneous call on the system.
links cause noise floor
8 Vocoders per SBS card, 12
rise, use mobile power
cards per shelf, 4 shelves per
SBS cabinet.
PSTN
PSTN trunk groups must
be dimensioned to
support erlang load.

91
 CDMA Message Structure & Protocols
EXAMPLE:
„ CDMA messages on both forward A POWER MEASUREMENT
and reverse links are normally sent REPORT MESSAGE
via dim-and-burst
Field Length
„ Messages include many fields of (in bits)
binary data MSG_TYPE (‘00000110’) 8
„ The first byte of each message ACK_SEQ 3
identifies message type to allow the
MSG_SEQ 3
recipient to parse the contents
ACK_REQ 1
„ To ensure no messages are
missed, all CDMA messages bear ENCRYPTION 2
serial numbers and important ERRORS_DETECTED 5
messages contain a bit set to POWER_MEAS_FRAMES 10
request acknowledgment LAST_HDM_SEQ 2
„ Messages not promptly NUM_PILOTS 4
acknowledged are retransmitted
several times, after which the NUM_PILOTS occurrences of this field:
sender may release the call PILOT_STRENGTH 6 t
„ Collection tools parse all messages
for review and analysis RESERVED (‘0’s) 0-7

92
 Messages In Acquisition and Idle States
Pilot Channel Sync Channel
No Messages Sync Channel Msg

Access Channel
Paging Channel BTS

Registration Msg
Access Parameters Msg General Page Msg

Order Msg
System Parameters Msg Order Msg • Mobile Station Acknowldgment
•Base Station Acknowledgment
•Lock until Power-Cycled • Long Code Transition Request
• Maintenance required • SSD Update Confirmation
CDMA Channel List Msg many others….. many others…..

Extended System Channel Assignment Origination Msg

Parameters Msg Msg

Extended Neighbor Page Response Msg

List Msg Feature Notification Msg

Authentication Challenge
Global Service Authentication Response Msg
Redirection Msg Challenge Msg

Status Response Msg

Service Redirection Msg Status Request Msg

TMSI Assignment
SSD Update Msg TMSI Assignment Msg Completion Message

Null Msg Data Burst Msg Data Burst Msg

93
 Messages During a Call: Conversation State
Forward Traffic Channel
Order Msg Alert With Reverse Traffic Channel
• Base Station Acknowledgment Information Msg
• Base Station Challenge
Confirmation
Service Request Msg Service Request Msg Origination
• Message Encryption Mode Continuation Msg

Authentication Service Response Msg Service Response Msg Authentication Challenge

Challenge Msg Response Msg

TMSI Assignment Msg Service Connect Msg Service Connect TMSI Assignment
Completion Message Completion Message

Send Burst DTMF Msg Service Option Service Option Control Send Burst DTMF Msg
Control Msg Message

Set Parameters Msg Status Request Msg Status Response Msg Parameters Response
Message

Power Control Flash With Flash With Power Measurement

Parameters Msg. Information Msg Information Msg Report Msg

Retrieve Parameters Msg Data Burst Msg Data Burst Message Order Message
• Mobile Sta. Acknowledgment
Analog Handoff Extended Handoff Pilot Strength •Long Code Transition
Direction Msg Direction Msg Measurement Msg Request
• SSD Update Confirmation
SSD Update Msg Neighbor List Handoff Completion Msg • Connect
Update Msg

Mobile Station In-Traffic System

Registered Msg Parameters Msg

94
 How a Phone “Wakes Up”:
System Acquisition Process
°Power up: self diagnostics, battery check
± Find a frequency with CDMA RF
• last frequency used? other recent history?
• home market? preferred roaming list?
² Scan all PN offsets (Pilot W0), find best Ec/Io
³ Lock Traffic Correlators on best PN offset,
read the sync channel (W32) QCP-800
• learn true PN offset, SID/NID, time & leap QCP-1900
seconds, Long Code state, paging channel
´ Read the Paging Channel (W1): collect all the
current configuration messages A phone goes through
• System Parameters Message this system acquisition
• Extended System Parameters Message process when it first
wakes up. Also, at the
• Access Parameters Message
end of each call, it
• CDMA Channel List Message repeats the process
• Extended Neighbor List Message beginning at step 3, just
• Global Service Redirection Message to ensure it is using the
µ Register if required strongest signals
¶ Now you’re ready to operate! available.

95
 Phone Operation on the Access Channel

„ The access channel is a long code offset Successful Access Attempt

defined by the paging channel. Each
paging channel can have from 1 to 32 Origination Msg ACCESS
access channels, for handsets to use
when attempting to first contact that sector MS
while not yet in a call. BTS
Probing
„ Phone actions on the access channel:
PAGING Base Sta. Acknlgmt. Order
Registration, Origination, Page Responses
„ On the access channel, phones are not FW TFC TFC frames of 000s
yet under BTS closed-loop power control
„ Phones access the BTS by “probing” at PAGING Channel Assnmt. Msg.
power levels determined by receive power
TFC preamble of 000s RV TFC
and an open loop formula
• If a “probe” is not acknowledged by FW FC Base Sta. Acknlgmt. Order
the BTS within about 400 mS., the
phone will wait a random ~200 ms. Mobile Sta. Ackngmt. Order RV TFC
time then probe again, stronger
FW TFC Service Connect Msg.
• There can be up to 15 probes in a
sequence and up to 15 sequences in Svc. Connect Complete Msg RV TFC
an access attempt
„ Access Parameters message on paging FW TFC Base Sta. Acknlgmt. Order
channel sets values of all the parameters
Call is Established!
96
 Incoming Call Delivery Scenario
General Page Message

Page Response Message (PROBING)

BTS
Base Station Acknowledgment Order

Paging Channel Assignment Message Paging

Channel Channel
Continuous frames of all 000’s

Traffic Channel Preamble: Frames of 000’s

Base Station Acknowledgment Order

Forward Forward
Traffic Traffic
Channel Mobile Station Acknowledgment Order Channel

Service Connect Message

Service Connect Complete Message

The Call is now officially Established!

97
 The Handoff Process
The handset pilot searcher notices energy from
another sector or BTS, meeting any of these criteria:
•New Pilot Stronger Ec/Io than T_Add
•Candidate Pilot just got T_Comp better than an ac tive
•Old Pilot stayed below T_Drop for T_Tdrop time
BTS
Pilot Strength Measurement Message

Base Station Acknowledgment Order

•Selector arranges channel elements/Walsh codes in requested
Forward sectors and begins using them, too. Forward
Traffic Traffic
Extended Handoff Direction Message
Channel Channel
Mobile Station Acknowledgment Order
•Handset verifies which assigned PNs it can now hear.

Handoff Completion Message

Base Station Acknowledgment Order

Neighbor List Update Messasge

Mobile Station Acknowledgment Order

The new Handoff condition is now officially Established!
98
 This screen capture courtesy of Grayson Wireless

December, 1997 CDMA BSM, BSC, BTS 99

59
 Dropped Call Example
This dropped call is a dramatic example of big forward link problems.
As the call begins, forward FER is low with good Ec/Io, RX, TX, and
TXGA. RX gets steadily better, TX and TXGA are climbing. At 18
seconds, suddenly Ec/Io withers, FER explodes, and both TX and
TXGA increase. After four scary seconds, we recover, but briefly.
dBm, Ec/Io dives again and
% FER roars while RX,
TX and TXGA rise.
At 30 seconds, FER
is so bad that the
transmitter mutes.
Ec/Io recovers briefly
dB, dBm

but falters again and

we mute at 34
seconds. RX, TX,
and TXGA are all
high. Ec/Io briefly
recovers, but then
fades. The call slides
0 9 18 27 36 45 to an ugly death.
Time, Seconds
100
 Maximum Timing Budget for CDMA Cells

„ The range of a CDMA cell is normally limited by the attenuation that

occurs along ordinary propagation paths. Occasionally, a site is
located atop a high mountain or other location from which it can see a
very large distance, so large that timing considerations must be
recognized. Search windows are the main concern.
„ The BTS uses acquisition and demodulation search windows much
like the pilot search windows used by the mobile. The maximum
setting is 4095/8 chips (512 chips -1/8 chip). A mobile 38.8 miles from
the site would be at the edge of this maximum window setting, and
could not originate or be acquired during handoff beyond this distance.
„ The mobile is not restricted on acquiring the system forward channels
but its pilot search windows are limited to 452 chips. Neighbor pilots
couldn’t be recognized if coming from a cell more than 34.3 miles
closer or farther than the cell to which the mobile is locked.
„ The IS-95 and J-Std008 specify a maximum of 350 µsec maximum
round trip delay, BTS-Handset. This is a distance of 32.6 miles.
„ General Observation: If your cell radius exceeds 30 miles, be careful.
101
 A Word About Soft Handoff for
Former AMPS/TDMA Personnel

„ Former AMPS/TDMA optimizers may feel an instinctive obligation

to minimize handoff activity, with good reason. In AMPS/TDMA,
handoffs involved muting and real risk of a drop. Since the mobile
could be served by just one sector at a time, there was pressure to
be sure it was the best available sector, but also pressure not to do
many handoffs. Ping-pong is unpopular in AMPS/TDMA.
„ In CDMA, there is no muting or audible effect during soft/softer
handoff, and there is no pressure to use just the right sector -- if
several are roughly as good, use them all, up to 6 at a time.
• The noise level on the reverse link actually decreases during
soft handoff - by roughly 4 db. - allowing the system to handle
from 1.5 to 2 times as many subscribers as otherwise.
• The forward link noise does rise, but not to troublesome levels
• There is an additional cost for doing soft handoff: each involved
BTS must dedicate a TCE channel element to the handoff.
However, even if every user is constantly involved in soft
handoff, this increases the cost of a BTS a small percentage.

102
 How Much Soft Handoff is Normal?
„ How much soft handoff is normal?
• Expectations in early CDMA development were for roughly 35%
• The level of soft handoff which should be used depends on how
much diversity gain can be achieved, and terrain roughness
– If the reverse link budget assumed 4 dB soft handoff gain, and
propagation decays 35 dB/decade, 42% of the sector’s area is
within the last 4 dB. of coverage where soft handoff occurs.
– In typical markets, terrain irregularities scatter RF beyond
cleanly designed cell edges; soft handoff is typically 50-60%
– In rough terrain, proper soft handoff may rise to 70% or more
„ In a system not yet well-tuned, soft handoff may be clearly excessive
• The main cause is usually excessive RF overlap between cells
• RF coverage control is the most effective means of reducing and
managing soft handoff (BTS attenuation, antenna downtilting)
• Thresholds T_ADD and T_DROP can be adjusted to reduce soft
handoff, but this penalizes mobiles that need soft handoff to
escape interference from the excessively overlapping sites
Controlling soft handoff percentage with T_ADD and T_DROP is like limiting
allowed hospital days for various illnesses. It works, but some patients may drop.
103
 Hostile CDMA RF Environments

• The CDMA handset is designed with a digital “rake receiver” including

three correlators (“fingers”) which can demodulate signals from up to three
sectors simultaneously, combining and using the energy from all three to
improve reception. Implications:
• If One dominant signal: this is a good situation; the three fingers will
be looking for resolvable multipath components; good diversity
• If Two usable signals: good situation; soft handoff & diversity
• If Three usable signals: good situation; soft handoff & diversity
• If Four roughly equal signals: workable but not ideal. Three best
signals are demodulated; other remains an interferer. 3 vs. 1
• If Five roughly equal signals: probably workable but not good. Three
best are demodulated; remaining two are interferers. 3 vs. 2
• If Six roughly equal signals: very frightening. Three best signals are
demodulated; three remaining signals are interferers. 3 vs. 3
• The system can provide up to 6-way soft handoff, but anything above
three-way is an indication that there is too much RF coverage overlap.
More than three-way soft handoff should be the notable exception rather
than the rule.

104