Atoms, Ions, and Molecules
A Lecture Presentation
General Chemistry I
Dr. Nadia Arrousse
Average mass
• Average mass is calculated from the isotopes of an element
weighted by their relative abundances.
• Atomic weight (AW) is also known as average atomic mass.
• Atomic weights are listed on the periodic table.
Example
Naturally occurring C consists of 98.93% 12C (12 amu) and 1.07% 13C (13.00335
amu).
The average mass of C is:
(0.9893)(12 amu) + (0.0107)(13.00335 amu) = 12.01 amu.
1 amu= 1.66054 x 10- 24 g
1 g = 6.02214 x 1023 amu
Exercise
• Chlorine has two naturally occurring isotopes:
35
17 Cl with an abundance of 75.77% and an isotopic mass of
37
34.969 amu, and 17 Cl with an abundance of 24.23% and
an isotopic mass of 36.966 amu. What is the atomic mass
of chlorine?
4
The Mass Spectrometer
• A mass spectrometer is an instrument that allows for direct measure
of atomic mass of elements
• A graph of signal intensity vs. mass of the ion is called a mass
spectrum.
The Mass Spectrometer
100.0 161
324
75.0 N
N
N N
50.0
176 N
309
25.0 81 243
118 H3C N
376 412 448 546 582 663 723 773 827 885 CH3
0.0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
M= 324.432g/mol
Periodic Table
• The periodic table is a systematic organization of the
elements.
• Elements are arranged in order of atomic number.
Reading the Periodic Table
• Boxes on the periodic table list the atomic number
ABOVE the symbol.
• The atomic weight of an element is listed below the
symbol on the periodic table.
Organization of the Periodic Table
• The rows on the periodic table are called periods.
• Columns are called groups.
• Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.
Periodic Table
• Metals are on the left
side of the periodic
table.
• Some properties of
metals include
– Shiny luster
– Conducting heat and
electricity
– Solids (except
mercury)
Periodic Table
• Nonmetals are on the
right side of the
periodic table (they
include H).
• They can be solid (like
carbon), liquid (like
bromine), or gas (like
neon) at room
temperature.
Periodic Table
• Elements on the
steplike line are
metalloids.
• Their properties are
sometimes like metals
and sometimes like
nonmetals.
Periodicity
When one looks at the chemical properties of elements, one notices
a repeating pattern of properties and reactivity.
Groups
These five groups are known by their names.
Molecules and Molecular Compounds
• A molecule consists of two or more atoms
bound tightly together.
• Each molecule has a chemical formula.
Chemical Formulas
• Each molecule has a chemical
formula.
• The chemical formula indicates :
1. which atoms are found in the
molecule
2. in what proportion they are
found.
Molecular compounds
• Molecular compounds are
composed of molecules and
almost always contain only
nonmetals.
• A molecule made up of two
atoms is called a diatomic
molecule.
Diatomic molecule
These seven elements occur naturally
as molecules containing two atoms.
Allotropes
Different forms of an element,
which have different chemical
formulas, are known as
allotropes. Allotropes differ in
their chemical and physical
properties.
Types of Formulas
• Empirical formulas give the lowest whole-number ratio of atoms
of each element in a compound.
• Molecular formulas give the exact number of atoms of each
element in a compound.
• If we know the molecular formula of a compound, we can
determine its empirical formula. The converse is not true without
more information!
Picturing Molecules
• The structural formula gives the connectivity between individual
atoms in the molecule.
• Molecules occupy three-dimensional space. However, we often
represent them in two dimensions.
Ions
• When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become ions.
• Cations are positive and are formed by elements on the left
side of the periodic chart.
• Anions are negative and are formed by elements on the
right side of the periodic chart.
Predicting Ionic Charges
• An atom or molecule can lose more than one
electron (transition metals).
• Many atoms gain or lose enough electrons to
have the same number of electrons as the
nearest noble gas (group 8A).
• The number of electrons that an atom loses
is related to its position on the periodic
table.
Ionic Compounds
• Ionic compounds (such as NaCl) are generally formed
between metals and nonmetals.
• Electrons are transferred from the metal to the
nonmetal. The oppositely charged ions attract each
other. Only empirical formulas are written.
Polyatomic Ions
• Sometimes a group of atoms will gain or lose electrons.
These are polyatomic ions.
• A polyatomic cation:
– Ammonium ≡ NH4 +
• A polyatomic anion:
– Sulfate ≡ SO4 2–
Writing Formulas of ionic compounds
Writing formulas for ionic compounds:
• You need to know the ions from which it is composed.
• The formula must reflect the electrical neutrality of the
compound.
• You must combine cations and anions in a ratio so that the total
positive charge is equal to the total negative charge.
Example
• Because compounds are electrically neutral, one can
determine the formula of a compound this way:
✓The charge on the cation becomes the subscript on
the anion.
✓The charge on the anion becomes the subscript on
the cation.
Common Cations
Common Anions
Common Anions
Ions
31
Any Questions?
Now let’s practice
what we’ve learned!
Sample Exercise 2.2 Determining the Number of Subatomic Particles in
Atoms
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in an atom of (a) 197Au, (b) strontium-90?
Solution
(a) The superscript 197 is the mass number (protons + neutrons). According to the list of elements given on the
front inside cover, gold has atomic number 79. Consequently, an atom of 197Au has 79 protons, 79 electrons,
and 197 – 79 = 118 neutrons.
(b) The atomic number of strontium is 38. Thus, all atoms of this element have 38 protons and 38 electrons. The
strontium-90 isotope has 90 – 38 =52 neutrons.
Practice Exercise 1
Which of these atoms has the largest number of neutrons?
(a) 148Eu (b) 157Dy (c) 149Nd (d) 162Ho (e) 159Gd
Practice Exercise 2
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in an atom of
(a) 138Ba, (b) phosphorus-31?
Sample Exercise 2.3 Writing Symbols for Atoms
Magnesium has three isotopes with mass numbers 24, 25, and 26. (a) Write the complete chemical
symbol (superscript and subscript) for each. (b) How many neutrons are in an atom of each
isotope?
Solution
(a) Magnesium has atomic number 12, so all atoms of magnesium contain 12 protons and 12 electrons. The three
isotopes are therefore represented by , , and . (b) The number of neutrons in each isotope is the mass
number minus the number of protons. The numbers of neutrons in an atom of each isotope are therefore 12, 13, and
14, respectively.
Practice Exercise 1
Which of the following is an incorrect representation for a neutral atom?
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Practice Exercise 2
Give the complete chemical symbol for the atom that contains 82 protons, 82 electrons, and 126 neutrons.
Sample Exercise 2.4 Calculating the Atomic Weight of an
Element from Isotopic Abundances
Naturally occurring chlorine is 75.78% 35Cl (atomic mass 34.969 amu) and 24.22% 37Cl (atomic mass 36.966 amu).
Calculate the atomic weight of chlorine.
Solution
We can calculate the atomic weight by multiplying the abundance of each isotope by its mass and summing these
products. Because 75.78% = 0.7578 and 24.22% = 0.2422, we have
This answer makes sense: The atomic weight, which is actually the average atomic mass, is between the masses of
the two isotopes and is closer to the value of 35Cl, the more abundant isotope.
Practice Exercise 1
There are two stable isotopes of copper found in nature, 63Cu and 65Cu. If the atomic weight of copper Cu is
63.546 amu, which of the following statements are true?
(a) 65Cu contains two more protons than 63Cu.
(b) 63Cu must be more abundant than 65Cu.
(c) All copper atoms have a mass of 63.546 amu.
Sample Exercise 2.4 Calculating the Atomic Weight of an Element from
Isotopic Abundances
Continued
Practice Exercise 2
Three isotopes of silicon occur in nature: 28Si (92.23%), atomic mass 27.97693 amu; 29Si (4.68%), atomic mass
28.97649 amu; and 30Si (3.09%), atomic mass 29.97377 amu. Calculate the atomic weight of silicon.
Sample Exercise 2.5 Using the Periodic Table
Which two of these elements would you expect to show the greatest similarity in chemical and physical
properties: B, Ca, F, He, Mg, P?
Solution
Elements in the same group of the periodic table are most likely to exhibit similar properties. We therefore expect Ca
and Mg to be most alike because they are in the same group (2A, the alkaline earth metals).
Practice Exercise 1
A biochemist who is studying the properties of certain sulfur (S)–containing compounds in the body wonders whether
trace amounts of another nonmetallic element might have similar behavior. To which element should she turn her
attention? (a) F (b) As (c) Se (d) Cr (e) P
Practice Exercise 2
Locate Na (sodium) and Br (bromine) in the periodic table. Give the atomic number of each and classify each as metal,
metalloid, or nonmetal.
Sample Exercise 2.6 Relating Empirical and Molecular Formulas
Write the empirical formulas for (a) glucose, a substance also known as either blood sugar or dextrose—molecular
formula C6H12O6; (b) nitrous oxide, a substance used as an anesthetic and commonly called laughing gas—molecular
formula N2O.
Solution
(a) The subscripts of an empirical formula are the smallest whole-number ratios. The smallest ratios are obtained by
dividing each subscript by the largest common factor, in this case 6. The resultant empirical formula for glucose is
CH2O.
(b) Because the subscripts in N2O are already the lowest integral numbers, the empirical formula for nitrous oxide is
the same as its molecular formula, N2O.
Practice Exercise 1
Tetracarbon dioxide is an unstable oxide of carbon with the following
molecular structure:
What are the molecular and empirical formulas of this substance?
(a) C2O2, CO2 (b) C4O, CO (c) CO2, CO2
(d) C4O2, C2O (e) C2O, CO2
Practice Exercise 2
Give the empirical formula for decaborane, whose molecular formula is B10H14.
Sample Exercise 2.7 Writing Chemical Symbols for Ions
Give the chemical symbol, including superscript indicating mass number, for (a) the ion with 22 protons, 26 neutrons,
and 19 electrons; and (b) the ion of sulfur that has 16 neutrons and 18 electrons.
Solution
(a) The number of protons is the atomic number of the element. A periodic table or list of elements tells us that the
element with atomic number 22 is titanium (Ti). The mass number (protons plus neutrons) of this isotope of
titanium is 22 + 26 = 48. Because the ion has three more protons than electrons, it has a net charge of 3+ and is
designated 48Ti3+.
(b) The periodic table tells us that sulfur (S) has an atomic number of 16. Thus, each atom or ion of sulfur contains
16 protons. We are told that the ion also has 16 neutrons, meaning the mass number is 16 + 16 = 32. Because the
ion has 16 protons and 18 electrons, its net charge is 2– and the ion symbol is 32S2–.
In general, we will focus on the net charges of ions and ignore their mass numbers unless the circumstances dictate
that we specify a certain isotope.
Practice Exercise 1
In which of the following species is the difference between the number of protons and the number of electrons
largest?
(a) Ti2+ (b) P3– (c) Mn (d) Se2– (e) Ce4+
Practice Exercise 2
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons does the 79Se2– ion possess?
Sample Exercise 2.8 Predicting Ionic Charge
Predict the charge expected for the most stable ion of barium and the most stable ion of oxygen.
Solution
We will assume that barium and oxygen form ions that have the same number of electrons as the nearest noble-gas
atom. From the periodic table, we see that barium has atomic number 56. The nearest noble gas is xenon, atomic
number 54. Barium can attain a stable arrangement of 54 electrons by losing two electrons, forming the Ba2+ cation.
Oxygen has atomic number 8. The nearest noble gas is neon, atomic number 10. Oxygen can attain this stable electron
arrangement by gaining two electrons, forming the O2– anion.
Practice Exercise 1
Although it is helpful to know that many ions have the
electron arrangement of a noble gas, many elements,
especially among the metals, form ions that do not have a
noble-gas electron arrangement. Use the periodic table,
Figure 2.14, to determine which of the following ions has a
noble-gas electron arrangement, and which do not. For those
that do, indicate the noble-gas arrangement they match:
(a) Ti4+, (b) Mn2+, (c) Pb2+, (d) Te2–, (e) Zn2+.
Practice Exercise 2
Predict the charge expected for the most stable ion of
(a) aluminum and (b) fluorine.
Sample Exercise 2.9 Identifying Ionic and Molecular
Compounds
Which of these compounds would you expect to be ionic: N2O, Na2O, CaCl2, SF4?
Solution
We predict that Na2O and CaCl2 are ionic compounds because they are composed of a metal combined with a
nonmetal. We predict (correctly) that N2O and SF4 are molecular compounds because they are composed entirely of
nonmetals.
Practice Exercise 1
Which of these compounds are molecular: CBr4, FeS, P4O6, PbF2?
Practice Exercise 2
Give a reason why each of the following statements is a safe prediction:
(a) Every compound of Rb with a nonmetal is ionic in character.
(b) Every compound of nitrogen with a halogen element is a molecular compound.
(c) The compound MgKr2 does not exist.
(d) Na and K are very similar in the compounds they form with nonmetals.
(e) If contained in an ionic compound, calcium (Ca) will be in the form of the doubly charged ion, Ca2+.
Sample Exercise 2.10 Using Ionic Charge to Write Empirical Formulas for
Ionic Compounds
Write the empirical formula of the compound formed by (a) Al3+ and Cl– ions, (b) Al3+ and O2– ions, (c) Mg2+ and NO3–
ions.
Solution
(a) Three Cl– ions are required to balance the charge of one Al3+ ion, making the empirical formula AlCl3.
(b) Two Al3+ ions are required to balance the charge of three O2– ions. A 2:3 ratio is needed to balance the total
positive charge of 6+ and the total negative charge of 6–. The empirical formula is Al2O3.
(c) Two NO3– ions are needed to balance the charge of one Mg2+, yielding Mg(NO3)2. Note that the formula for the
polyatomic ion, NO3–, must be enclosed in parentheses so that it is clear that the subscript 2 applies to all the
atoms of that ion.
Practice Exercise 1
Which of the following nonmetals will form an ionic compound with Sc3+ that has a 1:1 ratio of cations to anions?
(a) Ne (b) F (c) O (d) N
Practice Exercise 2
Write the empirical formula for the compound formed by
(a) Na+ and PO43–, (b) Zn2+ and SO42–, (c) Fe3+ and CO32–.
