Distance Measuring Methods

Surveying 1
March 2008
Topic 2 – Distance Measuring Methods

DISTANCE MEASURING METHODS

There are many methods and devices that can be used to measure linear distance. These
include:

Estimation and pacing

Odometer
Stadia
Subtense bar
Taping (or chaining)
Electronic distance measurement (EDM)
Satellite observations.

Estimation and Pacing

Estimation is based on experience & judgement - usually done by

comparison with well-known linear dimensions (eg: a cricket pitch, a straight
running track, etc).

Pacing is based on the “calibrated” length of a normal pace - differs for each
person. Accuracy low - perhaps to a metre over 100 metres of “ideal” terrain
(ie: 1/100). Factors affecting accuracy are slopes, obstacles, terrain
‘roughness’, etc.

Odometer

Otherwise known as a ‘measuring wheel’ - measures distance travelled by

counting the number of revolutions of a wheel of known radius (and thus
circumference).

Accuracy depends on such factors as: - the ‘roughness’ and slopes of the
terrain, the ‘straightness’ of the line of travel of the wheel, the care with
which the wheel is set over start and end points, the knowledge of the wheel
dimensions, etc. - 1/200 or better is achievable.

Stadia techniques

Principle also based on similar triangles in the optics of

a lens system. Reasonable accuracy can be achieved -
say to 1/500 - as portion of a vertical graduated scale
between two horizontal crosshairs is viewed at the
other end of the line to be measured.

Most telescopes on modern theodolites and levels have such “stadia

hairs”.

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Subtense bar (Figure 1)

Distance can be determined by measurement of the angle subtended by a

known length, as shown:

Figure 1- Subtense Bar

In practice, the technique can be applied by measuring the distance s by any means, and by
observing the angle . The “subtense bar” makes use of an accurately calibrated metal bar,
usually 2 metres long, with targets at each end. It is capable of yielding distance
determinations accurate to 1/3000 or better up to 150 m.

Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) (Figure 2)

This allows the measurement of distances by observing the ‘phase changes’ which occur in
electromagnetic waves travelling from one end of the line to the other and back again. In a
variety of circumstances - different conditions, different ranges, etc - EDM devices are
capable of achieving accuracies of 1/100,000 to 1/1,000,000 (1 ppm).

Figure 2 - EDM

Global Positioning System (GPS)

In more recent times, systems have been developed which are capable of very long and very
accurate distance determinations from the observation of signals transmitted by orbiting
artificial Earth satellites - eg: the Global positioning System (GPS).

Figure 3 –GPS
TAPING

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Distance Measuring Methods

This has been until recently the most common techniques

are used for the measurement of distances in surveying.
Two basic tasks typically arise in taping using steel bands:

i) the measurement of a distance between two ground

points; and
ii) the setting out of a required distance from one ground
point.

Figure 4 – Steel Band

Accuracies achievable depend on the accuracy of the measuring tape used (Figure 4), and
the techniques used. It is possible with due care and the right procedures, to measure lines in
the field to accuracies ranging from 1/1000 to 1/25,000.

TAPING METHODS

General

When the terrain over which it is required to tape is open and flat the measurement
procedures are reasonably straightforward. However over terrain that varies in nature and/or
contains obstacles, a number of procedures must be followed.

It is important that the line sections measured lie in a straight line, so that the reduced
distance will be the shortest distance between the two terminal points. Lining in of
intermediate points can generally be done by eye without introducing undue error, and
ranging poles are ideal for this purpose.

Also, to ensure that the tape is the length it is assumed to be throughout the measurement,
the correct tension must be applied to it as each measurement is made. The standard
tension, which is usually used, is 67 Newton. If other than this standard tension is used, then
a correction must be calculated and applied to obtain the reduced distance.

Figure 5 – Overcoming obstructions when taping

On sloping or uneven ground, or through grass and bush, refinements to the taping
procedures must be introduced. In many cases obstacles on the terrain, or excessive slopes,

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Distance Measuring Methods

require that one or both ends of the tape be plumbed over the ground mark (Figure 5). This
is achieved using the plumb bob, and great care must be taken to ensure that undue error is
not introduced

When the tape is not lying along the ground during a measurement, it is free to sag under its
own weight, thus introducing further error into the measurement. Hence it is common
practice to ensure that the tape is supported along its length, either by natural features or by
holding it at several points, so that errors from this source are minimised.

Figure 6 - Sag

MEASUREMENT OPERATIONS

Step Chaining (Figure 7)

On sloping ground, or when obstacles lie on the ground along the line to be measured, it is
possible to measure the required sections of line with the tape horizontal - ie: by “plumbing
up” one or both ends of the tape. Thus the total length of the line is measured in horizontal
“steps”.

Figure 7 – Step Chaining

The length of each section will depend on the degree of terrain slope, or on the nature of the
obstacles.

Slope chaining (Figure 8)

In many circumstances it is more convenient to measure along the slope of the land and to
observe the angle of slope to enable reduction to the horizontal. The clinometer (Figure 9)
can be used for slope measurement. However, it is critical that the slope angle (elevation),
which is observed, is equal to the actual slope of the tape during the measurement.
(In order not to introduce intolerable errors into the distance determination, the clinometer
should not be used to observe slopes greater than about 7°.)

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If the ground slope is reasonably uniform along the section being measured, the tape may be
laid along the ground and the slope of a ‘parallel’ line observed, as shown.

Figure 8 – Step Chaining

Figure 9 – Clinometer

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ERRORS IN TAPING

A number of errors exist in taping and as a result the following corrections must be applied:

 Tape standardisation
 Temperature correction
 Sag correction
 Tension correction
 Slope correction

Standardisation correction (instrumental / systematic)

Sometimes a 50 metre steel tape may in fact not be 50.000 m, but rather 49.996 or 50.007
metres long (for example). Using this tape to measure distances will obviously introduce error
into the measurements. Its true length can be determined by comparing it against another tape or
marked distance (baseline).

It is more convenient to calculate the temperature TS at which the field tape would be its correct
nominal length (i.e. 50.000m), thus:

- Where l’ = nominal field tape length (e.g.50.000m)

l = actual field tape length (e.g.49.997m)
= coefficient of thermal expansion of steel
= 1.125 x 10-5

Once TS has been determined for the field tape, a correction CT can then be applied for variation
of temperature from this value at the time of a field measurement.

• For example a field tape: 50.000m @ TS = 4°C & 67N (fully supported)

***************************************************************************

Temperature correction (natural / systematic)

Field tapes are subject to expansion and/or contraction as the temperature varies, and this
phenomenon will obviously cause errors in measurement. This change in length can be
accounted for using a correction. The correction to the measured length is:

- where L = measured line length

TM = measured field temperature
TS = standard temperature
 = coefficient of thermal expansion
of steel = 1.125 x 10-5

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Example:

For the data from the previous example, determine the temperature correction CT to be
applied to a line measured as 177.323m long with the same field tape, if the temperature
at the time of measurement was 15°C.

• L = 177.323m
• TM = 15°C
• TS = 4°C
•  = 1.125 x 10-5

= L (TM - TS)
CT
= 1.125 x 10-5 x 177.323 (15 - 4)
= + 0.022m
****************************************************************************
Tension correction

If pulled with a tension greater than that at which it has been standardised, a tape will ‘stretch’
and give an erroneous measurement. Hence it is possible to calculate a correction to be applied
for non-standard tension, or “pull”, as follows:

- where L = measured line length

PM = field tension (N)
PS = standard tension (N)
A = area of cross-section of tape (m2)
E = Young’s Modulus of Elasticity for steel
= 20 x 1010 N/m2

Usually the need to apply this correction is removed by using a spring balance to pull with the
standard tension.
Example:

For the data from the previous two examples, determine the tension correction C P to be
applied to the measured line if the tension at the time of measurement was 50 N. Take
the cross-sectional area of the tape as 1.6 x 10-6 m2.

• L = 177.323m
• PM = 50 N
• PS = 67 N
• A = 1.6 x 10-6 m2
• E = 20 x 1010 N/m2

Thus: CP = L (PM - PS) / AE

= 177.323 (50 - 67) / (1.6 x 10-6 x 20 x 1010) = - 0.009m

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Distance Measuring Methods

Sag correction

When measuring with a steel tape along flat ground the tape will be fully supported along its
length. However when measuring with a steel tape that is not supported, i.e. by plumbing etc.,
the tape will sag under its own weight (in the shape of a catenary curve) and the value attained
for the measurement of the line section will be too great. The following correction can be
applied:

- where L = length of tape

W = weight of tape (N)
w = weight per unit length of tape (N)
PM = applied tension (N)
n = number of (equal length) sag intervals
 = angle of slope (elevation) of line

Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3

Figure 10 – Supported and plumbed tape

Is common practice to support the tape along its length if possible (Figure 10), or at several
points at least such that the correction for sag becomes negligible (and thus need not be
considered).

Example:

For the data from the previous three examples assume that the 177.323m line was
measured as follows:
First 50m 50 N tension Full catenary
Second 50m 50 N tension Fully supported
Third 50m 50 N tension Supported at mid point
Last 27.323m 50 N tension Full catenary

Assuming also that the line was horizontal, and that the tape weighed 0.12113 N/m,
determine the total sag correction for the line.

• w = 0.12113 N/m
• PM = 50 N

Section 1 • L = 50m
• n = 1 Thus: CS = - (w2 L3 cos2) / (24 n2 PM2)
= - 0.031m

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Section 2 • No correction!

Section 3 • L = 50m
• n = 2 Thus: CS = - 0.008m

Section 4 • L = 27.323m
• n = 1 Thus: CS = - 0.005m

Total sag correction = - 0.044m

Slope correction (Figure 11)

To reduce measured slope distances to the horizontal distance required, it is necessary to

measure either:

i) the slope (elevation) of each measured line section , or

ii) the height difference between the ends of each measured line section.

Figure 11

Thus, either the angle  or the vertical distance h must be measured.

This correction (CH above) is given by:

or

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Example: For the data above, and given the following slopes for the measured line sections,
calculate the total slope correction to be applied to the measured line.

First 50m + 3° 45’

Second 50m + 1° 20’
Third 50m - 5° 10’
Last 27.323m - 7° 15’

Section 1 • L = 50m
•  = + 3° 45’ Thus: CH = - L (1 - cos
= - 0.107m
Section 2 • L = 50m
•  = + 1° 20’ Thus: CH = - L (1 - cos
= - 0.014m
Section 3 • L = 50m
•  = - 5° 10’ Thus: CH = - L (1 - cos
= - 0.203m
Section 4 • L = 27.323m
•  = - 7° 15’ Thus: CH = - L (1 - cos
= - 0.218m

Total slope correction = - 0.542m

Combining corrections

Example:

Summarising all the corrections of the previous examples, we have:

__________________________________________________________________________

Section Distance Slope Temp Tension TS CH CS CT CP

__________________________________________________________________________

1 50m +3°45’ 15°C 50N -0.107 -0.031

2 50m +1°20’ 15°C 50N -0.014 -

-16° +0.022 -0.009
3 50m - 5°10’ 15°C 50N -0.203 -0.008

4 27.323m - 7°15’ 15°C 50N -0.218 -0.005

__________________________________________________________________________

177.323m -0.542 -0.044 +0.022 -0.009

__________________________________________________________________________

Thus - MEASURED DISTANCE: = 177.323m

Total correction C = - 0.573m

REDUCED DISTANCE: = 176.750m

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Distance Measuring Methods

OTHER PERSONAL ERRORS

Poor alignment

If one of the tape ends is off the line to be measured, or if the tape is ‘snagged’ on some
obstruction, an error in the measured line section will occur. Thus, for most practical purposes,
lining by “eyeing-in” is sufficient to keep the amount of misalignment to within about 0.1m.
However it is still important to ‘flick’ or ‘bounce’ the tape to minimise the effect of snags.

Incorrect slope

The effect of this error is the same as that caused by misalignment, whether it is an error of
slope or horizontality (zero slope). In most cases, however, the slope error can be easily kept to
an amount, which causes negligible error in the measured line section.

Poor plumbing

This is an error which always occurs, and which is (generally) random in nature.

Faulty marking

Chaining arrows or nails should be used to “mark” the end of the tape on the ground. They
should be set in perpendicular to the tape at 45° to the ground surface.

Poor reading or interpolation

Reading the scale on a tape leader can readily be done to the nearest millimetre, providing care
is taken. Care must be taken to avoid blunders in reading the tape. This can include misreading
(or mis-recording) the number on the tag at the back end of the tape.

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DETAIL SURVEYS

A “detail survey” of an area of land may be carried out solely using distance measurements -
i.e.: the method of trilateration. For example, in the figure below (Trilateration), all three sides
of the triangle have been measured (AC, AB and CB). Alternatively, the method of
triangulation may be used, where one baseline is measured (AB), alongside a series of
horizontal angles to other survey points.

Trilateration Triangulation

Undertaking a detail survey first requires the establishment of a control framework of triangles
and the accurate measurement of each triangle side (or internal angles for triangulation). It is
important that these triangles be “well conditioned”

Well-conditioned Poor conditioned

The position of features required to be plotted on the final “detail survey plan” can then be
located or “picked up” in relation to the control lines. A variety of distance measurement
techniques may be utilised for this task, such as:

- right-angled offsets
- intersecting distances
- distances and magnetic bearings (radiations), etc

The accuracy of measurement required

when “picking up” these features depends
ultimately on the scale of the survey plan
to be produced.

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Detail measurements

There are several accepted ways to fix the position of selected detail features relative to the
measured control framework.

Right-angled offset

This comprises a distance measurement

from a point D (whose running chainage
along a control line AB is known) to the
feature C, at right angles to the control line.
Methods of determining the perpendicular
direction of measurement of this “offset”

DC include estimation, clapping or optical

square;

Intersecting Distances (ties)

Here, two distance measurements are required to the feature, from

two points whose positions are known (usually control points). The
shape of the triangle formed is once again important, and good
“intersections” should be ensured.

Radiations

If angle or bearing measurement is also

possible - i.e.: with a theodolite (or a
magnetic compass, if accuracy require-
ments can be met) - this technique can
be used. Here, the distance and direction from
one control point to the feature is
measured. (This technique is commonly used
in performing traverse surveys.)

Intersecting bearings

No distance measurement is required if directions from two control points

are observed to the feature.

This method may be useful in traverse

surveys when fixing inaccessible (but
visible) features.

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Examples

The following examples show ways in which tape measurements may be made to efficiently
survey a variety of areas.

Figure 12 – Examples of Control and Detail surveys

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THE CLINOMETER (Figure 13)

Clinometers are instruments, usually held in the hand, for measuring angles of slope - i.e.:
vertical angles, or more precisely, angles of Elevation (E) or Depression (D).

Clinometers can be of various types, but generally comprise a graduated arc against which the
slope is read with reference to: i) a freely suspended plumb bob, or
ii) an index mark on an arm carrying a spirit level.
i.e.:

Figure 13 - Clinometer
Vernier Scales (Figure 14)

A VERNIER scale is designed to assist in accurate interpolation of the position of an index mark
(i.e.: a pointer) between the graduations on some main scale.

For example, if a scale is graduated in

degrees, it is possible to read the position
of the pointer on the scale “directly” to
the nearest degree only. eg: 4° plus a bit!

It is usual, however, to estimate the

“parts of a degree” - i.e.: how far the
pointer is past the previous scale grad-
uation. eg: 4°40’ approx!

The VERNIER, however, enables a much

more accurate estimation of the “parts” of
the main scale division. This is achieved by
examining both the vernier and main scales,
and determining which of the vernier scale
graduations is most closely aligned with a
main scale graduation.
Figure 14 – Vernier Scales
This particular vernier scale graduation
then gives the “parts” estimation. eg: 4°35’
The Abney Level (Figure 15)

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This is a clinometer with the levelling bubble fixed on a rotatable arm, which is set (supposedly)
at right angles to the index pointer. The pointer can be read on the graduated arc scale, usually
with the aid of a small magnifying glass.

The instrument is held up to the eye

by hand, and the distant point to
which the slope angle is required
is sighted through the eyepiece using
the sight wire.

The bubble is also viewed through

the eyepiece, and by rotating the
rotatable arm it is made to coincide
with the sight wire (and thus the
target). When this occurs, the
bubble is central in its tube, and the
index arm is vertical.

The index mark is then read against

the scale - using the magnifier. The
scale is usually graduated every 1°,
but readings can be estimated to the
nearest 5’ of arc using the vernier.

Figure 15 – Abney Level

Index Error of the Clinometer

Being a hand-held instrument, the Abney level is prone to being roughly handled, and may
therefore not be in correct adjustment.

The amount by which it may be out of adjustment is referred to as the Index Error. This is a
systematic error, and after calibrating the instrument, an Index Correction can (and must) be
applied to all slope measurements made.

There is a simple test to determine what the value of the Index Error is, and this should be
performed daily with any clinometer being used.

Index Error Test (Figure 16)

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Figure 16 – Index error test

1. Observe slope (say D) from A to B - take 3 readings, adopt the mean

2. Observe slope (say E) from B to A - 3 readings again, adopt the mean
3. Note: E is +ve, D is -ve
4. If mean E  mean D, instrument is out of adjustment
5. Calculate correction c from:
D + c = - (E + c)
ie: 2c = - (E + D)

Thus: c = - 1/2(E + D)

[INDEX ERROR = - INDEX CORRECTION]

Example:
A->B : - 3°30’ B->A : + 4°10’
- 3°40’ + 4°00’
- 3°20’ + 4°20’
Mean : - 3°30’ = D Mean : + 4°10’ = E

Thus:
c = - 1/2(E + D)
= - 1/2(4°10’ - 3°30’)
= - 0°20’

We must therefore correct ALL readings taken with the clinometer by - 0°20’

Check: E - 0°20’ = 3°50’

D - 0°20’ = 3°50’ 

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FIELD NOTES
The immediate product of any survey is the field record of the measurements made - i.e.: a set
of “field notes”. When a survey is completed, the field notes are the permanent record of the
work done.

Requirements for field note taking

For each survey, information relevant to the job must be recorded - at the beginning of the notes
in a field book, and on each page if field sheets are used. This information should be always
included:
- name, location, date, start and finish times of survey
- weather details
- survey party composition
- instrument type(s) and identification number(s).

Field notes must be “original” - i.e.: recorded in the field at the time each measurement was
made. It is bad practice to transcribe original field notes, and many mistakes occur if this is
done.

Example

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In 2005, Surveying 1 group “A” conducted a basic control and detail survey using a steel band
(and ancillary equipment) at Yarra Bend as a requirement for Prac 1. The following information
was collected:

Group Details: “A”

Date: 24th March 2005
Major Equipment: Steel band No. 24b
Reduced Horizontal Distances: AB 45.345m, BA 45.340m
Elevation or Depression angles: AB -3º30’, BA +3º00’
Compass Bearing: AB 351º15’, BA 171º14’30”’
Bearings from A and B to corner of building: from A 311º10’, from B 200º11’
Chainage/Offset distances to Tree 1: Chainage 22.45m, Offset 5.2m
Tree Diameter, Canopy Diameter: Trunk diameter 0.4m, Foliage diameter 5 m
Approx. direction of North:

Place this information in the appropriate location, in the field note diagram below.

REFERENCES

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