EUKARYOTIC CELL

A eukaryote is any organism whose cells contain a nucleus and other organelles enclosed
within membranes.
Eukaryotes belong to the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining feature that sets
eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells (Bacteria and Archaea) is that they have
membrane-bound organelles, especially the nucleus, which contains the genetic material,
and is enclosed by the nuclear envelope.[3][4][5] The presence of a nucleus gives eukaryotes
their name, which comes from the Greek ευ (eu, "well") and κάρυον (karyon, "nut" or
"kernel").[6] Eukaryotic cells also contain other membrane-bound organelles such as
mitochondria and the Golgi apparatus. In addition, plants and algae contain chloroplasts.
Many unicellular organisms are eukaryotes, such as protozoa. All multicellular organisms are
eukaryotes, including animals, plants and fungi.
Both asexual reproduction through mitosis and sexual reproduction through meiosis are
found in eukaryotic cell division. In mitosis, one cell divides to produce two genetically
identical cells. In meiosis one diploid cell (gamete) from each parent, undergoes
recombination, and creating a zygote. There are then two stages of cell division, resulting in
four haploid cells. Each gamete has just one complement of chromosomes, each a unique
mix of the corresponding pair of parental chromosomes.
The domain Eukaryota appears to be monophyletic, and so makes up one of the three
domains of life. The two other domains, Bacteria and Archaea, are prokaryotes and have
none of the above features. Eukaryotes represent a tiny minority of all living things; [7] even in
a human body there are 10 times more microbes than human cells. [8] However, due to their
much larger size, their collective worldwide biomass is estimated at about equal to that of
prokaryotes.[9] Eukaryotes first developed approximately 1.6–2.1 billion years ago.
CELL FEATURES:-
Detail of the endomembrane system and its components
Eukaryotic cells are typically much larger than those of prokaryotes. They have a variety of internal membrane bound
structures, called organelles, and a cytoskeleton composed of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments
, which play an important role in defining the cell's organization and shape. Eukaryotic DNA is divided into several
linear bundles called chromosomes, which are separated by a microtubular spindle during nuclear division.

Internal membrane:-
Eukaryote cells include a variety of membrane-bound structures, collectively referred to as the endomembrane system.
[10] Simple compartments, called vesicles or vacuoles, can form by budding off other membranes. Many cells ingest

food and other materials through a process of endocytosis, where the outer membrane invaginates and then pinches off
to form a vesicle. It is probable that most other membrane-bound organelles are ultimately derived from such vesicles.
The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane (commonly referred to as a nuclear envelope), with pores that allow
material to move in and out. Various tube- and sheet-like extensions of the nuclear membrane form what is called the
endoplasmic reticulum or ER, which is involved in protein transport and maturation. It includes the rough ER where
ribosomes are attached to synthesize proteins, which enter the interior space or lumen. Subsequently, they generally
enter vesicles, which bud off from the smooth ER. In most eukaryotes, these protein-carrying vesicles are released and
further modified in stacks of flattened vesicles, called Golgi bodies or dictyosomes.
Simplified structure of a mitochondrion
Vesicles may be specialized for various purposes. For instance, lysosomes contain enzymes that break down the
contents of food vacuoles, and peroxisomes are used to break down peroxide, which is toxic otherwise. Many protozoa
have contractile vacuoles, which collect and expel excess water, and extrusomes, which expel material used to deflect
predators or capture prey. In higher plants, most of a cell's volume is taken up by a central vacuole, which primarily
maintains its osmotic pressure.
MITOCHONDRIA AND PLASTICS
Mitochondria are organelles found in nearly all eukaryotes.They are the powerbank or powerhouse
of the cell as they provide energy to the cell in the form of ATP.[11] They are surrounded by two
membranes (each a phospholipid bi-layer), the inner of which is folded into invaginations called
cristae, where aerobic respiration takes place. Mitochondria contain their own DNA. They are
now generally held to have developed from endosymbiotic prokaryotes, probably proteobacteria.
The few protozoa that lack mitochondria have been found to contain mitochondrion-derived
organelles, such as hydrogenosomes and mitosomes; and thus probably lost the mitochondria
secondarily.

Plants and various groups of algae also have plastids. Plastids have their own DNA and are
developed from endosymbionts, in this case cyanobacteria. They usually take the form of
chloroplasts, which like cyanobacteria contain chlorophyll and produce organic compounds
(such as glucose) through photosynthesis. Others are involved in storing food. Although plastids
probably had a single origin, not all plastid-containing groups are closely related. Instead, some
eukaryotes have obtained them from others through secondary endosymbiosis or ingestion.

Endosymbiotic origins have also been proposed for the nucleus, for which see below, and for
eukaryotic flagella, supposed to have developed from spirochaetes.[clarification needed] This is not
generally accepted, both from a lack of cytological evidence and difficulty in reconciling this with
cellular reproduction.
 CYTOSKELETAL STRUCTURES
Main article: Cytoskeleton
Longitudinal section through the flagellum of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
Many eukaryotes have long slender motile cytoplasmic projections, called flagella, or similar structures
called cilia. Flagella and cilia are sometimes referred to as undulipodia,[12] and are variously involved in
movement, feeding, and sensation. They are composed mainly of tubulin. These are entirely distinct
from prokaryotic flagellae. They are supported by a bundle of microtubules arising from a basal body,
also called a kinetosome or centriole, characteristically arranged as nine doublets surrounding two
singlets. Flagella also may have hairs, or mastigonemes, and scales connecting membranes and internal
rods. Their interior is continuous with the cell's cytoplasm.
Microfilamental structures composed of actin and actin binding proteins, e.g., α-actinin, fimbrin,
filamin are present in submembraneous cortical layers and bundles, as well. Motor proteins of
microtubules, e.g., dynein or kinesin and actin, e.g., myosins provide dynamic character of the network.
Centrioles are often present even in cells and groups that do not have flagella, but conifers and
flowering plants have neither. They generally occur in groups of one or two, called kinetids, that give rise
to various microtubular roots. These form a primary component of the cytoskeletal structure, and are
often assembled over the course of several cell divisions, with one flagellum retained from the parent and
the other derived from it. Centrioles may also be associated in the formation of a spindle during nuclear
division.
The significance of cytoskeletal structures is underlined in the determination of shape of the cells, as
well as their being essential components of migratory responses like chemotaxis and chemokinesis.
Some protists have various other microtubule-supported organelles. These include the radiolaria and
heliozoa, which produce axopodia used in flotation or to capture prey, and the haptophytes,
which have a peculiar flagellum-like organelle called the haptonema.
CELL WALL
Further information: Cell wall

The cells of plants, fungi, and most chromalveolates have a cell wall, a layer outside the
cell membrane, providing the cell with structural support,[citation needed] protection, and a
filtering mechanism. The cell wall also prevents over-expansion when water enters the cell.

The major polysaccharides making up the primary cell wall of land plants are cellulose,
hemicellulose, and pectin. The cellulose microfibrils are linked via hemicellulosic tethers to
form the cellulose-hemicellulose network, which is embedded in the pectin matrix. The
most common hemicellulose in the primary cell wall is xyloglucan.

Differences among eukaryotic cells

There are many different types of eukaryotic cells, though animals and plants are the most
familiar eukaryotes, and thus provide an excellent starting point for understanding
eukaryotic structure. Fungi and many protists have some substantial differences, however.
ANIMAL CELL
Structure of a typical plant cell
An animal cell is a form of eukaryotic cell that makes up many tissues in animals. Animal cells are distinct from other
eukaryotes, most notably plant cells, as they lack cell walls and chloroplasts. They also have smaller vacuoles. Due to the
lack of a cell wall, animal cells can adopt a variety of shapes. A phagocytic cell can even engulf other structures.
There are many different types of cell. For instance, there are approximately 210
distinct cell types in the adult human body.

Plant cell
Further information: Plant cell
Plant cells are quite different from the cells of the other eukaryotic organisms. Their distinctive features are:
A large central vacuole (enclosed by a membrane, the tonoplast), which maintains the cell's turgor and controls
movement of molecules between the cytosol and sap[13]
A primary cell wall containing cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin, deposited by the protoplast on the outside of the
cell membrane; this contrasts with the cell walls of fungi, which contain chitin, and the cell envelopes of prokaryotes, in
which peptidoglycans are the main structural molecules
The plasmodesmata, linking pores in the cell wall that allow each plant cell to communicate with other adjacent cells; [14]
this is different from the functionally analogous system of gap junctions between animal cells.
Plastids, especially chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll, the pigment that gives plants their green color and allows them to
perform photosynthesis
Bryophytes and seedless vascular plants lack flagellae and centrioles except in the sperm cells. [15] Sperm of cycads and Ginkgo
are large, complex cells that swim with hundreds to thousands of flagellae. [16]
Conifers (Pinophyta) and flowering plants (Angiospermae) lack the flagellae and centrioles that are present in animal cells.
FUNGAL CELL
Fungal cell
Fungal Hyphae Cells
1- Hyphal wall 2- Septum 3- Mitochondrion 4- Vacuole 5- Ergosterol crystal 6- Ribosome 7-
Nucleus 8- Endoplasmic reticulum 9- Lipid body 10- Plasma membrane 11- Spitzenkörper 12-
Golgi apparatus
Fungal cells are most similar to animal cells, with the following exceptions:
A cell wall that contains chitin
Less definition between cells; the hyphae of higher fungi have porous partitions called septa, which
allow the passage of cytoplasm, organelles, and, sometimes, nuclei. Primitive fungi have few or
no septa, so each organism is essentially a giant multinucleate supercell; these fungi are described
as coenocytic.
Only the most primitive fungi, chytrids, have flagella.

Other eukaryotic cells

Eukaryotes are a very diverse group, and their cell structures are equally diverse. Many have cell
walls; many do not. Many have chloroplasts, derived from primary, secondary, or even tertiary
endosymbiosis; and many do not. Some groups have unique structures, such as the cyanelles of
the glaucophytes, the haptonema of the haptophytes, or the ejectisomes of the cryptomonads.
Other structures, such as pseudopods, are found in various eukaryote groups in different forms,
such as the lobose amoebozoans or the reticulose foraminiferans.
 REPRODUCTION
Cell division generally takes place asexually by mitosis, a process that allows each daughter nucleus
to receive one copy of each chromosome. In most eukaryotes, there is also a process of
sexual reproduction, typically involving an alternation between haploid generations, wherein only
one copy of each chromosome is present, and diploid generations, wherein two copies of each
chromosome are present, occurring through meiosis. There is considerable variation in this
pattern.

Eukaryotes have a smaller surface area to volume ratio than prokaryotes, and thus have lower
metabolic rates and longer generation times. In some multicellular organisms, cells specialized for
metabolism will have enlarged surface areas, such as intestinal vili.

The evolution of sexual reproduction may be a primordial and fundamental characteristic of

eukaryotes. Based on a phylogenetic analysis, Dacks and Roger proposed that facultative sex was
present in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes.[17] A core set of genes that function in meiosis is
present in both Trichomonas vaginalis and Giardia intestinalis, two organisms previously thought
to be asexual.[18][19] Since these two species are descendants of lineages that diverged early from the
eukaryotic evolutionary tree, it was inferred that core meiotic genes, and hence sex, were likely
present in a common ancestor of all eukaryotes.[18][19] Other studies on eukaryotic species once
thought to be asexual have revealed evidence for a sexual cycle. For instance, parasitic protozoa of
the genus Leishmania have recently been shown to have a sexual cycle.[20] Also, evidence now
indicates that amoeba, that were previously regarded as asexual, are anciently sexual and that the
majority of present day asexual groups likely arose recently and independently.[21]
 CLASSIFICATION

 One hypothesis of eukaryotic relationships. The Opisthokonta group includes both animals
(Metazoa) and fungi. Plants (Plantae) are placed in Archaeplastida.
 In antiquity, the two clades of animals and plants were recognized. They were given the
taxonomic rank of Kingdom by Linnaeus. Though he included the fungi with plants with
some reservations, it was later realized that they are quite distinct and warrant a separate
kingdom, the composition of which was not entirely clear until the 1980s. [22] The various
single-cell eukaryotes were originally placed with plants or animals when they became
known. In 1830, the German biologist Georg A. Goldfuss coined the word protozoa to refer
to organisms such as ciliates, and this group was expanded until it encompassed all single-
celled eukaryotes, and given their own kingdom, the Protista, by Ernst Haeckel in 1866.[23][24]
The eukaryotes thus came to be composed of four kingdoms:
 Kingdom Protista
 Kingdom Plantae
 Kingdom Fungi
 Kingdom Animalia
 The protists were understood to be "primitive forms", and thus an evolutionary grade,
united by their primitive unicellular nature.[24] The disentanglement of the deep splits in the
tree of life only really got going with DNA sequencing, leading to a system of domains rather
than kingdoms as top level rank being put forward by Carl Woese, uniting all the eukaryote
kingdoms under the eukaryote domain.[25] At the same time, work on the protist tree
intensified, and is still actively going on today. Several alternative classifications have been
forwarded, though there is no consensus in the field.
A classification produced in 2005 for the International Society of Protistologists,[26]
which reflected the consensus of the time, divided the eukaryotes into six supposedly
monophyletic 'supergroups'. However, in the same year (2005), doubts were
expressed as to whether some of these supergroups were monophyletic, particularly
the Chromalveolata,[27] and a review in 2006 noted the lack of evidence for several of
the supposed six supergroups.[28] A revised classification in 2012[2] recognizes five
supergroups. Although the published classification deliberately did not use formal
taxonomic ranks, other sources have treated each of the five as a separate Kingdom.
Archaeplastida (or Primoplantae)
Land plants, green algae, red algae, and glaucophytes
SAR supergroup
Stramenopiles (brown algae, diatoms, etc.), Alveolata, and Rhizaria (Foraminifera,
Radiolaria, and various other amoeboid protozoa).
Excavata
Various flagellate protozoa
Amoebozoa
Most lobose amoeboids and slime molds
Opisthokonta
Animals, fungi, choanoflagellates, etc.
 PHYLOGENY

The RNA trees constructed during the 1980s and 1990s left most eukaryotes in an unresolved
"crown" group (not technically a true crown), which was usually divided by the form of the
mitochondrial cristae; see crown eukaryotes. The few groups that lack mitochondria branched
separately, and so the absence was believed to be primitive; but this is now considered an artifact
of long-branch attraction, and they are known to have lost them secondarily. [29][30]

As of 2011, there is widespread agreement that the Rhizaria belong with the Stramenopiles and
the Alveolata, in a clade dubbed the SAR supergroup, so that Rhizaria is not one of the main
eukaryote groups; also that the Amoebozoa and Opisthokonta are each monophyletic and form a
clade, often called the unikonts.[31][32][33][34][35] Beyond this, there does not appear to be a consensus.

It has been estimated that there may be 75 distinct lineages of eukaryotes. [36] Most of these
lineages are protists.

The known eukaryote genome sizes vary from 8.2 megabases (Mb) in Babesia bovis to 112,000–
220,050 Mb in the dinoflagellate Prorocentrum micans, suggesting that the genome of the
ancestral eukaryote has undergone considerable variation during its evolution. [36] The last
common ancestor of all eukaryotes is believed to have been a phagotrophic protist with a nucleus,
at least one centriole and cilium, facultatively aerobic mitochondria, sex (meiosis and syngamy),
a dormant cyst with a cell wall of chitin and/or cellulose and peroxisomes.[36] Later endosymbiosis
led to the spread of plastids in some lineages.
Chromalveolata + Rhizaria
Some analyses disassemble the Chromalveolata + Rhizaria, showing close
relationships with the Archaeplastida. For example, in 2007, Burki et al.
produced a tree of the form shown below.[31]

BIKONTS AND UNIKONTS

In another analysis, the Hacrobia are shown nested inside the

Archaeplastida, which together form a clade with most of the Excavata,
before joining the SAR clade of Stramenopiles, Alveolata and Rhizaria.
Together all of these groups make up the bikonts, the Amoebozoa and
Opisthokonta forming the unikonts.[37]

The division of the eukaryotes into two primary clades, unikonts and
bikonts, derived from an ancestral uniflagellar organism and an ancestral
biflagellar organism, respectively, had been suggested earlier. [38][39]

A 2012 study produced a somewhat similar division, although noting that

the terms "unikonts" and "bikonts" were not used in the original sense. [40]
EXPANDED CHROMALVEOLATA

Other analyses place the SAR supergroup within an expanded Chromalveolata, although they differ on
the placement of the resulting five groups. Rogozin et al. in 2009 produced the tree shown below, where
the primary division is between the Archaeplastida and all other eukaryotes.[41]

More commonly, the expanded Chromalveolata is shown as more closely related to the Archaeplastida,
producing a tree of the form shown below.[33][35]

ALTERNATIVE VIEWS

A paper published in 2009, which re-examined the data used in some of the
analyses presented above as well as performing new ones, strongly suggested that
the Archaeplastida are polyphyletic. The phylogeny finally proposed in the paper
is shown below.[42]

There are also smaller groups of eukaryotes – including the genus Collodictyon,
the telonemids and biliphytes[43] – whose position is uncertain or seems to fall
outside the major groups.[40] Overall, it seems that, although progress has been
made, there are still very significant uncertainties in the evolutionary history and
classification of eukaryotes. As Roger & Simpson said in 2009 "with the current
pace of change in our understanding of the eukaryote tree of life, we should
proceed with caution."[44]
There are also the cladistic analyses of Diana Lipscomb based on classical data [45][46][47]
which have red algae as basal and Archeoplastida as paraphyletic. In the survey by
Parfrey et al.[48] it is recovered in only 42.6% of the molecular analyses that include it,
that is, 26 out of 61. It is not recovered in Goloboff et al.'s combined analysis, [49] and is
mostly weakly supported in other molecular analyses [50]). Laura Parfrey et al.[50] point
out that Archeoplastida support comes primarily from phylogenomic analyses and
these may be picking up misleading endosymbiotic gene transfer signal of genes
independently transferred from the plastid to the host nucleus in the 3 archeoplastid
clades. And Stiller and Harrell [51] emphasize that the group can be explained by "short-
branch exclusion" and "subtle and easily overlooked biases can dominate the overall
results of molecular phylogenetic analyses of ancient eukaryotic relationships. Sources
of potential phylogenetic artifact should be investigated routinely, not just when
obvious 'long-branch attraction' is encountered.“

Red algae as basal is also supported by molecular evidence. [52][53][54][55] Cyanidioschyzon,

a red alga, is considered basal (sister group to the rest of eukaryotes) by Nagashima et
al.[56] and Seckbach.[57] It has the most primitive chloroplast, only 1 mitochondrion, no
vacuoles, no trienoic acids, and the smallest eukaryotic genome at 8 Mbp.

Rhizaria are only moderately supported (65.5% of the studies, i.e., 19 of 29), [50]
statistical support for them is inconsistent in multigene genealogies with larger taxon
sampling[58] and the group is ambiguously supported in Goloboff et al.[49]
ORIGIN OF EUKARYOTES
The three-domains tree and the Eocyte hypothesis.[59]
Phylogenetic tree showing the relationship between the
eukaryotes and other forms of life.[60] Eukaryotes are
colored red, archaea green and bacteria blue.
FOSSILS

The origin of the eukaryotic cell is considered a milestone

in the evolution of life, since eukaryotes include all complex
cells and almost all multicellular organisms. The timing of
this series of events is hard to determine; Knoll (2006)
suggests they developed approximately 1.6–2.1 billion years
ago. Some acritarchs are known from at least 1.65 billion
years ago, and the possible alga Grypania has been found as
far back as 2.1 billion years ago.[61]
 Organized living structures have been found in the black shales of the Palaeoproterozoic
Francevillian B Formation in Gabon, dated at 2.1 billion years old. Eukaryotic life could
have evolved at that time.[62] Fossils that are clearly related to modern groups start
appearing an estimated 1.2 billion years ago, in the form of a red alga, though recent work
suggests the existence of fossilized filamentous algae in the Vindhya basin dating back
perhaps to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago.[63]

Biomarkers suggest that at least stem eukaryotes arose even earlier. The presence of steranes
in Australian shales indicates that eukaryotes were present in these rocks dated at 2.7
billion years old.[64][65]

RELATIONSHIP TO ARCHAEA

Eukaryotes are more closely related to Archaea than Bacteria, at least in terms of nuclear
DNA and genetic machinery, and one controversial idea is to place them with Archaea in
the clade Neomura. However, in other respects, such as membrane composition,
eukaryotes are similar to Bacteria. Three main explanations for this have been proposed:
Eukaryotes resulted from the complete fusion of two or more cells, wherein the cytoplasm
formed from a eubacterium, and the nucleus from an archaeon,[66] from a virus,[67][68] or
from a pre-cell.[69][70]
Eukaryotes developed from Archaea, and acquired their eubacterial characteristics from
the proto-mitochondrion.
Eukaryotes and Archaea developed separately from a modified eubacterium.
The chronocyte hypothesis for the origin of the eukaryotic cell [71] postulates that
a primitive eukaryotic cell was formed by the endosymbiosis of both archaea and
bacteria by a third type of cell, termed a chronocyte.

ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM AND MITOCHONDRIA:-

The origins of the endomembrane system and mitochondria are also unclear. [72]
The phagotrophic hypothesis proposes that eukaryotic-type membranes
lacking a cell wall originated first, with the development of endocytosis, whereas
mitochondria were acquired by ingestion as endosymbionts.[73] The syntrophic
hypothesis proposes that the proto-eukaryote relied on the proto-
mitochondrion for food, and so ultimately grew to surround it. Here the
membranes originated after the engulfment of the mitochondrion, in part
thanks to mitochondrial genes (the hydrogen hypothesis is one particular
version).[74]

In a study using genomes to construct supertrees, Pisani et al. (2007) suggest

that, along with evidence that there was never a mitochondrion-less eukaryote,
eukaryotes evolved from a syntrophy between an archaea closely related to
Thermoplasmatales and an α-proteobacterium, likely a symbiosis driven by
sulfur or hydrogen. The mitochondrion and its genome is a remnant of the α-
proteobacterial endosymbiont.[75]
HYPOTHESES FOR THE ORIGIN OF EUKARYOTICS

Different hypotheses have been proposed as to

how eukaryotic cells came into existence. These
hypotheses can be classified into two distinct
classes – autogenous models and chimeric
models.
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM DIAGRAM
ANIMAL CELL STRUCTURE
PLANT CELL STRUCTURE
MITOCHONDRION STRUCTURE
THANK YOU

PRESENTED BY

V.SAI CHARAN GUPTA

CLASS 8TH B2