LESSON 2 Introduction to the Study of Globalization Manfred Steger, professor of Global Studies and director of the Globalism Institute at Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) University, explains that globalization is not a new phenomenon as it started with pre-historic early human migration (Steger, 2014). For him, what has been taking place from 1980 onwards is no longer globalization per se but rather the expansion of globalization to a point of “convergence”. THE PARABLE OF THE BLIND MEN AND AN ELEPHANT Steger compares the contemporary study of globalization to the parable of the blind menand their first encounter with an elephant. The parable has a number of Indian variations, but generally goes as follows: Some blind men heard that an odd animal, called an elephant, had been brought to the town, but none of them were aware of its form and shape. Out of curiosity, they thus agreed that they should examine and know it by touch, of which they were capable. And so, they sought it out, and groped about it when they found it. For the first person, whose hand landed on the trunk, the elephant Oe rear te seemed like a thick snake, In the case of the second of the defining buzzwords of ‘our time, describing a variety of : i accelerating economic, political, kind of fan. As for the third blind, whose hand was upon and cultural processes that its leg, expressed, the elephant is a pillar like a tree- setter change ourenperene ; the world. trunk. The fourth blind man who placed his hand upon fjnsge source: evensicam! its side assumed that elephant isa wall. The fifth who felt its tail claimed that it as a rope. The sixth felt its tusk, describing the elephant as that which is hard, smooth, and like a spear. ne Vit BATAAN PENINSULA sti TE UNIVERSITY MAIN CAMPUS 7 LIBRARY & INFORMATION SERVICES whose hand reached its ear, the animal appeared like a‘The Parable of Blind Men and the Elephant ig used today as a ion for people thay endorse absolute truth or exclusive claims on a subject matter, The err for the warning is that a person with an incomplete grasp of truth ee A ee into th, one and only version of all reality, Indeed, our held knowledge of something may jus bealimited ective on the objective truth. eg ; Steger cain that similar oF the blind men, some globalization scholars ATE tog focused on compressing globalization into a singular process oe clash over which aspect of social life constitutes its primary domain and prevails. He admits tha globalization is a contested concept. COMPETING CONCEPTIONS OF GLOBALIZATION e 4 Perhaps the most common conception concerning globalization is the DOSition that this process and phenomenon is inevitable, acceptable, and generally favorable, Especially among capitalists and superpower nations, globalization is nothing but beneficial and should thus be accepted and promoted. | But not everyone welcomes this contemporary world phenomenon. There are those who state that globalization is “globaloney,” that is, a nonsensical or absurd ideg or talk on global issues. Steger reports that there are scholars who dismiss the concept for different reasons and to varying degrees (Steger, 2014): Rejectionists inthis camp, scholars perceive globalization asa “power word,” like “nationalism” and “development”, For them, power words like globalization explain everything and nothing; they are mere labels slapped on everything but never a tool of analysis, According to Steger, Supporters of globalization can adopt either of the two Possible ceeares to this position. Either they can try to demonstrate its ulility through empirical generates its own reality, and this Teality ¢; the concept itself is meaningful. | They clai . national in seope, ¥ claim, for instance, that Most trades remain Some promoters of Blobali i zation reg) one bea vital structure of pons tort by Pointing out that there couldModifiers ‘These so-called modifiers consider globalization as simply one of many similar phases in history. They thus conclude that the phenomenon should be viewed not as adistinctive affair but merely one moment ina more general theory of world history. Some pro-globalization reply to this criticism by pronouncing that our contemporary situation is exceptional in history, and that this distinctiveness is much more significant than this period's commonalities with other periods or placement within an inclusive historical theory. FOUR MAIN DIMENSIONS OF GLOBALIZATION Steger contends that globalization has four main dimensions: cal, (3) cultural, and @) ecological, with ideological aspects of each category. politic ‘These categories relate to four major domains of social life. Each of ation. Within each dimension, there are also is considered a conception of globaliz: various competing conceptions of globalization. The Economic Dimension of Globalization Economic globalization refers to the intensificati economic connections around the world. With global porations, powerfulinternationa gional trading systems. ‘Thus, at least four things mark econ massive transnational cor} large re 1. The Advent ofa New Global Economie Order. This contemporary global economic order arose after the Second World War, when the Bretton Woods Conference laid the found Monetary Fund (MF), World Bank, and ation (WTO). The officially World Trade Org Bretton Woods Conference, known as the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, was the 2 of 730 delegates from all 44 nt Washington New meet Allied nations at the Mour Hotel, located in Bretton Woods, Hampshire, United States, from July 1.22, 1944, The gathering regulated the international monetary and financial order after the conclusion of World War ttand established the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the IMF. ations for the International 3 (4) economic, (2) these dimensions ‘on, increase, and stretching of lization in economy emerged economic institutions, and omic globalization: © Then US. Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthay Jr. (center, standing) in his address to the delegates of the Bretton Woods Monetary Conference in 1944. This gathering regulated the international monetary and financial order after World War Mand established the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Monetary Fund (IME) image source: htt//naveworidbankora/ cerdaboutlerchnesstonyexhibis/ereto"- woods manetary ca ‘nforrnetion in the National Aches) 1920 La 3. | Steger explains that the economic dimension of globalization dominated by neoliberal capitalism, a brand of capitalism that compatiny, favors neoliberalism, As a policy model of economics, neoliberalism transfor, control of economic factors to the private sector from the public sector, promotes, among other things, that governments must limit subsidies, limi, | protectionism, open markets up to trade, It also aims to eliminate fixeg exchange rates, support deregulation, allow private property, and privatize — businesses run by the government, Neoliberalism is usually associate with laissez-faire, an economic policy that advocates a least amount of staig interference in the economic concerns of individuals and society, Neoliberalism liberalized financial transactions in the 1980s. Since then, the most noteworthy economic developments have been the growing power of transnational corporations, the internationalization of finance and trade, ang greater role of international economic institutions, However, history admits some major global economic setbacks such as the Great Recession of 2008 to 2010, the more recent European debt crises, and China’s economic slowdown, The Internationalization of Trade and Finance. Free trade advocates hope _ that eradicating trade barriers among nations will lead to growth in global wealth, achieve international relations, and disseminate new technologies around the world. Globalization in financial trading is said to have caused increased mobility among various parts of financial industry, with less restraints and more investment opportunities. Since the 1990s, liberalization of financial transactions has been speeded up by Internet-based technologies and satellite systems. The Increased Power of Transnational Corporations. In the contemporary globalized world, much of the world’s investment capital, technology, and access to international markets have become underthe control of transnational corporations. These transnational corporations have become a great rival to nation-states in their economic power. The Enhanced Role of International Economic Institutions. Today, one cannot doubt that huge international economic institutions such as IMF, the World Bank, and the WTO play essential roles in making rules of a global economy, This type of economy is now sustained in the global North and South. (The so-called Global South is made up of Africa, Latin America, and developing: Asia including the Middle East. The Global North includes all the members of the G8 and the four of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.) In addition, some claim that economic globalization is characterized by the Western-based transnational corporations running the globe to their own advantage especially under neoliberal capitalism. Globalization is marked by its confidence in free markets and emphasis on minimal state intervention.‘THE POLITICAL DIMENSION OF GLOBALIZATION Steger 0m) defines political globalization as the intensification and expansion of political interrelations around the world. The political dimension of globalization includes aspects such as the modern nation-state system and its evolving rolein today’s world, effects of globalization to state sovereignty, role of global governance, growing impact of intergovernmental organizations, direction of the global political systems, global mangle! flows, and environmental policies affecting our planet. Steger admits that these themes respond to the develo| framework of the nation-state. ete sta Sarre aye On the question whether the major causes behind globalization are mainly political or economic in origin, hyperglobalizers and globalization sceptics have contrasting opinions. Hyperglobalizers believe that political globalization is principally driven by economic and technologic forces. Politics is said to be rendered practically powerless by an overpowering techno-economic juggernaut (Le., a huge, powerful, and overwhelming force or institution) that is said to crush all governmental efforts to reestablish restrictive policies and regulations. Hyperglobalizers contend that globalization encompasses the waning of bounded territory (a decrease in territorial poundaries) and states losing control of things within their borders. Globalization sceptics totally disagree and explain that the hasty expansion of global ducible neither to market principles nor to the advancement 0 be the main factor that pushes forward fe with neoliberal governments’ political at when. economic activities is re of computer technology. Politics is said t globalization as it is alleged to originat decisions to remove international trade restrictions on capital. It is claimed th: these decisions were effected, global markets and new technologies emerged. Scepties hold that territory does matter, so they advocate the operation of conventional political units in the form of global cities or modern nat Steger seems to imply that the p their dominant role tion-states. litical effects of globalization include to transnational corporations, though unter a progressively borderless action of coming to live permanently in a foreign litical unit consisting of a self-governing sovereign who share a common culture, history, In sum, nation-states indeed losing t in return sanctioning immigration controls to €0! world. Immigration denotes the country. Nation-state refers to a p state which is inhabited by subjects or citizens and language. In a nation-state, the government has central control over its territory, ideally nation-state thus include (a) central political organization pounded territory, the use of violence hthelawwithin the (b) independence and anda sense of shared speaking. Dimensions of the anda monopoly on e national territory, and to: defend sovereignty; (¢) diplomatic history, language, culture, which exercises control over toenforceorderand compliance wit the state against external aggression; representation to other nation-states; and identity among the citizens 2Modern nation-state’s beginning, ean be traced back to 1648, the Peace of Westphalia which endeq religious wars, among the leading European powers: ‘That Peace alloweg centralization of political powey and development of professiona) {© Ths 1648 painting by Dutch painter Bartholomeus Van diplomacy and state aaministsation, eee nc choles cacbrovog itnatertiay CCN neds of globalization end of the wor of religions in Europe. The treaty signed during the 1970s, the internationa) in Minster is one of the three treaties thatcomprisethe soeiety of independent states haq pecome a global web of politica) Peace of Westphatia. [image source: https:/[Link]/2013/i0/24/an- jnterdependencies which challenged the sovereignty of nation-states. In unknown-life-from-the-past-the-guy-in-the-celebration-of- h of a “new world order” which signaled the-peace-of-munster/} 1990, US President Bush proclaimed the birt! the death’of the Westphalia nation-state model. Indeed, there are reasons to believe thatina globalized world, power becomes less and less located in territorially based nation-states, put in global social formations, one can see how vulnerable * networks, and transnational corporations. For instance, nation-states have become at not having any practical control over exchange rates, thereby becoming unable to protect their currency as they are necessiatated to depend on decisions made by others. Globalization seems to weaken bounded territory and cause the upsurge of @ Jobal networks and no longer in borderless world. Political affairs appear to occur in g f globalization, states’s role in defining the states based on territory. As a consequence 0! direction of social life in their own territory becomes weaker. Global markets enforce their own standards which challenges the role of objectives. As the sovereignty of nation-states decreases, contemporary globalization also weakens the traditional boundaries of states and strengthens supraterritorial f governments to set national policy spaces. Furthermore, political globalization results in the rise of supraterritorial institutions and relatedly seems to create dramatic global governance. Some less optimistic scholars nonetheless contend that creation of a global democracy is just an abstract idealism and that some nation-states will eventually not accept this global democracy, THE CULTURAL DIMENSION OF GLOBALIZATION Cultural globalization is the intensification and expansion of cultural flows across the globe. Culture is a very extensive concept and often used to describe the whole of human experience, including the economic and political. In the discussion on globalization, however, Steger means it to refer to “the symbolic construction a 22articulation, and dissemination of meaning, Given that language, Music, and images constitute themajor forms of symbolic expression, they assume special significance in the sphere of culture” (2017, para. 1). Aperceptibleaspectofthecultural globalizationistheflow ofsome cuisines such as American fast food chains. The two mostsuccessful global food and beverage outlets, MeDonald’s and Starbucks, are American companies repeatedly named as examples of globalization, with over 37,000 and 29,000 locations operating worldwide, respectively as of 2018 (Statistita, n.d). Thus, American sociologist George Ritzer (born 1940) developed the term McDonaldization to refer to the principles of the fast food Festaurant coming to dominate eras Gr ena more and more sectors of American society as well as of the McDonaldization. rest of the world. Mmage source: https// The most common interpretations of cultural TCR eaae globalization are the thoughts that the world is becoming more uniform and standardized, through a technological, commercial, and cultural synchronization proceeding from the West. Moreand more sociologists are nonetheless arguing against this thesis. Some topics under the cultural dimension of globalization include (a) the development of a global culture (or lack thereof), (b) the role of the media in forming our desires and identities, and (c) the globalization of languages. ‘The development ofa giobal culture (or lack thereof)pertains to the tension between sameness and difference in the emerging global culture. Thereis the debate on whether there is an increasing homogeneity (ie, the world is becoming smaller, and we are all becoming more alike) or increasing heterogeneity (ie., the world is fragmenting, and we are emphasizing our difference more). Some claim that globalization all the more reinvigorates niche cultures instead of abolishing them, thereby increasing cultural heterogeneity. However, pessimistic hyperglobalizers argue that globalization causes the rise of a homogenized popular culture which is generally based on a Western culture industry, For them, cultural globalization is best seen as”cultural imperialism” which is typically moving towards "Americanization” of the world. The diversity of existing cultures is said to be diminishing as the world is being homogenized or “Americanized” despite the resistance of some countries. Optimistic hyperglobalizers agree with the rise of sameness in cultural globalization, but they positively believe that it will have good results. For instance, some of them hope that Americanization of the globe leads to spreading out of democracy and free markets, 23Bc eh iter coi ng rat a a sociologist and theorig, ot On the other hand, Roland Robertson (born 1938; in Scotland, United Kingdon) globalization who lectures at the University of Aberdeen It of “glocalization” in which there is a), talks about “cultural hybridity” as a resul interaction between local and global cultural traits: Cultural hybridization refers ty the mingling of cultures as a result of globalization, and the ensuing ¢reation of ney, and unique hybrid cultures that are not reducible to either local or global culture, Glocatization refers to the interpenetration of the tocal and the global resulting j, unique outcomes in various geographic areas. ‘as a result of cultural globalization, there is less stable sense of identity among people around the world. Today, one cannot doubt the crucial role of transnational media corporations jy | @isceminating popular culture and in forming our desires and identities. Powenfy media facilitate cultural globalization. Nowadays, media is am enormous commerciay market which is said to amount to creation of @ global oligopoly like the oil. Globaj_ media networks are owned by a small group of transnational corporations, which are said to affect journalistic integrity. 1 ‘Assisted by our flourishing mobile digital devices and the Internet, the leading 1 g of our age—such as individualism (stresses human — consumerism (encourages the — ‘elf-reliance and liberty). and several religious _ ever-increasing amounts), ed, and intensely impact the symbolic systems of meanin; independence and individual st acquisition of goods and services in idiscourses—can be more effortlessly and swiftly circulate way we experience our daily lives. Through media and new technologies, cultural | nation. In interaction with — practices are not located (or not! exclusive) ina fixed town or prevailing global themes, cultural practices are also obtaining new meanings. } A very significant aspect of cultural globalization is the change in patterns of _ Janguages around the. globe. In globalization of languages, some languages are used in international communication while some others are set aside, Some opposing hypotheses exist about the effects of globalization to language. Some claim that it leads to fortification of native tongues. In contrast, some forecast — the rise of a "globisb” language. There are at least five variables which influence the globalization of languages: (a) number of languages, (b) movements of people, © foreign language learning and tourism, (d) Internet language, and (e) international scientific publications. THE ECONOMIC DIMENSION OF GLOBALIZATION The ecological dimension of globalization studies the effects of global unions om environmental issues. There is an. inevitable link between all humanity and the planet Earth. Ecological globalization refers to worldwide environmental issues which include population growth, access to food, global reduction in biodiversity, the gaP betwee rich and poor as well as between the global North and global South, human-inducet climate change, and global environmental degradation. a3 4Globalization undeniably affects ecology. For instance, because of increasing globalization, people usually inadvertently introduce non-native animals, plants, and even diseases into new localities, Invasive species and pathogens, like fire ants from south America and the SARS virus from China, can create huge, costly problems. “The U.S. currently spends over $120 billion per year on measures to prevent and eradicate invasive species. Understanding ecosystem connectivity across a range of scales - from Jocal to regional to continental - will help scientists predict where savant species are likely to go next” (“Ecological Globalization”), Globelization’s overall ecological effects, as impacted by the economic, political andculturalaspects of globalization, are now acknowledged as possibly life threatening for the earth. The process of globalization heightens the unrestrained population growth, extravagant consumption patterns in the global North, food shortages, reduced biodiversity, global warming, and climate change. Since the Industrial Revolution, global human activities have been causing various ecological problems, including resource and food shortages and transboundary pollution (such as the stunning amount of trash and plastics that find their way into our our planet’s soil and oceans), The global impact of major environmental disasters includes the destruction ofthe Fukushima nuclear reactor in Japan in the wake of the 2011 earthquake andthe 2010 British Petroleum oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, The major manifestations and consequences of environmental degradation are all global issues. All of these problems are global, as they are results of aggregated human actions, and so they entail a coordinated response. While some progress has been made such as at the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris, only few multilateral measures have been implemented. The competing conceptions in ecological globalization center on the seriousness ofthe mentioned ecological issues. While others doubt the urgency of the issues, many contend that the current phase of globalization has been harshly damaging to the environment, and action is needed now. Steger (2017), for instance, claims that the scale, speed, and depth of the earth’s environmental decline have been unparalleled. Unless people are willing to change the underlying cultural and religious value structure, together with the social and economic dynamics of uncontrolled capital accumulation, the condition of Mother Earth is expected to further worsen. Steger further claims, “The deteriorating ecological health of our planet will become the most pressing global problem by mid-century at the latest. We simply can no longer afford business-as-usual. ... And if we don’t switch from fossil fuels to alternative forms of clean energy any time soon, we will reach our ecological point of no return” (2017), (For detailed discussions on globalization and environment, read the Appendix B: “Human-Environment Systems” and Appendix C: “Climate Change: Causes, Effects, and Solutions” J.) 25UNDERLYING PHILOSOPHIES AND IDEOLOGIES IN GLOBALIZATION Ideology is usually defined as a system of ideas and ideals, especially one that forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy. Steger expanded this meaning hy defining ideologies as “patterned clusters of, normatively-imbued ideas and concepys, including particular representations of power relations, carrying claims to social truth —as, for example, expressed in liberalism, conservatism, and socialism" (2017), Asa system of commonly shared beliefs, ideas, norms, and values among group of people, ideology is frequently used to legitimize some ‘political interests or to justify prevailing power structures. Ideology links certain human actions with, some generalized claims. : There is a need to make a distil Globalization isa social process of intensifying global isan ideology that endows a concept of globalization with certain values or values. For instance, as an operation or planning of economic and foreign policy on a global basis, globalism may give the concept of neoliberal values and meanings to globalization. Like all social processes, globalization functions on a cross-cutting deologica) dimension packed with beliefs, claims, accounts, and norms, about the phenomenon itself, Steger (2017) mentions three main types. of globalisms or ideologies that provide the concept of globalization with certain meanings and values and meanings: market globalism, justice globalism, and religious (or jihadist) globalisms. inction between globalization and globalism, interdependence, while globalism, MARKET GLOBALISM ‘Market globalism pursues to grant globalization wit free-market norms. Market globalists promise a consumerist, neoliberal, free-market world. This ideology is advocated by some powerful individuals, who claim, among other things, that globalism spreads democracy and benefits everybody. ‘Stegerconsiders market globalism the dominant ideology of our time, and believes that it has six major ideological claims: 4. Globalization is about the liberalization and global integration of markets,Market globalists seem to suggest that the actual results of market interactions are neither intended nor foreseen, but are the upshots of the workings of what Scottish economist and philosopher Adam Smith (1723-1790) popularly called the invisible hand, that is, the unobservable market force that is said to help the demand and supply of goods in a free marketto attain equilibrium automatically). 2. Globalization is inevitable and [Link] is held that the diffusion of market forces powered by technological advances is unavoidable and irrevocable in globalization. Neoliberals and market globalists employ this assertion t persuade people to adopt the natural discipline of the market if they want (0) succeed, which entails the removal of government controls over the market§ In other words, they claim that global integration of markets should be submissively accepted and yet should be aggressively pursued. fh neoliberal meanings and : ygNobody is in charge of globalization, As former US Under Secretary of State for Economic, Business, and Agricultural Affairs Robert Hormats said, “The great beauty of globalization is that no one is in control. The great beauty of globalization is that it is not controlled by any, individual, any government, any institution" (Steger, 2017). It is claimed that everything that works on disseminating new world order principles and neoliberal principles have been severely rooted in ancient history, This claim aims to neutralize antiglobalist movements and depoliticize the public debate on globalization. Globalization benefits everyone. Market globalists try to sell globalization as a source of hope for the future. ‘g gobert Hormots: They talk about its advantages like the increasingly rapid “The great beauty of dissemination of information, technological innovations, 9/222!zatlon is that mie i noone is in control. and the proliferation of skilled jobs. One comment against the great beauty of this, however, is that the opportunities of globalization globalization is that are spread unequally and that wealth and power are nar connillely concentrated among a particular group of people, regions, government, any and corporations. institution. [image source: Globalization furthers the spread of democracy in the world. jrips,/commons. Democracyis derived fromthe ancient Greekterm démokratia wikimediaorg/whi/ which means “rule of the people”. Itis commonly defined as eects a form of government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised directly by them or by their elected agents under a free electoral system. The market globalists’ claim that globalization furthers the spread of democracy in the world is based on the neoliberal contention that democracy is synonymous with freedom, free markets, and free trade. However, some scholars believe otherwise and argue that globalization even poses a threat to the democratic state instead of aiding its expansion. For them, globalization even weakens the vital requirements of state autonomy, patriotism, and national identity. Globalization requires war on terror, ‘This claim combines the concept of economic globalization with militaristic and nationalistic ideas associated with the American-led global War on Terror. This nonetheless creates some logical contradictions. For instance, the globalists’ dependence on the coercive powers of the state to protect their project logically contradicts both their idea of the “self-regulating market” and their claim of globalization’s historical “inevitability”. 27JUSTICE GLOBALISM i : Justice globalism upholds an alternative vision of globalization based on egalitarigg ideals,of global solidarity and distributive justice: ‘This ideology from the Politica Left contests market globalism, Political Left or Loft-wing polities is that wisely Supports . social equality and egalitarianism and usually in opposition to social hierarchy, Justice globalism’s critique of market globalism includes the jelaim that “liberalization and global integration of free markets Jead to greater social inequalitie,, environmental destruction, the escalation of global conflicts and violence, the weakening of participatory forms of democracy, the proliferation of self-interest ang consumerism, and the further marginalization ofthe powerless around the worlqr (Steger, 2017). i Justice globalists admit that globalization may be inevitable, but assert that its final form and character y + fee 4 VU} MAW MEE can and must be shaped by intentional policies that Y ‘ highlight egalitarian principles. They envision a global Y a a4 civil society with fairer relationships and ecological safeguards. They oppose market globalists who view © The ‘Black Flog of Jihad’: neoliberalism as the only way. + Justice globalism involves seven key values: (1) Whadism'is a 21st-century neologism found in Western transformative change, (2) participatory democracy, (3) Janguages to label islamist militant i see ee ee oe iecdmmniite equality of access to resources and opportunities, (@ movements (allegedly) rooted in social justice, (5) universal rights, (6) global solidarity, ‘slam and threatening to the West. and (7) sustainability. The ideology further promotes fimage source: [Link]] i » three different strategies: (1) reform, (2) autonomy, and @) transformation. RELIGIOUS GLOBALISM Religious globalism endeavors for a global religious community with dominance: over secular structures. These globalisms fight against both market globalism and justice globalism as they seek to champion religious beliefs and values that are said to be under severe attack by the powers of consumerism and secularism in the globalized world. Manly religious globalisms which pu imagined in global footings in defence of faiths are usually, but not always, with the political Right. Right-wing politics generally refers to the conservative reactionary section of a political party or system. It believes that some social ode! and hierarchies are inevitable, natural, normal or desirable, and thus should b? suopartad atall costs on the basis of natural law, tradition, or economics, The original Right (in France) was created as a reaction against the “Left” and comprised those W” supported hierarchy, tradition, and religion-based leadership, ue to activate a religious community ociated 28‘The surge of religious globalisms includes Christian global findamentalism, Falats Gong syncretism, and Buddhism, Apparent in some variants of all three monotheistic religions, religious globalism’s most remarkable strain today, however, is what Steger calls as Jihadist Islamism, The term Jihadism (also jihadist movementand thas i movement) is a 21"-century neologism found in Western languages to label Islamist militant movements considered as military movements (allegedly) rooted in Islam and assumed to be threatening to the West. The Jihadist globalism advocated by some radical Islamists seeks to incite their global community of believers into violent action. Jihadist Islamists complain about the contemporary age of Jahiliyyah (age of ignorance and pagan idolatry) and call fora transformed universalism of a global umma (the whole community of Muslims bound together by ties of religion). The 9/11 attack demonstrates the disturbing effect that jihadist globalism can have, considering the fact that Osama Bin Laden and Al- Qaeda terrorists fed on the supposed “Americanization” of the world to validate their activities. So in the wake of 9/11, Jihadist Globalism has been pitted against Imperial Globalism, which can be said'to be influenced by market and justice globalism. While Imperial Globalism seeks to use the United States’ economic and military power to allegedly democratize the world and wage war on terror, Jihadist Globalism seeks to weaken the West’s military and economic power and reestablish the Umrha through armed or unarmed struggle. AWORKING DEFINITION OF GLOBALIZATION Many have tried to define globalization in various ways with relative suecess. Some assert that defining it cannot be done, while others claim that doing so would limit the term's meaning. Still, there are those who have challenged these two positions and fashioned some working definitions, A working definition is that which is taken for an Occasion and may not entirely conform to established or authoritative definitions. It is a tentative definition being developed that can be tailored to construct an authoritative Of well-established definitions would be grounds for Working definition. Hence, it would be definition. Not knowing Picking or developing a better here for us to introduce some working definitions of the term globalization, even though we admit that defining this term is anything but easy, The website [Link] enumerates some definitions from some known scholars of globalization (“Concept of Globalization,” 2017); 1. “Globalization asa concept refers both to the com intensification of consciousness of the w “Globalization compresses the time an Games Mittelman) pression of the world and the orld as a whole,” (Roland Robertson) 2. id space aspects of social relations.”= 2 — — a nse enlargement gy imme 1 market both OF Whig so ; oy the sere world mat eile a s of modernity, ation pivot » stages ty, mreconcepis of BIODNTIEET gpthehorile | gartier stay! | Tne cont aod an 08 ammneiote 0 . world comm te and fi sion on exchanges ere rangi restric % seems for mere raat ‘f sys | ee sanneeon) jon of steer 4 complex global System of / oe rremimytsonor eur nly integote a sie” (ror G. Palmer) 4, “The di easing) a result: jers and the increhs e that exchange thal : thought of a8 @ in the’ Spal as emerged aso” ot of processes) which : a sel : sation of social relation rganiZ ,, intensity velocity: ang } across bord production and §, “Globalization may be embodies vin terms of thelr @HO™ Tg and networks of and transaction-asse corral or inter A impeach-genterating transcont » (David Hel wer! ae ty i e exercise of power!" “ Ea activin interaction and th re ron ‘ = defined as the intensification orld wide social relations "Globalization can be def : thaped by a | happenings are s! fhich link distant localities in such a way that loca which link dist : Giddens) oo vice-versa.” (Anthony ares oe Be) hand, Manfred Steger (2017) holds Nn that globalization can best be deserbesl az expansion and intensification of social relations and consciousness across world-time and world space,” As a process, Steger further explains that gobalization is a forceful and transformative one which entails that people are leaving behind the condition of modern nationality and are moving towards the new condition of postmodern globality, though they have not yet reached it. He admits that globalisation is not (9 process that encompasses the but'a set of processes that fur Bue, course and consequences and ur n of transnational and transculturol seve on many 1 integration of human ond non-human —CiMNSions an iron nd atthe * Umage source: Systane © Dr-AbRochon: “Globalization 4 single process, nction concurrently levels and in various Seem to transform our present Social condition of w akening nation: lity slobality, Al. Rodhan, Sel ‘ story. com into one of Finally, Dr, Nayes pp of the Program nior Se OM the Gee hor Scho! la Geos SECUTIY defines gobatpar Ili tions of gi a ie Y defines globalization a = Sf Globalizatio atid Conse OM 88 “a Drone ation and ‘Tr; ational and conse QUENCES Of tran, cea Process that eneompase nd Transnation! human activities (1p dha "4 transeultup “SSeS the causes, courses “odhan, 201 al integra ), “eration of human and not 30 a ee preset bier pefine the following tert {,, Eeonomic globalizat (Sel has = a Se a ee eee 2. Laissez-faire 3. Political globalizat 4. Hyperglobalizers