Traffic Engineering Third year College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof Dr.

Hamid Al-Jameel

CHAPTER TWO
TRAFFIC STUDIES

2.1 Definitions
1. Volume: It is the number of vehicles passing a given point during a
specified period of time, or the number of vehicles that pass over a given
section of a lane or a roadway during a specified period of time.

2. Average annual daily traffic (AADT): The total yearly volume divided by
the number of days in the year, commonly abbreviated as AADT.

[Link] daily traffic(ADT): The total volume during a given time period, in
whole days greater than one day and less than one year, divided by the number
of days in that time period, commonly abbreviated as ADT.

4. Maximum Annual Hourly Volume: The highest hourly volume that occurs
on a roadway in a designated year.

5. Rate of flow: the equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles pass over a given
point or section of a lane or roadway during a given time interval of less
than 1 h, usually 15 min.
6. Capacity: it represents the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a
given point during a period of time under prevailing condition, commonly
expressed as (pcuphpl).

7. Peak hour factor (PHF): The ratio of total hourly volume to the peak flow
rate within the hour, computed by Equation (2.1)

…(2.1)

In practical terms, the PHF generally varies between a low of 0.7 for rural and
developed areas to 0.98 in dense urban areas.

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Example (2.1): Calculate the rate of flow of vehicles from the following data:
Time period(minutes) Volume (vehicles) Rate of flow (vph)
7:00-7:15 700 (700)*4=2800
7:15-7:30 812 3248
7:30-8:00 1635 3270
Total 3147 vph
PHF=3147/3270=0.96
Example (2.2): The total number of vehicles in each month of the year has been
prepared in table below. Calculate (1) The average daily traffic (ADT)
for each month. (2) The annual average daily traffic

Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 sum
No. of days 31 28 31 30 31 30 31 31 30 31 30 31 365
Total number 425 410 385 400 450 500 580 570 490 420 415 400 5445
of vehicles in
month (1000)
ADT (vpd 13.71 14.64 12.4 13.3 14.5 16.6 18.7 18.3 16.3 13.5 13.8 12.9
1000)

 1 st month ADT (vpd 1000)=425/31=13.71 vpd

 AADT (vpd 1000)=5445/365=14.91
2.2 Type of traffic facility according to type of flow
The Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) 2010 describes traffic facilities according to the
type of controlling flow into:
1. Uninterrupted flow (these facilities have no external interruptions to the traffic stream
such as intersections, traffic signals, stop or yield signs, or other interruptions external to the
traffic stream itself. Such facilities have full control of access; there are no intersections at
grade, or any forms of direct access to abutting lands. Remember that the term uninterrupted
flow refers to type of facility, not the quality of operations on that facility.)
 Freeway facilities
 Basic freeway segments
 Freeway weaving segments
 Freeway merge and diverge segments
 Multilane highways
 Two-lane highways
2. Interrupted flow (these facilities are those that incorporate fixed external interruptions
into their design and operation.)
 Urban street facilities
 Urban street segments
 TWSC intersections
 AWSC intersections

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 Roundabouts
 Interchange ramp terminals
 Off-street pedestrian and bicycle facilities.
2.3 Need for Data on Traffic Volumes
AADT volumes are used for:

ADT volumes are used for:

Peak hourly volumes are used for:

Classified volumes giving the types of vehicles, number of axles, weight and
dimensions are used for:
1. Design of Geometric characteristics, with particular reference to turning-
radii requirements, maximum grades, lane widths and so forth.
2. Structural design of highway pavements, bridges and so forth.
3. Capacity analyses, with respect to passenger-car equivalents of trucks.
4. Adjusting machine counts.
Short –term volumes for internals less than an hour (5, 10 and 15 minute
intervals)

1. Analyzing maximum rates of flow and variations within peak hours.

2. Determining capacity limitations in urban areas, since hourly traffic

flows are not sufficiently definitive of flow variations.

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Intersection volume counts are made to determine:

1. Total traffic entering the intersection for all legs.

2. Total traffic executing each of the possible turning movements.

3. Total traffic by time periods

4. Classification of vehicles by type.

2.3 Traffic Volume Variations

A continuous count of traffic at a section of a road will show that traffic
volume varies from hour to hour, from day to day, and from month to month.

2.3.1 Traffic Hourly Variations

1. Hourly variations in traffic volume are shown in Figure (1.2, a), where the
volume for each hour of the day is represented as a percentage of the
ADT.

2. There is no pronounced early morning peak in rural areas, but in urban

areas there is a pronounced peak which occurs in the 7:00 to 9:00 a.m.
interval. Also the peak volumes occur between 2 and 3 p.m. It can be
inferred that work trips are primarily responsible.
3. If the data are collected on every weekday for one week, the hourly
variations will be similar to each other, although the actual volumes may
not be the same from day to day.

4. Local rural roads also have distinctive morning peaks.

5. in urban areas there is a high directional peak inbound in the morning on

expressway and radial arterials leading into the CBD.

2.3.2 Traffic Daily Variations

1. Daily variations are shown in Figure (2.1, b), where it is seen that traffic
volumes on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday are similar, but a
peak is observed on Sunday. This indicates that when short counts are being
planned, it is useful to plan for the collection of weekday counts on
Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and, when necessary, to plan for the
collection of weekend counts separately on Friday and Saturday.

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2. The heaviest daily traffic volumes for main rural highways occur on the
weekend, on Thursday or Friday.

3. The variation in daily urban traffic for weekdays is not very pronounced on
urban arterials.

2.4.3 Traffic Monthly Variations

1. Monthly variations are shown in Figure (2.1, c) where very low volumes
are observed during June, July and August, mainly because of the summer
weather, and the peak volume is observed during October, mainly due to
beginning of study in school and universities.

2. Local rural roads are subject to greater fluctuations than main rural roads.
Monthly variations in urban areas are usually much less than in rural areas,
but on recreational –type facilities the seasonal fluctuations are quite
significance.

(a) Hourly traffic volume variation

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(b) Daily traffic volume variation

c) Monthly traffic volume variation

Figure (2.1): Traffic volume variations on urban highway

2.5 Types of Volume Counts

Different types of traffic counts are carried out, depending on the anticipated
use of the data to be collected. These different types will now be discussed
briefly:

1. Cordon counts: are made to determine the accumulations of vehicles and /

or persons, during a typical time period, within a district called the cordon
area .A cordon line define the area, and each street crossing the cordon line
is a count station, where all vehicles and/or persons entering and leaving the

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district are counted. The data is used for planning parking, arterial,
freeways, transit, providing a basis for the evaluation of traffic operational
techniques.

2. Screen –line volume counts: are made at crossings of natural or man-made

barriers, such as waterways, railroad tracks, expressways, parks, etc. Screen
lines are used to divide the area into large district for the purpose of
expanding origin and destination data.

3. Pedestrian volume counts: are made at problem locations at crosswalks, at

bus and subway stations, and at mid-block locations. Pedestrian counts
provide the basic data needed to evaluate the adequacy of existing
walkways, crosswalks, and protection and control facilities, such as
pedestrian barriers and pedestrian signals.

4. Intersection Counts: are taken to determine vehicle classifications through

movements and turning movements at intersections. These data are used
mainly in design of signalized intersections.

5. Periodic Volume counts: the periodic counts usually conducted are

continuous, control or coverage counts.

2.6 Traffic Volume Data Presentation

The data collected from traffic volume counts may be presented in one of
several ways, depending on the type of count conducted and the primary use
of the data.

1. Traffic Flow Maps

These maps show traffic volumes on individual routes. The volume of traffic
on each route is represented by the width of a band, which is drawn in
proportion to the traffic volume it represents, providing a graphic
representation of the different volumes that facilitates easy visualization of the
relative volumes of traffic on the different routes. Figure (2.2) shows a typical
traffic flow map.

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Figure (2.2): A typical traffic flow map

2. Intersection Summary Sheets

These sheets are graphic representations of the volume and directions of all
traffic movements through the intersection. Figure (2.3) indicates intersection
summary sheet.

3. Summary Tables

This gives a summary of traffic volume (PHV, PHF, % HV, etc) in tabular
form.

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Figure (2.3): Intersection summary sheet

2.7 Methods for conducting Vehicular Counts

2.7.1 Mechanical Counters (Automatic Method)

Fixed or permanent counters are employed for continuous counts, recording
the distribution of traffic by hours of the day, days of the week, months of the
year, and from year to year. Such counts are extremely important in
establishing traffic trends and characteristics, and for developing adjustment
factors to convert short –term counts to estimated AADT.
Automatic counters can be classified into two general categories: those that
require the laying of detectors (surface or subsurface), and those that don’t
require the laying of detectors. Automatic counters that require the laying of
surface detectors (such as pneumatic road tubes) or subsurface detectors (such
as magnetic or electric contact devices) on the road, detect the passing
vehicles and transmit the information to a recorder, which is connected to the
detector at the side of the road.

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For sensing or detecting vehicles, permanent counters use any of the

following devices as shown in Figure (2.4):
1)) Electric Contact Device: This consists of a subsurface detector which
provides for a positive electrical contact for each vehicle axle crossing it. It
consists of a steel base plate over which a molded and vulcanized rubber
pad (which is flush with the road surface) holds suspended a strip of spring
steel. Electric contacts are installed in each lane.

2)) Photoelectric Device: Detection is accomplished by the vehicle passing

between a source of light and photocell which is capable of distinguishing
between light and lack of light. The equipment is necessarily mounted
above the road surface.

3)) Radar Device: Detection is accomplished by continuously comparing the

frequency of a transmitted radio signal with the frequency of the reflected
signal. When a moving vehicle intercepts the signal, a frequency difference
exists. The unit is normally mounted above the center of the lane or lanes
for which detection is desired.

4)) Magnetic Device: Detection is accomplished by a signal or impulse

caused by a vehicle passing through and disturbing a magnetic field. The
unit is installed in each lane immediately below the road surface.

5)) Infrared Device: This type utilizes a pickup cell, which is similar to a
photoelectric cell, but is sensitive to infrared (heat) radiation rather than to
visible light. The unit containing the source and the pickup is mounted
above the road surface on a bridge, sign structure, mast arm, etc.

Figure (2.4): A typical physical installation of an ILD

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Advantages of Mechanical Counters are:

1) They have a relatively low cost per hour of counting.
2) They provide an extensive coverage of time, from which variations and
trend data are obtained.
3) With some detecting devices a definite separation of vehicle volumes by
lane is obtained , but with road tubes the probability of error from simulates
wheel passing is not serious ( for traffic volumes under 3000 vehicle per
hour).

Disadvantages of Mechanical Counters are:

1) They cannot obtain turning movements or vehicle classification data.
2) Detectors and recorders are subject to vandalism many traffic hazard, which
accounts for the need for extensive maintenance.
3) With some detectors it is necessary to determine the percentage of vehicles
having three or more axles to obtain true volumes.

Table 2.1 Sample of MIDAS raw data collected from loop detectors (M602).

Cat.1=category 1; Cat.2=category 2; Cat.3=category 3; Cat.4=category 4

Figure 2.5 Loop detector configurations in the UK (Google Earth, 2010).

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In addition, the vehicles in the MIDAS tables (see Table 1) have been
classified as groups one, two, three and four. These categories are category1
(< 4.7m), category 2 (4.7-7) m, category 3 (7-11) m, and category 4 > 11m
(Wang, 2006). Figure 2.5 shows the configuration of loop detectors used here
in the UK.
2.6.2 Manual Counts (Manual Method)
This kind of count uses field observers to obtain volume data which cannot be
collected by mechanical counters. For light volumes, observations are
recorded by tally marks on prepared field data sheets as shown in Figure (2.5),
and for heavier volumes mechanical hand counters are used. Manual counts
are used to determine:
1. Turning movement
2. Vehicle classification
3. Pedestrian counts
The main disadvantages of the manual count method are that:
1. It is labor intensive and therefore can be expensive.
2. It is subjected to the limitations of human factors.
3. It can't be used for long periods of counting.
Notice that the interval for data could be 1, 5, 15, 30 or 60 minutes, although the
default value is 15 minutes.
Surveyor name: ………………. Road name: ……………………..
Day and date: ………………… Station no. and direction: ……………….
Time Passenger Taxi Motor Mini Medium Large Single Semitrailer Truck Total
car cycle bus bus bus unit truck trailer
15
6:00

30
45
60
Total
15
30
7:00

45
60
Total
15
30
8:00

45
60
Total

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15
30
9:00

45
60
Total
Total
Figure (2.5): Traffic Volume Form
2.7.3 Moving Vehicle Method of Estimating Volume and Travel
Time
A test vehicle makes a series of test runs in each direction over route under
study. For reliable results, a minimum of six test runs should be made in each
direction under comparable conditions. The method is applicable to two-way
routes only. It has been found to be economical and to produce satisfactory,
unbiased estimates of volume and travel time. The test route is divided into
sections which are as uniform as possible with respect to physical conditions
(width, number of lanes , parking , etc.) and traffic conditions (volume , speed
, type of traffic , etc).
The test vehicle makes a round trip, essentially measuring the number of
vehicles that will pass the starting point in the time it takes the vehicle to make
a round trip from A to B and back to A again. Consider the diagram of Figure
below.

North, A Ps
Os
Ms

Mn
Pn
On
South ,B

Figure (2.6): Moving vehicle method

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The vehicle begins at A and proceeds in a southerly direction, counting all

vehicles which pass it in the opposite direction (Ms).The test vehicle then
turns around at point B. Any vehicle that passes the test car (On) will arrive at
A before the test car returns. Any vehicle passed by the test car has already
been counted as part of Ms. However; these vehicles (Pn) will not arrive at A
before the test vehicle. Therefore, the volume past point A , in a northerly
direction , in the time it takes the test vehicle to make a round trip, is Ms+On-
Pn , and the formula follows:
qn = … ( 2.2 )
Where:
qn= Volume per hour, northbound (for southbound volume all subscript
are reversed)
Ms= Opposing traffic count of vehicles met when the test car was traveling
south
On= number of vehicles overtaking the test car while traveling north.
Pn =number of vehicles passed by the test car while traveling north.
Tn= Travel time when travelling north, in minutes.
Ts= Travel time when travelling south, in minutes.

The average travel time for one directional flow is determined by the
following formula:

Tn= Tn …( 2.3 )
Where:
Tn= Average travel time of all traffic northbound

The space mean speed for one directional flow is determined by the following
formula:

Sn= …( 2.4 )

Where Sn= Space mean speed northbound, in kilometer per hour

d = Length of test section (kilometer).

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Example (2.3) : Data for test section length ( 1 km) on major arterial is given
below

Northbound Tn(min.) Mn On Pn
1 2.65 85 1 0
2 2.70 83 3 2
3 2.35 77 0 2
4 3.00 85 2 0
5 2.42 90 1 1
6 2.54 84 2 1
Total 15.66 504 9 6
Average 2.61 84 1.5 1.0

Southbound Ts(min.) Ms Os Ps
1 2.33 112 2 0
2 2.30 113 0 2
3 2.71 119 0 0
4 2.16 120 1 1
5 2.54 105 0 2
6 2.48 100 0 1
Total 14.52 669 3 6
Average 2.42 111.5 0.5 1.0

qn= vehicles per hour

qs= vehicles per hour

Tn= Tn- =2.61- =2.59 minutes

Ts= Ts- × =2.42- =2.45 minutes

Sn= =60 1/2.59=23.2 km/hr

Ss= = 60 ×1/2.45=24.5 km/hr

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2.6.4 Photographic Techniques

2.7 Traffic Forecasting

The future demand traffic can be drawn below:

[Link] = [Link] +Traffic increases …(2.5)

Where:
[Link] =Future Annual Average Daily Traffic (vpd)
[Link]= Current Annual Average Daily Traffic (vpd): the number of vehicles
that would use the new or improved highway if it where open to traffic.
Traffic increase including (normal traffic growth, generated traffic and
development traffic) including: existing and attracted.

Traffic increase: including

* Generated traffic: the additional vehicle travels that result from a road
improvement, particularly expansion of congested urban roadways.
Congested roads because people to defer trips that are not urgent, choose
alternative destinations and modes, and forego avoidable trips. Generated
traffic consists of diverted travel (shifts in time and route) and induced
travel (increased total motor vehicle travel).

* Development traffic: is the portion of the future traffic volume, due to

improvements on land adjacent to the highway (25 %) of [Link].
* Normal traffic growth: is the increase of traffic due to normal growth (4
%) of [Link].

[Link]= [Link]* T.P.F. …(2.6)

Where:
T.P.F= (1+r)x+n
r= Rate of annual increase (growth) in traffic (6-9%)
x= Years of construction
n=Design life of highway (15-25) years
The design hour volume (DHV) will be taken as the same thirtieth
highest hourly volume (30HV).
Future Year: Any year that is later than the base year.

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It is difficult to define the life of a highway because major segments may have different lengths of physical life. Each
segment is subject to variations in estimated life expectancy for reasons not readily subject to analysis, such as
obsolescence or unexpected radical changes in land use, with the resulting changes in traffic volumes, patterns, and
demands. Right-of-way and grading may be considered to have a physical life expectancy of 100 years; minor drainage
structures and base courses, 50 years; bridges, 25 to 100 years; resurfacing, 10 years; and pavement structure, 20 to 30
years, assuming adequate maintenance and no allowance for obsolescence.
The term demand volume means the traffic volume expected to desire service past a point or a segment of the
roadway system at some future time. Demand volume could also be defined as the traffic currently arriving or
desiring service past such a point, and demand volume is usually expressed in vph. When demand exceeds
capacity, the PHF will approach 1.0 because of delayed traffic. If this situation of delayed traffic occurs, the
observed condition is considered to be a constrained condition.
True demand cannot be directly measured on congested roads, and traffic surveys cannot be used to measure
traffic demand during peak traffic hours. Under this situation, demand D30 is estimated based on the traffic
data for unconstrained sites with similar roadway and geographic characteristics. The term “demand traffic” is
used to distinguish the resulting DHV projections from those that may be constrained by capacity limitations.

Thirtieth highest annual hourly volume (30HV): The highest hourly volume that
is exceeded by 29 hourly volumes during a designated year.
DHV (30HV) =K* [Link] …(2.7)

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K (design hour factor) = (12-18) %= 15 % for rural highways

Note= k: proportion of daily traffic occurring during the peak hour. For
design, this factor often represents the proportion of AADT occurring during
the 30th peak hour of the year. For rural facilities, the 30th peak hour may have
a significantly lower volume …)
FYI:: in urban cases, where traffic is frequently at capacity levels during all
daily commuter peaks, the 30th peak hour is often not substantially different
from the highest peak hour of the year.
D: proportion of peak hour traffic travelling in the peak direction of flow.
Factors K and D are based on local or regional characteristics at existing
locations. Moreover, both these factors are related to other factors such as
movements into and out of central cities and other areas of activity.
Table: General Ranges for K and D factors.
Facility type Normal range of values
K-factor D-factor
Rural 0.15-0.25 0.65-0.80
Suburban 0.12-0.15 0.55-0.65
Urban
Radial Route 0.07-0.12 0.55-0.60
Circumferential Route 0.07-0.12 0.50-0.55

Figure (2.6) shows the relation between peak-hour and average daily traffic
volumes on rural arterials

Figure (2.7): The relation between peak-hour and average daily traffic
volumes on rural arterials

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Directional distribution (D.D.) can be calculated based on the following

relations:
D.D. (50-80%) …(2.8)
One way DHV = Two way DHV *D.D
2.8 Composition of Traffic Stream
This varies as different percentage of passenger cars, trucks of various types
lorry, trailer, semi-trailer, and bus (including local transit).
Heavy vehicle: A vehicle with more than four wheels touching the pavement
during normal operation.
There are conversion factors equivalent the PCU and the terrain topography
according to the specifications of “State Organization of Roads and Bridges”
tabulated it as follows:

Class of vehicle Flat Rolling Mountains

Private cars , taxi, pickup ,van 1.0 1.0 1.0
Single unit truck , bus upto 24 passengers 1.25 1.75 3.0
Semi-trailer trucks, bus above 24 2.0 3.0 6.0
passengers
Truck and trailer combination (HGV) 3.0 5.0 10.0
C.F.=[100+PT(ET-1)+PB(EB-1)]/100 …(2.9)
Where:
C.F.=Passenger car conversion factor
PT and PB= Proportions of truck and bus respectively
ET and EB= Passenger car equivalent for truck and bus (the number of
passenger cars displaced by a single heavy vehicle of a particular type
under specified roadway traffic and control conditions)
DDHV(pcu/hr) =DDHV(veh/hr)*C.F. … (2.10)
Example (2.4): A current ADT of 7500 vpd was estimated in a rolling terrain,
calculate the total number of lanes for the planned highway, r=6%, n=25
years, possible capacity=1300 pcphpl construction period=2 years, D.D.
=60%, PT=10% and PB=20%?
Solution
[Link]= [Link]*T.P.F. = 7500 *(1.06)27=36168 vpd
DDHV=[Link]*K*D.D. =36168*0.15*0.60=3256 vph
DDHV(pcph)=DDHV(vph)[100+PT(ET-1)+PB(EB-1)]/100
=3256*[100+10(1.75-1)+20(3-1)]/100=4803 pcph
N=DDHV/Possible capacity

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=4803/1300=3.69≈4 per direction

Eight – lane highway
2.10 Expanding and Adjusting Traffic Volumes Counts
It is necessary to expand and adjust short counts to a common base (like
AADT).Expansion factors, used to adjust periodic counts, are determined
either from continuous (permanent) or control count stations. Hourly, daily
and monthly expansion factors can be determined using data obtained at
continuous count stations, as follows:
1. Hourly Expansion Factors (HEF) Formula

These factors are used to expand counts of duration shorter than 24 hr. to 24
hr. volumes by multiplying the hourly volume for each hour during the count
period by the HEF for that hour and finding the mean of these products:

HEF= … ( 2.11 )

24 hr volume= … ( 2.12 )

2. Daily Expansion Factors (DEF) Formula

These factors are used to determine weekly volumes from counts of 24 hr.
duration by multiplying the 24 hr. volume by the DEF.

DEF = … (2.13)

3. Monthly Expansion Factors (MEF) Formula

The AADT for a given year may be obtained from the ADT for a given month
by multiplying this volume by the MEF.

MEF= …(2.14 )

Example (5.2) : A traffic engineer needs to determine the AADT on a rural

primary road . He collected the data shown below on a Tuesday during the
month of May. Determine the AADT of the road if the required expansion
factors are given:

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Time period Hourly volume collected HEF

7:00-8:00 400 29.00
8:00-9:00 535 22.05
9:00-10:00 650 18.80
10:00-11:00 710 17.10
11:00-12:00 650 18.52

DEF(Tuesday)=7.727
MEF(May)=1.394
Solution
(Estimate 24 hr volume for Tuesday)=

=[(400*29)+(535*22.05)+(650*18.8)+(710*17.1)+(650*18.52)]/5=11,959
Adjust the 24hr volume for Tuesday to average volume for the week using the
daily expansion factor.
Total 7 –day volume= 11959 *7.727=92407
Average 24 hr volume=92407/7=13201
AADT= (Avg.24 hr vol)*MEF=13201*1.394=18402

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CHAPTER THREE
TRAFFIC SPEED STUDIES

Basic Definitions

1. Speed: The rate of movement of a vehicle, generally expressed in kilometer per

hour.
2. Average spot speed: The arithmetic mean of the speeds of all traffic, or a
component thereof, at a specified point.
3. Overall travel time: The time of travel, including stops and delays (except those
off the traveled way).
4. Running time: The time the vehicle is in motion.
5. Overall travel speed: The speed over a specified section of highway that is the
distance divided by the overall travel time. The average for all traffic or a
component thereof, is the summation of distances divided by summation of
overall travel times.
6. Running speed: The speed over a specified section of highway that is the
distance divided by the running time. The average of all traffic or a component
thereof, is the summation of distances divided by the summation of running
times.
7. Design speed: A speed determined for design as related to the physical features
of a highway that might influence vehicle operation. It is the maximum safe
speed that can be maintained over a specified section of highway when
conditions are so favorable that the design features of the highway govern.
Design speed depends on the functional class of highway, topography of area
in which the highway is located, and the land use of the adjacent area. Table
(3.1) gives recommended values for minimum design speeds for different
classes of highway.

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Table (3.1): Minimum design speeds for various functional classifications

Minimum design speed (mph)

Class 20 30 40 50 60 70
Rural DHV over 400 vph * * *
local road DHV 200-400 * * *
DHV 100-200 * * *
Freeways * * *
Urban principle arterial * * * * *
Urban minor arterial * * * *
Urban collector street * * *
Urban local street * *

1. Operating speed: The highest overall speed, exclusive of stops, at which a

driver can travel on a given highway under prevailing conditions, without
at any time exceeding the design speed.
2. Pace: it is the range of speed-usually taken at 10mi/hr intervals-that has the
greatest number of observations.
3. Standard deviation of speed: it is a measure of the spread of the individual
speeds. It is estimated as:

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Spot Speed Studies

A spot speed study is a study of the speed of traffic at one point or spot on a
highway. It consists of a sample of observations of the individual speeds at a
specified location.
3.2.1. Application of Spot Speed Data
Speed characteristics determined from a spot speed study may be used to:
 Establish parameters for traffic operation and control, such as speed
zones, speed limits (85th-percentile speed is commonly used as the speed
limit on a road), and passing restrictions.
 Evaluate the effectiveness of traffic control devices, such as variable
message signs at work zones.
 Monitor the effect of speed enforcement programs, such as the use of
drone radar and the use of differential speed limits for passenger cars and
trucks.

Figure speed enforced by drones.

 Evaluate and or determine the adequacy of highway geometric
characteristics, such as radii of horizontal curves and lengths of
vertical curves.
 Evaluate the effect of speed on highway safety through the analysis
of crash data for different speed characteristics.
 Determine speed trends.
 Determine whether complaints about speeding are valid.

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Locations for spot speed studies

The following locations generally are used for the different applications listed:
1. Locations that represent different traffic conditions on a highway or
highways used for basic data collection.
2. Mid-blocks of urban highways and straight, level sections of rural
highways are sites for speed trend analyses.
3. Any location may be used for the solution of a specific traffic engineering
problem.
Note:

It is recommended that the spot speed study be conducted when traffic is free-
flowing, usually during off-peak hours if the purpose of the study is to
establish posted speed limit, to observe speed trends or to collect basic data.
-Determining Spot speed sample size

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Table Constant corresponding to level of confidence

Figure shape of normal distribution

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3.2.4 Methods for Measurement of Spot Speed

First: Methods for measuring time over a measuring distance:-

These methods involve measurement of the time required for a vehicle to
traverse a measured course. There a number of devices available to measure
the time. The measured course is laid out at the location under study.

1. Stop Watch Method (manual means)

 Pavement markings: This method involves the use of transverse pavement

markings which are placed at each end of the course, and the observer starts
and stops the watch as the vehicle passes the markings.
 Enoscope (Autoscope): This method involves the use of an Enoscope
“mirror box” at one end or both ends of the course to facilitate reading the
vehicle entrance into, and exit from, the course. As the vehicle passes the
Enoscope, a flash will be visible to the observer. The stop watch is started and
stopped as the vehicle passes the Enoscope.

Figure The Autoscope

Using Pneumatic Tubes
The limits of the measured course are defined by flexible rubber tubing
fastened to the pavement and perpendicular to the path of vehicle travel. A

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vehicle crossing the tube compresses the air in it, actuating an air impulse
switch.

Figure(3.1) Pneumatic tube location

2. Photographic Techniques
Time-lapse photography using camera and continuous –strip photography
using airplane.
Second: Meters based on the Doppler Principle:-
These meters are radar and ultrasonic, and they direct a radar or audio beam of
a certain frequency at the moving vehicle. The reflected signal is shifted in
frequency, and the difference in frequency is proportional to the speed of the
vehicle.
 Radar meter

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Figure Digital radar gun

 Ultrasonic meter
 Remote sensing techniques

3.2.5 Determination of Average Spot Speed

Average or arithmetic mean speed is the speed obtained when the sum of all
values is divided by the number of observation.

[Link] Speed Limit

There are maximum and minimum speed limits.
Upper speed limit: 85 % (85th – percentile speed): A speed value that is less
85 percent of a set of field measured speeds.
Lower speed limit: 15 % (15th- percentile speeds): A speed value that is less
15 percent of a set of field measured speeds.
Example (3.1): Table below shows the data collected on a rural highway during
a speed study. Develop the frequency histogram and frequency distribution of
the data and determine: the arithmetic mean speed, the standard deviation, the
median speed, mode speed and speed limit?
Table (3.2): Speed data

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Solution
 The arithmetic mean speed is computed as:

ū= (Σ fiui )/ Σ fi =(4260/86)= 49.5 mph

 The standard deviation is computed as:

S= = = 6.5 mph

 Coefficient of variation
C.V. =(S*100/ ū) = 6.5 *100/49.5=13.13 %
 Standard error of estimation
SE= S/√ Σ fi = 6.5/√86 =0.701 km/hr

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Figure ( 3.3): Histogram of observed vehicles speeds

Figure (3.4): Cumulative frequency distribution

 The median speed is obtained from the cumulative frequency distribution
curve, Figure (3.4) as 49 mph, the 50 th-percentile speed.
 The mode or modal speed is obtained from the frequency histogram as 49
mph, Figure (3.4).

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 Eighty-fifth percentile speed (P85) = 54 mph, fifteen percentile speed (P15)

=41.5 mph.
2.3 Space mean speed or average travel speed
This is the speed corresponding to the average travel time over a given
distance at a given instant:
Vs = …(3.1)

Where:
Vs= Space mean speed or average travel speed (km/hr)
L=Length of the highway segment (km)
ti= Travel time of the ith vehicle to traverse the section (hours)
n= Number of travel times observed.
Example (3.3): Three vehicles are traversing a 1 km segment of a highway and
the following observation is made (vehicle A: 1.2 minute, Vehicle B: 1.5 minute
and vehicle C 1.7 minute) .What is the space mean speed of the three vehicles?
Solution
The space mean speed =40.91 km/hr
2.4 Time mean speed
The arithmetic mean of the measured speeds of all vehicles passing, say a
fixed roadside point during a given interval of time, in which case, the
individual speeds are knows as spot speeds.
Vt = … ( 3.2 )

Example (3.3): Three vehicles pass a kilometer post at 50, 40 and 35 km/hr
respectively .What is the time mean speed of the three vehicles?
Solution
Average time mean speed=vt=41.67 km/hr
Note: The time mean speed is always greater than space mean speed except in
the situation where all vehicles travel at the same speed. It can be shown that
an approximate relationship between the two mean speeds is:
TMS =SMS+ … (3.3)
Where:
= Variance of space mean speed

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CHAPTER FOUR
TRAFFIC DELAY STUDIES

Travel time and delay characteristics are good indicators of the level of service
and to determine the efficiency of flow. A delay study is made to determine
the amount, cause, location, duration, and frequency of delays, as well as the
overall travel and running speed.

4.1 Applications of Delay Data

1. To evaluate the congestion
2. To carry out the Before-and-After study
3. To assign traffic to certain networks and new or improved facility.
4. To carry out the economic studies
5. To make trend study, i.e., the evaluation of level of service as it changes
with the passage of time.
4.2 Traffic Delay Types
Delay: This is the time lost while traffic is impeded by some elements over
which the driver has no control.

1.2.1 Operational or Congestion Delay

This delay is caused by interference between components of traffic, that is, the
delay due to influences of other traffic. One type of operational delay is
caused by other traffic movements that interfere with the stream flow (side

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frictions). This includes parking or unparking vehicles, pedestrians, stalled

vehicles, double parking and cross traffic. A second type of operational delay
is caused by interferences within the traffic stream (internal friction), this
includes congestion due to high volumes, lack of roadway capacity, and
merging or weaving maneuvers.

Two cases:
a- In case of main streets determine the average running speed when the
traffic conditions are free moving and vehicles are not impeded and to call
this reasonable running speed, normally max value will be the speed limit is
to be taken.
b- In case of city center streets are to use the average spot speed measured
at point where there is no impeded interference to traffic flow i.e. at point as
far removed from intersection.
Example (4.1): Section of road length of 335 m, with average running speed
is 21 km/hr where the speed limit is 50 km/hr and average spot speed is 26.9
km/hr, determine the congestion delay in two cases?
Solution
a- Running time at reasonable speed (50 km/hr)
= (335/50) (3600/1000) =24 sec
Congestion delay = 57-24=33 sec
b- Running time at reasonable speed (26.9 km/hr)
= (335/26.9)(3600/1000) =44.8 sec
Congestion delay =57-44.8= 12.2 sec
1.2.2 Fixed Delay
This is delay caused by traffic control devices. It is the delay to which a
vehicle is subjected regardless of the amount of traffic volume and
interference present, and it occurs primarily at intersections. It may be caused
by traffic signals, stop signs, yield signs and railroad crossings.

[Link] for Conducting Travel Time or Delay Studies

1) Test car Techniques: These techniques utilize a test vehicle which is
driver over the test section in a series of runs or trips. At least 12 trips should
be made to adequately measure the average speed and delays for any one
direction and set of conditions.

2) License Plate Method

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3) Photographic Method

4) Interview Method

5) Elevated Observation

6) Moving Vehicle Method

[Link] Measurement at Signalized Intersection

One of the main objectives in installing a signal system at intersection is to
reduce the average delay of vehicles at intersection. The stopped time delay
method is one of the important field measurements at intersection.
The methodology includes the counting of the number of vehicles stopped in
the intersection approach at successive intervals (such as 10, 15, 20) seconds.
In addition, a volume counts during the same time. This sampling permits
estimating the vehicle-seconds of stopped time delay. An example of 5-min.
of data is shown and analyzed in Table (4.1) below.
Table (4.1): Fixed delay data
Time Total number of vehicles stopped Approach volume
in the approach at time
+0 sec +15 sec +30 +45 Number Number not
sec sec Stopping stopping
5:00 p.m 0 2 7 9 11 6
5:01 4 0 0 3 6 14
5:02 9 16 14 6 18 0
5:03 1 4 9 13 17 0
5:04 5 0 0 2 4 17
Subtotal 19 22 30 33 56 37
Total 104 93
Solution
Total delay= (total number observed) ×(observation interval)
= 104 × 15 = 1560
Average delay per stopped vehicle=total delay/[Link] stopping vehicles
= 1560/56=27.8 sec
Percent of veh. stopped =number of stopped vehicles/approach volume
= 56/93=60.2 %

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CHAPTER FIVE
CAR PARKING
STUDIES

5.1 General
Most vehicle users must store their vehicles for sometimes at end of every trip.
Problems of providing adequate number of spaces (supply) for produce an
adverse effect on the travel desire in general. Therefore, the need to control
curb parking and supply off-street parking in every high traffic density area
from CBD to shopping centers, cultural and educational facilities,
transportation terminals …..etc,
Parking is a major urban land use. Anyone who drives a car needs of finding a
parking space in areas which are intensively used for business, commercial, or
residential purposes. An area containing a central business district (CBD), a
regional or community shopping center, industries, an airport, city center, or a
stadium is usually an area where extensive parking problems are found.
5.2 Parking Surveys
1. Cordon count: In which, the study area is surrounded by a closed cordon
and counting stations are established on all crossing roads.

2. Direct interview: The parked individual in the study area are interviewed
about their origin and destination and the purpose for parking. This
information together with the length of time the car was parked; enable the
planner, designer to determine the parking characteristics. In this method, the
study area is divided into sections where each one is surveyed by no. of
interviews. In case of off –street parking facilities, the interview normally
stationed at the entrance. The required data may include: car registration plate
number, vehicle classification, nature of parking (off-street, legal on street,
garage, …etc), time at which vehicle stopped or started out, frequency of
parking, …..etc.

3. Patrol survey: The study area is divided into sections sufficiently small for
each to be toured once every half hour. On each patrol the number of parked
vehicles in the section is counted. Thus revealing the parking accumulation for

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the hours of the survey and the duration of parking is obtained. Patrolling may
be performed by car or on foot.

5.3 Types of Parking Facilities

1. On-Street or curb parking
* Unrestricted curb parking

*Restricted curb parking

2. Off-Street parking
* Surface lots

* Garages (above ground, underground, integral)

a. Mechanical

b. Ramp

5.4 Geometric Design of Parking

5.4.1. Curb Parking
The geometry of curb parking illustrated in Figure (5.1) below shows that the
number of spaces that can be accommodated per linear foot of curb increases
as the angle of parking increases, but that leads to more severe interference
with moving traffic than parallel parking.

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5.4.2 Off-Street Surface Parking

The primary aim in designing off-street parking facilities is to obtain as many
spaces as possible within the area under study. Parking lots designated to:

a. Provide maximum number of spaces.

b. Minimize travel discomfort while parking, un-parking, and driving
within the lot.
c. Minimum interference of entrance and exit lanes with pedestrian and
vehicle movements external to the lots.
The 90-degree park has a layout uses the space more efficiently and cars can use the
aisle in either direction, and the travel distances are reduced .When other angle

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parking is used, the travel aisles must be made one-way, but in the same time the
parking angle less than 90o considers more easily accessible by self-parkers.

The basic element in a car park is a rectangular parking space, which would
typically be of the order of 4.8m, 2.4–5m. However, bays could be as small as 4.6m
2.2m, where space is at a premium, and widths could be up to 3.6m or more, for
disabled parking.

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Figure (5.2): Parking layout

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Suggested criteria for acceptable walking distances: different criteria have

been suggested by researchers to determine the optimum walking distances
from parking to the destination. Below one example of these criteria:

Population group (urbanized area) Walking distance (feet)

Under 25, 000 300

25, 000-50,000 345

50,000-100,000 490

100,000-250,000 530

250,000-500,000 740

Over 500,000 750

5.5. Parking Measurements

1. Parking accumulation: Is the total number of parked vehicles in an area
at any specified moment. Many parking studies seek to establish the
distribution of accumulation with time and to determine the peak
accumulation and time at which it occurs. These data can be plotted as a
curve of parking accumulation against time, which shows the variation of
the parking accumulation during the day. The integrating of the parking
accumulation curve, over a specified period, determines the parking load in
vehicle hours per specified time period.
2. Space hour: One parking space for one hour.
3. Parking volume: The total number of vehicles parking in a study area over
a given period of time (veh/day).

4. Parking load: Is the area under the accumulation curve between two
specific times. It is usually given as the total number of space hours used
during a given period of time.

5. Practical capacity: This is always less than the available capacity. This is
due to the time wasted in parking and un-parking maneuvers, and the lack of
knowledge that a free space is available.

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6. Parking duration: The length of time a vehicle is parked at a parking bay.

When the parking duration is given as an average, it gives an indication of
how frequently a parking space becomes available.

7. Turnover: The average number of times that a parking space is used by

different vehicles during a given period of times (veh/space).

T= (number of different vehicles parked)/(number of parking spaces).

Example (5.1): Determine the accumulation for the following off-street

parking counts

Time period Vehicle entering Vehicle leaving Accumulation

8:00-8:15 175 20 175-20=155
8:15-8:30 220 40 155+220-40=335
8:30-8:45 250 42 335+250-42=543
8:45-9:00 175 52 543+175-52=666

5.6. Analysis of Parking Data

Analysis of parking data includes summarizing and interpreting the data that
the information required for decision making can be obtained. The
information includes:

 Number and duration for vehicles legally parked.

 Number and duration for vehicles illegally parked.
 Space-hours of demand for parking.
 Supply of parking facilities.

5.7 Location of Off-Street Parking

Ideally, an off-street park should be located at the centroid of the destination
requirements of those whom the park is intended to serve. This centroid may
be calculated using the method of moments as shown below:

Area Parkers, P x (m) y (m) P*x P *y

I ------ ------ ------ ------ ------
II ------ ------ ------ ------ ------
III ------ ------ ------ ------ ------
.
VIII ----- ----- ----- ----- -----

= and =

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Example (5.2): In a regional city, determine the location of a multistory garage,

if the following data was collected?

Area Parkers, P x (m) y (m) P*x P *y

A1 30 10 38 300 1140
A2 45 50 5 2250 225
A3 18 150 75 2700 1350
A4 25 200 15 5000 375
A5 37 105 0 3885 0
A6 44 166 102 7304 4488
Sum 199 21439 7578

=(21439)/199= 107.73 and =(7578)/199=38.08

Parking survey forms

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Example: From an in-out survey conducted for a parking area consisting of

40 bays, the initial count was found to be 25. The table below gives the
result of the survey. The number of vehicles coming in and out of the
parking lot for a time interval of 5 minutes is as shown in the table. Find
the accumulation, total parking load, average occupancy and efficiency
of the parking lot.
Time In Out Accumulation Occupancy Parking load
5 3 2 3-2+25=26 65 130
10 2 4 24 60 120
15 4 2 26 65 130
20 5 4 27 67.5 135
25 7 3 31 77.5 155
30 8 2 37 92.5 185
35 2 7 32 80 160
40 4 2 34 85 170
45 6 4 36 90 180
50 4 1 39 97.5 195
55 3 3 39 97.5 195
60 2 5 36 90 180
Total 1935
Example: the parking survey data collected from a parking lot by license plate method is as
shown in table below. Find the average occupancy, average turnover, parking capacity and
efficiency parking lot.
Bay Time
0-15 15-30 30-45 45-60
1 1456 9813 - 5678
2 1945 1945 1945 1945
3 3473 5463 5463 5463
4 3741 3741 9758 4825
5 1884 1884 - 7594
6 - 7357 - 7893
7 - 4895 4895 4895
8 8932 8932 8932 -
9 7653 7653 8998 4821
10 7321 - 2789 2789
11 1213 1213 3212 4778
12 5678 6678 7778 8888
Solution:

Accumulation for the first time interval of 15 minutes=10

Parking volume=sum of the turnover in all the bays= 27 vehicles.
Average duration is the average time for which the parking lot was used by the calculated
as sum of the accumulation for each time interval time interval divided by total turn-over.
Occupancy-1= 10/12*100=83%

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Occupancy-2=11/12*100=92%
Time
Bay Turn
0-15 15-30 30-45 45-60
over
1 1 1 0 1 3
2 1 1 1 1 1
3 1 1 1 1 2
4 1 1 1 1 3
5 1 1 0 1 2
6 0 1 0 1 2
7 0 1 1 1 1
8 1 1 1 0 1
9 1 1 1 1 3
10 1 0 1 1 2
11 1 1 1 1 3
12 1 1 1 1 4
Average 2.25
Average occupancy= (83+92+75+92)/4=85%
Parking capacity=number of bays x number of hours=12*1=12 vehicles hour.

Parking load=total number of vehicles accumulated at the end of each time interval =
(10+11+9+11)*15/60=10.25 vehicle hours.
Efficiency = parking load/ total volume of bays=10.25/12=85.42%

Parking control systems

Parking on the highway can be controlled in a number of ways by regulation. The
regulation can be defined:
 The days, or times of day, that vehicles can park;
 The length of time that a vehicle can park;
 The type of vehicle that can park;
 The charge for parking.
The reasons for introducing parking charges can be complex and include:
 the need to deter parkers;
 the need to cover the costs associated with providing the parking;
A parking meter is used to control an individual parking bay, and allow a driver to pay for
their parking at the time of parking.
Parking management can improve user options, including travel options (walking, cycling,
ridesharing, public transit, car sharing), parking options (allowing motorists to choose
between more convenient but higher priced spaces, and less convenient but cheaper
spaces), pricing options (hourly, daily or monthly fees) and payment options (coins, bills,
credit cards, online payments, etc.).

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CHAPTER SIX

THE ROAD USER

Three main elements of traffic engineering are (road user, vehicle and
roadway).

6.1 Introduction
The road users (including drivers and pedestrians) are a major part of the
system, human limitations and behavior must be understood, properly guided
and controlled in all traffic engineering and design consideration.

6.2 Perception-reaction process

The process through which a driver, cyclist, or pedestrian evaluates and reacts
to a stimulus can be divided into four sub-processes:

1. Perception: the driver sees a control device, warning sign or object on

the road.
2. Identification: the driver identifies the object or control device and thus
understands the stimulus.
3. Emotion: the driver decides what action to take in response to the
stimulus; for example, to stop on the brake pedal, to pass, to swerve, or to
change lanes.
4. Reaction or volition: the driver actually executes the action decided on
during the emotion sub-process.
Total time required to perceive and complete a reaction to a stimulus is the
sum of the times necessary for Perception, Identification, Emotion, and
Volition (PIEV) time varies from 1.26 to over 3 seconds.

6.3. Fundamental Characteristics of Drivers

There are several factors should be considered for driver characteristics:

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I. Physical Factors:
1. Vision
The most important sense for human (driver and pedestrian).
a. Visual Acuity
It is the ability to see fine details of an object. It can be represented by the
visual angle.

Vision which provides the driver with accurate information about the
perceived objects and traffic control massage. 3 to 10 degrees around the
line of sight; legend can be read only within this narrow field of vision, this
must be considered when placed the signs and road symbols.

b. Peripheral Vision
It is the ability of people to see objects beyond the cone of clearest vision.
The cone for peripheral vision could be one subtending up to 160 degree;
this value is affected by the speed of the vehicle.
The angle of peripheral vision varies from (120-180) degrees. The speed is
reciprocal of peripheral vision where 100 degrees at 30 km/h and to 40
degrees at 90 km/h.
c. Eye Movement
The eyes must fixate, work together and follow the moving objects.
d. Depth Perception
Visual factor express about the ability of estimating the distances and speed.
e. Color Vision
It is the ability to differentiate one color from another, but the deficiency in
this ability, usually referred to as color blindness. Color blindness can be
compensated for by learning other means of recognizing signs and signals.
Therefore, the greenish –blue is used in traffic signals.
f. Glare Vision and Recovery
Glare recovery time is that time required to recover from the effects of glare
after the light source is passed (3-6) seconds. Studies have shown that this
time is about 3sec when moving from dark to light and can be 6 sec or more
when moving from light to dark. After age 40 a significant change occurs in
a person's sensitivity to glare.
2. Hearing
Hearing is needed to detect warning sounds, but lack of hearing acuity
(Deafness) can be compensated by using hearing aids.

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3. Lack of Stability
This can be sensed when driving through rough roads, sharp curves, sharp
cross slopes, ….. etc.
II. Psychological Factors
1. Motives:
Makes a driver try to drive well as he can and knows how to. It is associated
with fair of injury and feeling of social responsibility.
2. Attitudes:
Determine how a driver reacts to a driving situation:
- Playing games with other car
- Racing
3. Intelligence Level
The required time for taking the right decision, depends upon it.
4. Learning Process
-Knowledge or information: gained by reading, instructing and by
quizzing.
- Skill and habits: gained by practice.

5. Environmental Condition

a. Land use b. Weather

III Modifying Factors
This factor affects alert degree
1. Fatigue: Due to lack of sleep, Co emission, etc.
2. Drugs and alcohol: increase the reaction and effect on the alertness.
3. Weather, time of day, ventilation
4. Illness
6.4 Pedestrian Characteristics
Pedestrian characteristics affect the design and location of pedestrian control
device. Such control devices include special pedestrian signals, crosswalks,
safety zones and islands at intersection.
The standard walking speed used in timing signals is 4.0 ft/s, with 3.5 ft/s
recommended where older pedestrian are predominant.

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