Traffic Engineering Studies

Prof. Hana Naghawi 1

 Traffic Engineering Studies
Traffic studies may be grouped into three
main categories:
 Inventories,
 Administrative studies, and
 Dynamic studies.

2
 Traffic Engineering Studies
Inventories:
provide a list or graphic display of existing
information, such as:
• street widths,
• parking spaces,
• transit routes,
• traffic regulations.

3
 Traffic Engineering Studies
Administrative studies

 use existing engineering records, available in

government agencies and departments.

 include the results of surveys, which may involve:

 field measurements and/or
 aerial photography.

4
 Traffic Engineering Studies
Dynamic traffic studies
 involve the collection of data under operational
conditions and include studies of:
• traffic volume
• speed
• travel time and delay
• parking, and
• crashes.

5
 Volume Studies

Traffic counts are the most basic of traffic studies

and are the primary measure of demand; almost all
aspects of traffic engineering require volume as an
input, including highway planning and design,
decisions on traffic control and operations, detailed
signal timing, and others.

6
 Volume Studies

The most fundamental measurement in traffic

engineering is counting-counting vehicles,
passengers, and/or people. Various automated and
manual counting techniques are used to produce
estimates of:
– Volume
– Rate of flow
– Demand
– Capacity
7
 Volume Studies
 Volume would be the number of vehicles counted passing
the study location in the hour.
 Demand would be the volume plus the vehicles of
motorists wishing to pass the site during the study hour
who were prevented from doing so by congestion. The
latter would include motorists in queue waiting to reach
the study location, motorists using alternative routes to
avoid the congestion around the study location, and
motorists deciding not to travel at all due to the existing
congestion.
 Capacity would be the maximum volume that could be
accommodated by the highway at the study location. 8
 Volume Studies

Capacity Demand
Traffic

Volume
Congestion

Time
 Volume Studies

Volume
Traffic Intensity

Time
 Definitions
• Count: number of vehicles/travelers passing a
highway spot in a counting period

• Volume: number of vehicles/travelers passing

a highway spot per unit time

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 Volume Studies

 Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)

 Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
 Peak Hour Volume (PHV)
 Vehicle Classification (VC)
 Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT) s

12
 Volume Studies
 Vehicle Classification (VC) records volume with respect to
the type of vehicles, for example, passenger cars, two-axle
trucks, or three-axle trucks. VC is used in:
– Design of geometric characteristics, with particular reference to turning-
radii requirements, maximum grades, lane widths, and so forth
– Capacity analyses, with respect to passenger-car equivalents of trucks
– Adjustment of traffic counts obtained by machines
– Structural design of highway pavements, bridges, and so forth
 Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT) is a measure of travel along a
section of road. It is the product of the traffic volume (that is,
average weekday volume or ADT) and the length of roadway
in miles to which the volume is applicable. VMTs are used
mainly as a base for allocating resources for maintenance and
improvement of highways.
13
 Volume Studies
Methods of Conducting Volume Counts:
• Manual counting
– For one day or less
– Turning volumes, pedestrians, test counts
– Pencil and paper
– Electronic manual recorders
• Machine counting
– For longer counting periods: one day or longer
– Permanent stations (inductive loops)
– Portable stations (inductive, magnetic, video, etc.)
14
 Volume Studies
Manual Method
Manual counting involves one or more persons recording
observed vehicles using a counter. With this type of
counter, both the turning movements at the intersection
and the types of vehicles can be recorded.
The main disadvantages of the manual count
method are that
–it is labor intensive and therefore can be
expensive,
–it is subject to the limitations of human factors,
–it cannot be used for long periods of counting.
15
Automatic Method

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 Types of Volume Counts
Depending on the anticipated use of the data to be
collected:
 Cordon Counts
 Screen Line/cut Line Counts
 Intersection Counts
• vehicle classifications,
• through movements,
• turning movements
 Pedestrian Volume Counts
 Periodic Volume Counts (AADT)
17
Traffic Volume Data Presentation
Traffic Flow Maps
Intersection Summary Sheets
Time-Based Distribution Charts
Summary Tables

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 Traffic Volume Data Presentation
Traffic Flow Maps
volume of traffic on each route is
represented by the width of a band.

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 Traffic Volume Data Presentation
 Intersection Summary Sheets:

 These sheets are graphic

representations of the
volume and directions of all
traffic movements through
the intersection.
 These volumes can be
either ADTs or PHVs,
depending on the use of the
data.
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 Traffic Volume Data Presentation
Time-Based Distribution Charts:
These charts show the hourly, daily, monthly, or
annual variations in traffic volume in an area or
on a particular highway. Each volume is usually
given as a percentage of the average volume.

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Time-Based Distribution Charts

22
Time-Based Distribution Charts

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Traffic Volume Data Presentation
 Summary Tables: These tables give a summary of
traffic volume data such as PHV, Vehicle
Classification (VC), and ADT in tabular form.

Summary of Traffic Volume Data for a Highway Section

24
 Sample Size
Determination of Number of Count Stations

where
n: minimum number of count locations required
t: value of the student’s t distribution with (1-α/2) confidence
level (N -1 degrees of freedom)
N: total number from which a sample is to be selected
(population)
α: significance level
S: standard deviation
d: allowable range of error 25
26
 Adjustment of Periodic Counts
• Expansion factors, used to adjust periodic counts, are
determined either from continuous count stations or
from control count stations.

• Expansion Factors from Continuous Count Stations:

– Hourly, daily, and monthly expansion factors can be
determined using data obtained at continuous count
stations.

• Expansion factors should be determined for each

class of road in the classification system established
for an area. 27
 Adjustment of Periodic Counts
• Hourly expansion factors (HEFs) are determined by the
formula

• These factors are used to expand counts of durations

shorter than 24 hr to 24 hr volumes by multiplying the
hourly volume for each hour during the count period by
the HEF for that hour and finding the mean of these
products. 28
 Adjustment of Periodic Counts
• Daily expansion factors (DEFs) are computed as

• These factors are used to determine weekly volumes

from counts of 24-hour duration by multiplying the
24-hour volume by the DEF.

29
 Adjustment of Periodic Counts
• Monthly expansion factors (MEFs) are computed as:

• The AADT for a given year may be obtained from the

ADT for a given month by multiplying this volume
by the MEF.
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 Adjustment of Periodic Counts
Table 4.5 Hourly Expansion Factors for a Rural Primary Road

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 Adjustment of Periodic Counts
Table 4.6 Daily Expansion Factors for a Rural Primary Road

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 Adjustment of Periodic Counts
Table 4.7 Monthly Expansion Factors for a Rural Primary Road

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Adjustment of Periodic Counts

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Adjustment of Periodic Counts

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 Origin-Destination Studies
• External (on the road)
– Cordon studies
– Roadside interviews
– Postcard studies
– License plate studies
– Tag-on vehicle method
– Lights-on studies
– Transit passenger questionnaire

36
 Origin-Destination Studies
• Internal (off the road)
– Dwelling unit interviews
– Vehicle owner mail questionnaires
– Interview at traffic generators (workplace, etc)
– Truck and taxi surveys

37
 Methods of Data Collection
Screenlines, cutline, and cordon surveys

These are surveys undertaken at boundaries or along

imaginary lines
These surveys involve count of all crossing
The surveys may involve interviews of a sample of
vehicle drivers and/or passengers
Some surveys may be done using license plat
techniques

38
 Screenlines, cutline, and cordon surveys
Screenlines, cutline, and cordon surveys
Cordon: closed circle around the study area

Cordon
survey
CBD around the
CBD area

 It measures the traffic movements that cross the

cordon and which only intersects the circle
 Traffic counts, vol., speed,….. 39
 Screenlines, cutline, and cordon surveys
Screenlines, cutline, and cordon surveys
Screenline: a line that goes through the study area

Screenline
that goes
CBD through the
CBD area

Traffic counts, vol., speed,…..

40
 Screenlines, cutline, and cordon surveys
Screenlines, cutline, and cordon surveys
Cutline: just a line that you choose in the study area

Screenline
that goes
CBD through the
CBD area

Traffic counts, vol., speed,…..

41
 Cordon Count

Example of Station Locations for a Cordon Count 42

 SPOT SPEED STUDIES
 Spot speed studies are conducted to estimate the
distribution of speeds of vehicles in a traffic stream at a
particular location on a highway

 carried out by recording the speeds of a sample of

vehicles at a specified location

 Speed characteristics identified by such a study will be

valid only for the traffic and environmental conditions
that exist at the time of the study

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 SPOT SPEED STUDIES
Used to:
 Establish parameters for traffic operation and control
speed limits (85th-percentile speed)
 Evaluate the effectiveness of:
 Traffic control device
 Speed enforcement programs
 Evaluate and or determine the adequacy of highway
geometric characteristics, such as radii of horizontal
curves and lengths of vertical curves.
 Determine speed trends.
 Evaluate the effect of speed on highway safety through
the analysis of crash data 44
 SPOT SPEED STUDIES
Locations for Spot Speed Studies
 Represent different traffic conditions on a highway
for basic data collection.

 Mid-blocks of urban highways and straight, level

sections of rural highways for speed trend
analyses.

 Any location may be used for solution of a specific

traffic engineering problem.

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 SPOT SPEED STUDIES

Time of Day and Duration of Spot Speed

Studies
 depends on the purpose of the study.
 recommended when traffic is free-flowing,
 during off-peak hours.
 typically:
• the duration is at least 1 hour and
• the sample size is at least 30 vehicles.
46
 SPOT SPEED STUDIES
Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies
 The larger the sample size, the better the estimated mean
within acceptable error limits.
 The basic assumption made in determining the minimum
sample size for speed studies is that the normal
distribution describes the speed distribution over a given
section of highway.

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 Normal Distribution
• Given by:
f(x) =(1/(s sqrt(2p))) e^ [–(x-m)2/2s2]
m= true mean of population and s= true standard deviation
• Basic Properties:
– Symmetrical about the mean
– Total area under curve =1.0 or 100%.
– Area under curve between (m+s) and (m-s) = .6827
– Area under curve between (m+1.96s) and (m-1.96s) =
.9545
– Area under curve between (m+2s) and (m-2s) = .9545
– Area under curve between (m+3s) and (m-3s) = .9971
– Area under curve between (m + ∞) and (m - ∞) = 1.0
 Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies Cont.
• It is also assumed that the normal distribution
describes the speed distribution.
• The properties of the normal dist. Are then used to
determine the min. sample size of an acceptable error
(d) of the estimated speed.
N= [(Z s/d]2
N: min. sample size.
Z: number of standard deviations corresponding to the
required confidence (1.96 for 95% confidence… See
Table 4.1)
s: Standard deviation (mi/h)
d: limit of acceptable error in the average speed
estimate.
49
Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies Cont.

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 SPOT SPEED STUDIES
 significant values that are needed to describe
speed characteristics, including:
• Average Speed
• Median Speed
• Modal Speed
• The ith-percentile Spot Speed
• Pace
• Standard Deviation of Speeds

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Significant Values That Describe Speed
Characteristics

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Significant Values That Describe Speed
Characteristics

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54
 Sample Size Example

As part of a class project, a group of students collected a total of

120 spot speed samples at a location and determined from this
data that the standard variation of the speeds was 6 mi/h. If the
project required that the confidence level be 95% and the limit of
acceptable error was 1.5 mi/h, determine whether these
students satisfied the project requirement.
Solution: N= [Z s/d]
Z =1.96 (from Table 4.1) S = 6
d = 1.5
N= [1.96* 6/1.5]2
N= 61.45
Therefore, the minimum number of spot speeds collected to
satisfy the project requirement is 62. Since the students
collected 120 samples, they satisfied the project requirements.55
 Methods of Conducting Spot Speed Studies

Two Methods available:

1. Manual: Seldom used
2. Automatic: several automatic devices available
to obtain spot speed, which may be grouped into
3 categories:
1. Road detectors.
2. Radars.
3. Devices that use principles of electronics.
 Presentation & Analysis of Spot Speed Data

• The data collected from a sample of vehicles are

used to determine the speed characteristics of the
whole population of vehicles traveling on the study
site.
• Statistical methods are used for analysis.
• Several characteristics can be determined either by
direct calculations or by graphical presentation.
• Presentation format most commonly used is the
frequency distribution.
Steps to prepare frequency dist. Table:
1. Select number of classes (# of speed ranges): usually
between 8 – 20 (Another technique: determine range
for a class size of 8, then determine range for a class
size of 20, by dividing the difference between max and
min speeds by 8 then by 20, then selecting a range
between these max and min ranges).
2. The mid value for each class is used as a speed value
for that class
3. Plot frequency histogram (speed mid values vs
frequency)
4. Frequency distribution curve (speed mid values vs
percentage of frequency in each class).
5. Cumulative distribution (upper limits of speed classes
vs cumulative percentage of frequency)
Example: Determining Speed Characteristics from a
Set of Speed Data.

Table 4.2 shows the data collected on a rural highway in

Virginia during a speed study. Develop the frequency
histogram and the frequency distribution of the data and
determine:
1. The arithmetic mean speed
2. The standard deviation
3. The median speed
4. The pace
5. The mode or modal speed
6. The 85th-percentile speed 59
• Solution:
• The speeds range from 34.8 to 65.0 km/hr, giving a
speed range of 30.2.
• For eight classes, the range per class is 3.75 km/h;
• for 20 classes, the range per class is 1.51 km/h.
• It is convenient to choose a range of 2 km/h per class
which will give 16 classes.
• A frequency distribution table can then be prepared, as
shown in Table 4.3.

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Table 4.2 Speed Data Obtained on a Rural Highway 61
Table 4.3 Frequency Distribution Table for Set of Speed Data 62
Figure 4.4 Histogram of Observed Vehicles' Speeds 63
Figure 4.5 Frequency Distribution
64
Figure 4.6 Cumulative Distribution
65
 The median speed is obtained from the cumulative
frequency distribution curve (Figure 4.6) as 49 mi/h,
the 50th-percentile speed.
 The pace is obtained from the frequency distribution
curve (Figure 4.5) as 45 to 55 mi/h.
 The mode or modal speed is obtained from the
frequency histogram as 49 mi/h (Figure 4.4). It also
may be obtained from the frequency distribution
curve shown in Figure 4.5, where the speed
corresponding to the highest point on the curve is
taken as an estimate of the modal speed.
 85th-percentile speed is obtained from the
cumulative frequency distribution curve as 54 mi/h
(Figure 4.6). 66
67
 Travel Time & Delay Studies
 Travel time: time required to travel from one point
to another on a given route

 The locations, durations, and causes of delays

 Good indication of the level of service

 Identifying problem locations

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 Travel Time & Delay Studies

Applications of Travel Time and Delay Data

• Efficiency of a route
• Locations with relatively high delays
• Causes for delays
• Before-and-after studies
• Relative efficiency of a route
• Travel times on specific links
• Economic studies

69
 Travel Time & Delay Studies
Definition of Terms Related to Time and Delay
Studies:
1. Travel time: time taken by a vehicle to traverse a
given section of a highway.
2. Running time: time a vehicle is actually in motion
3. Delay time lost due to causes beyond the control of
the driver.
4. Operational delay: delay caused by the impedance of
other traffic. (for example, parking or unparking
vehicles)

70
 Travel Time & Delay Studies
5. Stopped-time delay is that part of the delay during
which the vehicle is at rest.
6. Fixed delay: caused by control devices such as traffic
signals, regardless of the traffic volume
7. Travel-time delay: difference between the actual travel
time and the travel time obtained by assuming that a
vehicle traverses at an average speed equal to that for
an uncongested traffic flow

71
 Travel Time & Delay Studies

Methods for Conducting Travel Time and Delay

Studies:
– Methods Requiring a Test Vehicle: floating-car,
average-speed, and moving-vehicle techniques.

72
 Travel Time & Delay Studies
Floating-Car Technique:
– test car is driven by an observer along the test
section.
– The driver attempts to pass as many vehicles as
those that pass his test vehicle.
– Time taken to traverse the study section is
recorded. This is repeated, and the average
time is recorded as the travel time.
– sample size s usually less than 30,

73
 Travel Time & Delay Studies
Average-Speed Technique:
– driving the test car along the length of the test
section at a speed that is the average speed of the
traffic stream.
– time required to traverse the test section is noted.
– test run is repeated
– the average time is recorded as the travel time.
– travel time is usually obtained
– the observer starts a stopwatch at the beginning
point of the test section and stops at the end.
74
 Travel Time & Delay Studies
• A second stopwatch also may be used to determine
the time that passes each time the vehicle is stopped.
will give the stopped-time delay
• Table 4.8 shows an example of a set of data obtained
for such a study.

75
 Sample Size
The minimum number of test runs can be determined
using the following equation:

76
 Travel Time & Delay Studies
Table 4.8 Speed and Delay Information

77
 Travel Time & Delay Studies
Moving-Vehicle Technique (moving observer):

• the observer makes a round

trip on a test section
• The observer starts at
section X-X, drives the car
eastward to section Y-Y,
• turns the vehicle around
• drives westward to section
X-X again

78
 Moving-Vehicle Technique

The following data are collected as

• The time it takes to travel east from X-X to Y-Y (Te), in minutes
• The time it takes to travel west from Y-Y to X-X (Tw), in
minutes
• The number of vehicles traveling west in the opposite lane while
the test car is traveling east (Ne)
• The number of vehicles that overtake the test car while it is
traveling west from Y-Y to X-X, that is, traveling in the
westbound direction (Ow)
• The number of vehicles that the test car passes while it is
traveling west from Y-Y to X-X, that is, traveling in the
westbound direction (Pw) 79
 Moving-Vehicle Technique
• The volume (Vw) in the westbound direction can then be
obtained from the expression:

• where (Ne Ow Pw) is the number of vehicles traveling

westward that cross the line X-X during the time (TeTw).
• Similarly, the average travel time in the westbound
direction is obtained from

80
Travel Time & Delay Studies

81
Travel Time & Delay Studies

82
Travel Time & Delay Studies

83
Travel Time & Delay Studies

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Travel Time & Delay Studies

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 Travel Time & Delay Studies
Methods Not Requiring a Test Vehicle
• License-Plate Observations: observers at the beginning
and end of the test section.
• Each observer records the last three or four digits of the
license plate of each car that passes, together with the
time at which the car passes.
• in the office by matching the times of arrival at the
beginning and end of the test section for each license
plate recorded.
• difference between these times is the traveling time of
each vehicle.
• average of these is the average traveling time on the test
section. 86
 Travel Time & Delay Studies

• a sample size of 50 matched license plates.

• Interviews: obtaining information from
people who drive on the study site regarding
their travel times, experience of delays,
requires the cooperation of the people.

87
 Travel Time & Delay Studies

• ITS Advanced Technologies:

– Advanced technologies
– Cell phones
– GPS satellite system
– technology is used to determine average speeds
and travel times along highways

88
 Parking Studies
• Any vehicle will at one time be parked short time or longer
time

• Provision of parking facilities is essential

• Need for parking spaces is usually very great in areas of

business, residential, or commercial activities.

• The growing use of the automobile as a personal feeder

service to transit systems (“park-and-ride”) has also
increased the demand for parking spaces at transit stations.
89
 Parking Studies
• Providing adequate parking space to meet the
demand for parking in the Central Business
District (CBD)

• This problem usually confronts a city traffic

engineer.

• solution is not simple, Parking studies are used to

determine the demand for and the supply of
parking facilities. 90
 Types of Parking Facilities
On-Street Parking Facilities
also known as curb facilities. Parking bays are provided
alongside the curb on one or both sides of the street. They
can be:
• Unrestricted parking
– unlimited and free
• Restricted parking facilities
– limited to specific times for a maximum duration.
– may or may not be free.
– handicapped parking
– bus stops
– loading bays. 91
 Types of Parking Facilities

Off-Street Parking Facilities

– privately or publicly owned
– surface lots and garages.
– Self-parking garages
– attendant-parking garages

92
 Definitions of Parking Terms
 A space-hour is a unit of parking that defines the use of a
single parking space for a period of 1 hour.
 Parking volume is the total number of vehicles that park
in a study area during a specific length of time, usually a
day.
 Parking accumulation is the number of parked vehicles
in a study area at any specified time.
 parking load the number of space-hours used during the
specified period of time.

93
 Definitions of Parking Terms

 Parking duration length of time a vehicle is parked at a

parking indication of how frequently a parking space
becomes available.
 Parking turnover rate of use of a parking space.

Obtained by dividing the parking volume for a

specified period by the number of parking spaces.

94
 Methodology of Parking Studies

A comprehensive parking study usually involves

 Inventory of existing parking facilities
 Collection of data on parking accumulation, parking
turnover and parking duration
 Identification of parking generators
 Collection of information on parking demand.
Information on related factors, such as financial,
legal, and administrative matters, also may be
collected.
95
 Methodology of Parking Studies
Inventory of Existing Parking Facilities

– detailed listing of the location and all other relevant

characteristics of each legal parking facility, private
and public.
– The study area includes both on- and off-street
facilities.

96
 Inventory of Existing Parking Facilities
 Type and number of parking spaces at each parking facility
 Times of operation and limit on duration of parking, if any
 Type of ownership (private or public)
 Parking fees, method of collection
 Restrictions
 Other restrictions, loading and unloading zones, bus stops, taxi
ranks
 Permanency (can the facility be regarded as permanent or is it
just a temporary facility?)

 The inventory should be updated at regular intervals of about four to

five years.
97
 Methodology of Parking Studies

• Collection of Parking Data

– Accumulation:
• By checking the amount of parking during regular
intervals on different days of the week.
• Carried out on an hourly or 2-hour basis
• Used to determine hourly variations of parking and
peak periods of parking demand.

98
 Methodology of Parking Studies
• Collection of Parking Data
– Turnover and Duration:
• Collecting data on a sample of parking spaces in a
given block.
• Recording the license plate of the vehicle parked on
each parking space in the sample at the ends of fixed
intervals during the study period.
• The length of the fixed intervals depends on the
maximum permissible duration.

99
Methodology of Parking Studies
– Turnover and Duration:
• For example, if the maximum permissible duration of
parking at a curb face is 1 hour, a suitable interval is
every 20 minutes.
• If the permissible duration is 2 hours, checking every
30 minutes would be appropriate. Turnover is then
obtained from the equation

100
Methodology of Parking Studies

Figure 4.17 Parking Accumulation at a Parking Lot 101

 Parking Studies
– Turnover and Duration:
• manual collection of parking data is still commonly
used,
• Possible for all parking data to be collected
electronically.
sensors
– Identification of Parking Generators
• (for example, shopping centers or transit terminals) and
locating these on a map of the study area.

102
 Parking Studies
– Parking Demand
• by interviewing drivers at the various parking facilities
• Interview all drivers using the parking facilities on a
typical weekday between 8:00 a.m. and 10:00 p.m.
• Information include (1) trip origin, (2) purpose of trip,
(3) driver’s destination after parking.
• the location of the parking facility, times of arrival and
departure, vehicle type.

103
 Parking Studies
– Parking Demand
• Parking interviews also can be carried out
using the postcard technique,
• about 30 to 50 percent of the cards distributed
are returned.

104
 Analysis of Parking Data
 Number and duration for vehicles legally parked
 Number and duration for vehicles illegally parked
 Space-hours of demand for parking
 Supply of parking facilities

The space-hours of demand for parking are

obtained from the expression

105
 Analysis of Parking Data

Where:
D = space vehicle-hours demand for a specific period of
time
N = number of classes of parking duration ranges
ti = midparking duration of the ith class
ni = number of vehicles parked for the ith duration range
The space-hours of supply are obtained from the expression

106
 Analysis of Parking Data

Where:
S = practical number of space-hours of supply for a specific
period of time
N = number of parking spaces available
ti = total length of time in hours when the ith space can be
legally parked on during the specific period
f = efficiency factor

107
Parking Studies

108
Parking Studies

109
Parking Studies

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