Class 11 NCERT Geography (2) Chapter 6

Soils
DEFINITION OF SOIL
Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic materials which develop on the earth’s surface.
IMPORTANCE OF SOILS
1. Provide support & nutrients to the plants
2. Plants provide food and clothes are grown over the soils
3. Provide shelter to microorganisms
4. Supply nutrients to plants.
FACTORS AFFECTING SOILS
The major factors affecting the formation of soil are
1. relief,
2. parent material,
3. climate,
4. vegetation
5. life-forms and
6. time.
7. human activities
Components of the soil
1. mineral particles,
2. humus,
3. water Instagram
4. air. @[Link]
SOIL HORIZONS AND SOIL PROFILE:
If we dig a pit on land and look at the soil, we find that it consists of
three layers which are called horizons.
‘Horizon A’ is the topmost zone, where organic materials have got
incorporated with the mineral matter, nutrients and water, which are
necessary for the growth of plants.
‘Horizon B’ is a transition zone between the ‘horizon A’ and ‘horizon
C’, and contains matter derived from below as well as from above. It
has some organic matter in it, although the mineral matter is
noticeably weathered.
‘Horizon C’ is composed of the loose parent material. This layer is
the fi rst stage in the soil formation process and eventually forms the
above two layers. This arrangement of layers is known as the soil
profile.
Underneath these three horizons is the rock which is also known as
the parent rock or the bedrock. Soil, which is a complex and varied
entity has always drawn the attention of the scientists.
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CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS
In ancient times, soils used to be classified into two main groups – Urvara
and Usara, which were fertile and sterile, respectively. In the 16th centrury
A.D., soils were classified on the basis of their inherent characteristics and
external features such as
1. texture, 2. colour, 3. slope of land and 4. moisture content in the soil.
Based on texture, main soil types were identifi ed as 1. sandy, 2. clayey,
3. silty and [Link], etc.
On the basis of colour, soil types were identifi ed as [Link], 2. yellow, 3.
black, etc.
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has classified the
Indian soils on the basis of their nature and character as per the United
States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Soil Taxonomy, which is as
follows-
(i)Inceptisols (ii) Entisols (iii) Alfisols (iv) Vertisols (v) Aridisols (vi) Ultisols
(viii) Others
On the basis of genesis, colour, composition and location, the soils of
India have been classified into: (i) Alluvial soils(ii) Black soils(iii) Red and
Yellow soils(iv) Laterite soils(v) Arid soils (vi) Saline soils(vii) Peaty
soils(viii) Forest soils.
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AlluviaI Soils
Location:
Alluvial soils are widespread in the northern plains and the river valleys.
Characteristics:
1. These soils cover about 40 per cent of the total area of the country.
2. They are depositional soils, transported and deposited by rivers and streams.
3. Through a narrow corridor in Rajasthan, they extend into the plains of Gujarat.
6. In the Peninsular region, they are bound in deltas of the east coast and in the river
valleys.
7. They are generally rich in potash but poor in phosphorous.
8. In the Upper and Middle Ganga plain, two different types of alluvial soils have
developed, viz. Khadar and Bhangar. Khadar is the new alluvium and is deposited by
floods annually, which enriches the soil by depositing fine silts. Bhangar represents a
system of older alluvium, deposited away from the flood plains. Both the Khadar and
Bhangar soils contain calcareous concretions (Kankars).
9. These soils are more loamy and clayey in the lower and middle Ganga plain and
the Brahamaputra valley.
10. The sand content decreases from the west to east.
11. The colour of the alluvial soils varies from the light grey to ash grey. Its shades
depend on the depth of the deposition, the texture of the materials, and the time taken
for attaining maturity.
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Black Soil
Location:
Black soil covers most of the Deccan Plateau which includes parts of
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and some
parts of Tamil Nadu.
Characteristics:
1. In the upper reaches of the Godavari and the Krishna, and the
northwestern part of the Deccan Plateau, the black soil is very deep.
2. These soils are also known as the ‘Regur Soil’ or the ‘Black Cotton
Soil’.
3. The black soils are generally clayey, deep and impermeable.
4. They swell and become sticky when wet and shrink when dried.
So, during the dry season, these soil develop wide cracks.
5. Chemically, the black soils are rich in lime, iron, magnesia and
alumina.
6. They also contain potash. But they lack in phosphorous, nitrogen
and organic matter.
7. The colour of the soil ranges from deep black to grey.
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Red and Yellow Soil
Location:
Red soil develops on crytalline igneous rocks in areas of low
rainfall in the eastern and southern part of the Deccan Plateau.
Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat, long stretch of
area is occupied by red loamy soil. Yellow and red soils are also
found in parts of Odisha and Chattisgarh and in the southern
parts of the middle Ganga plain.
Characteristics:
1. The soil develops a reddish colour due to a wide diffusion of
iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
2. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
3. The fine-grained red and yellow soils are normally fertile,
4. whereas coarse-grained soils found in dry upland areas are
poor in fertility.
5. They are generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorous and
humus. Instagram
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Laterite Soil
Location:
The laterite soils are commonly found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Madhya Pradesh and the hilly areas of Odisha and [Link] soils have
mainly developed in the higher areas of the Peninsular plateau.
Characteristics:
1. Laterite has been derived from the Latin word ‘Later’ which means brick.
2. The laterite soils develop in areas with high temperature and high rainfall.
3. These are the result of intense leaching due to tropical rains.
4. With rain, lime and silica are leached away, and soils rich in iron oxide and
aluminium compound are left behind.
5. Humus content of the soil is removed fast by bacteria that thrives well in
high temperature.
6. These soils are poor in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and calcium,
while iron oxide and potash are in excess.
7. Laterites are not suitable for cultivation; however, application of manures
and fertilizers are required for making the soils fertile for cultivation.
8. Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more
suitable for tree crops like cashewnut.
9. Laterite soils are widely cut as bricks for use in house construction.
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Arid Soils
Location:
Arid soils are characteristically developed in western Rajasthan, which
exhibit characteristic arid topography.
Characteristics:
1. Arid soils range from red to brown in colour.
2. They are generally sandy in structure and saline in nature. In some
areas, the salt content is so high that common salt is obtained by
evaporating the saline water.
3. Due to the dry climate, high temperature and accelerated evaporation,
they lack moisture and humus.
4. Nitrogen is insufficient and the phosphate content is normal.
5. Lower horizons of the soil are occupied by ‘kankar’ layers because of the
increasing calcium content downwards.
6. The ‘Kankar’ layer formation in the bottom horizons restricts the
infiltration of water, and as such when irrigation is made available, the soil
moisture is readily available for a sustainable plant growth.
8. These soils are poor and contain little humus and organic matter.

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Saline Soils
Location: Saline soils are widespread in western Gujarat, deltas of the eastern
coast and in Sunderban areas of West Bengal. It can also be seen in the areas of
Punjab and Haryana for excessive groundwater irrigation.
Characteristics:
1. They are also known as Usara soils.
2. Saline soils contain a larger proportion of sodium, potassium and magnesium,
and thus, they are infertile, and do not support any vegetative growth.
3. They have more salts, largely because of dry climate and poor drainage. They
occur in arid and semi-arid regions, and in waterlogged and swampy areas.
4. Their structure ranges from sandy to loamy.
5. They lack in nitrogen and calcium.
6. In the Rann of Kuchchh, the Southwest Monsoon brings salt particles and
deposits there as a crust. Seawater intrusions in the deltas promote the occurrence
of saline soils. In the areas of intensive cultivation with excessive use of irrigation,
especially in areas of green revolution, the fertile alluvial soils are becoming saline.
7. Excessive irrigation with dry climatic conditions promotes capillary action, which
results in the deposition of salt on the top layer of the soil. In such areas, especially
in Punjab and Haryana, farmers are advised to add gypsum to solve the problem of
salinity in the soil.
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Peaty Soils
Location: It occurs widely in the northern part of Bihar, southern part of
Uttaranchal and the coastal areas of West Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.
Characteristics:
1. They are found in the areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity, where there is a
good growth of vegetation.
2. Thus, large quantity of dead organic matter accumulates in these areas, and
this gives a rich humus and organic content to the soil.
3. Organic matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 per cent. These soils are
normally heavy and black in colour.
4. At many places, they are alkaline also.
Forest Soils
Location: It is found widely in Himalayan region and Western Ghats region.
Characteristics:
1. Forest soils are formed in the forest areas where sufficient rainfall is available.
2. The soils vary in structure and texture depending on the mountain environment
where they are formed.
3. They are loamy and silty on valley sides and coarse-grained in the upper
slopes.
[Link] the snow-bound areas of the Himalayas, they experience denudation, and are
acidic with low humus content.
5. The soils found in the lower valleys are fertile. Instagram
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SOIL DEGRADATION
Definition: Soil degradation can be defi ned as the decline in soil fertility, when the
nutritional status declines and depth of the soil goes down due to erosion and misuse.
Characteristics:
1. Soil degradation is the main factor leading to the depleting soil resource base in
India.
2. The degree of soil degradation varies from place to place according to the
topography, wind velocity and amount of the rainfall.
SOIL EROSION
Definition: The destruction of the soil cover is described as soil erosion. The soil
forming processes and the erosional processes of running water and wind go on
simultaneously. There is a balance between these two processes.
Characteristics:
1. The rate of removal of fine particles from the surface is the same as the rate of
addition of particles to the soil layer. Human activities too are responsible for soil
erosion to a great extent.
2. The human population increases, the demand on the land also increases.
3. Forest and other natural vegetation is removed for human settlement, for cultivation,
for grazing animals and for various other needs.
Agents of soil erosion: On the basis of their ability to remove soil and transport it,
there are two agents of soil erosion-
1. Wind and
2. water Instagram
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Types of soil erosion based on agents of erosion:
1. Wind Erosion: Wind erosion is significant in arid and semi-arid regions.
2. Water Erosion: In regions with heavy rainfall and steep slopes, erosion
by running water is more [Link] erosion which is more serious
and occurs extensively in different parts of India, takes place mainly in the
form of sheet and gully erosion.
a) Sheet erosion takes place on level lands after a heavy shower and the
soil removal is not easily [Link] it is harmful since it removes the
finer and more fertile top soil.
b) Gully erosion is common on steep slopes. Gullies deepen with rainfall,
cut the agricultural lands into small fragments and make them unfit for
cultivation. A region with a large number of deep gullies or ravines is called
a badland topography. Ravines are widespread, in the Chambal basin.
Besides this, they are also found in Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. The
country is losing about 8,000 hectares of land to ravines every year.
Main Cause of Soil Erosion:
Deforestation is one of the major causes of soil erosion. Plants keep soils
bound in locks of roots, and thus, prevent erosion. They also add humus to
the soil by shedding leaves and twigs. Forests have been denuded
practically in most parts of India but their effect on soil erosion are more in
hilly parts of the country. Instagram
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Effects of Soil Erosion and degradation:
1. As soil erosion reduces soil fertility, it is a serious problem for Indian
agriculture.
2. Eroded materials are carried down to rivers and they lower down their
carrying capacity.
3. It causes frequent flood.
4. A fairly large area of arable land in the irrigated zones of India is
becoming saline because of over irrigation.
5. The salt lodged in the lower profiles of the soil comes up to the surface
and destroys its fertility.
6. Chemical fertilizers in the absence of organic manures are also harmful
to the soil. Unless the soil gets enough humus, chemicals harden it and
reduce its fertility in the long run. This problem is common in all the
command areas of the river valley projects, which were the First
beneficiaries of the Green Revolution. According to estimates, about half of
the total land of India is under some degree of degradation. Every year,
India loses millions of tonnes of soil and its nutrients to the agents of its
degradation, which adversely affects our national productivity. So, it is
imperative to initiate immediate steps to reclaim and conserve soils.
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Government’s initiatives in Soil conservation in India:

1. Experiments have been made to stabilise sand dunes in

Western Rajasthan by the Central Arid Zones Research Institute
(CAZRI).

[Link] Central Soil Conservation Board, set up by the

Government of India, has prepared a number of plans for soil
conservation in different parts of the country. These plans are
based on the climatic conditions, configuration of land and the
social behaviour of people. even these plans are fragmented in
nature. Integrated land use planning, therefore, seems to be the
best technique for proper soil conservation.

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Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) What is soil?

Answer

Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic materials which develop on the earth’s surface. Components
of the soil are mineral particles, humus, water and air.

(ii) What are the main factors responsible for the formation of soil?

Answer

The major factors affecting the formation of soil are relief, parent material, climate, vegetation and other life-
forms and time.

(iii) Mention the three horizons of a soil profile.

Answer

There are three horizons of a soil profile:

• ‘Horizon A’ is the topmost zone, where organic materials have got incorporated with the mineral matter,
nutrients and water, which are necessary for

the growth of plants.

• ‘Horizon B’ is a transition zone between the ‘horizon A’ and

• ‘Horizon C’ is composed of the loose parent material.

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iv) What is soil degradation?

Answer

Soil degradation can be defined as the decline in soil fertility,

when the nutritional status declines and depth of the soil goes
down due to erosion and misuse. 

(v) What is the difference between Khadar and Bhangar?

Answer

Khadar is the new alluvium and is deposited by floods annually,

which enriches the soil by depositing fine silts while Bhangar
represents a system of older alluvium, deposited away from the
flood plains.

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Answer the following questions in not more than 125 words.

(i) What are black soils? Describe their formation and characteristics.

Answer

Black soils are also known as the ‘Regur Soil’ or the ‘Black Cotton Soil’. It
covers most of the Deccan Plateau which includes parts of Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Tamil Nadu.

The black soil is formed by the weathering of igneous rocks and cooling of lava
after a volcanic eruption.

Characteristics of black soils are:

• The black soils are generally clayey, deep and impermeable.

• They swell and become sticky when wet and shrink when dried.

• The black soils are rich in lime, iron, magnesia and alumina.

• They also contain potash.

• The colour of the soil ranges from deep black to grey.

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ii) What is soil conservation? Suggest some measures to conserve soil.

Answer

Soil conservation is a methodology to maintain soil fertility, prevent soil

erosion and exhaustion, and improve the degraded condition of the soil.

Some measures to conserve soil are:

• Afforestation should be encouraged.

• Over-grazing and shifting cultivation should be regulated and controlled

by educating villagers about the consequences.

• In arid and semi-arid areas, efforts should be made to protect cultivable

lands from encroachment by sand dunes through developing shelter
belts of trees and agro-forestry.

• Contour terracing should be done in sloppy areas to reduce surface

flow.

• Efforts should be made to prevent gully erosion and control their

formation. Finger gullies can be eliminated by terracing. In bigger gullies,
the erosive velocity of water may be reduced by constructing a series of
check dams.

• Lands not suitable for cultivation should be converted into pastures for
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iii) How do you know that a particular type of soil is fertile or not?
Differentiate between naturally determined fertility and culturally
induced fertility.

Answer

We can know about the fertility of a particular type of soil by having

a test of the soil sample. To check fertility of the soil we need to
know about their inherent characteristics and external features
such as texture, colour, slope of land and moisture content.

The fertility which is present in a particular type of soil naturally, it is

called naturally determined fertility. Some soils have phosphorous,
potassium, calcium, humus content and nitrogen naturally.

Some soils are made fertile by adding fertilizers and manures, it is

called culturally induced fertility. They are deficient and minerals
and humus content.

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