Chapter 6
Measurement of Angles and Directions
The horizontal and vertical angles are fundamental measurements in surveying.
The vertical angle is used in obtaining the elevation of points (trigonometric leveling) and in the
reduction of slant distance to the horizontal.
The horizontal angle is used primarily to obtain direction to a survey control point, or to topographic
detail points, or to points to be set out.
An instrument used for the measurement of angles is called a theodolite. It follows that, although
the points observed are at different elevations, it is always the horizontal angle and not the space angle
which is measured. For example, observations to points A and C from B (Figure 6.1) will give the horizontal
angle ABC = θ. The vertical angle of elevation to A is and its zenith angle is ZA.
Fig. 6.1 Horizontal, vertical and zenith angles
6.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Bearing – the bearing of a line is the acute horizontal angle between a reference meridian and a line. The
angle is measured from either the north or south toward the east or west. True bearing are measured from
true meridian, magnetic bearings from the local magnetic meridian, assumed bearing from any adopted
meridian, and grid bearing from the appropriate grid meridian.
Azimuth – horizontal angles which are measured clockwise from the north or south end of the meridian.
Azimuths may be true, magnetic, grid, or assumed, depending on the meridian used.
Zenith angle – is an angle measured in a vertical plane downward from an upward directed vertical line
through the instrument. When the telescope is pointed vertically toward the zenith the reading is 0° and is
90° when pointed horizontally in direct position.
Traverse – a series of distances and angles. Or distances and bearings, or distances and azimuths,
connecting successive points.
Types of traverse
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Open traverse – a series of lines of known lengths and directions which are continuous but do not
return to the starting point.
Closed traverse – a series of lines of known lengths and directions which returns or close back to
the point of beginning or at points whose positions have been fixed by other surveys of higher precision.
Local attraction – the amount of deviation of deflection from the normal pointing of the magnetic needle
towards magnetic north due to local influence such as the proximity of steel, iron, magnetic ores, and direct
electric current.
Best line – a line in a traverse which appears to be free from local attraction. It is also on this line where
the adjustment of the remaining traverse lines affected by local attraction is started.
Angular error of closure – the angular error of closure for a closed traverse is the difference between the
sum of the computed interior angles and the quantity (n – 2) 180°, where “n” is the number of sides in the
traverse.
Closing the horizon – the process of measuring the angles about a point or station to obtain a check on
their sum which should equal to 360 degrees.
Index error – the amount by which the index or 0° mark on the vertical arc fails to coincide with the index
mark on the vernier.
Index correction – a correction, equal in magnitude to the index error but opposite sign, applied
algebraically to the observed vertical angle and by means of which the angle may be adjusted.
6.2 MERIDIANS
The direction of a line is usually defined by the horizontal angle it makes with a fixed reference line or
direction. In surveying, this is done with reference to meridian which lies in a vertical plane passing through
a fixed point of reference and though the observer’s position.
Types of meridians
1. True meridian – is the generally adapted reference line in surveying practice. This line passes to the
geographic north and south poles of the earth and the observer’s position. The direction of true meridian at a
survey station is invariable and any record of true directions taken remains permanent and unchanged
regardless of time. Lines in most extensive surveys are usually referred to the true meridian.
2. Magnetic meridian – is a fixed line of reference which lies parallel with the magnetic lines of force of the
earth. Its direction is defined by a freely suspended magnetic needle of a compass held at the observer’s
position. Magnetic meridians are not parallel to the true meridians since they converge at a magnetic pole
which is located some distance away from the true geographic poles.
3. Grid meridian – is a fixed line of reference parallel to the central meridian of a system of plane rectangular
coordinates. One central meridian, which coincides with a true meridian, is usually selected and all other
meridians are made parallel to this meridian. The used of grid meridians is applicable only to pane surveys of
limited extent. In such types of survey it is assumed that all measurements are all projected to a horizontal
plane and that all meridians are parallel straight lines.
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4. Assumed meridian – is an arbitrarily chosen fixed line of reference which is taken for convenience. This
meridian is usually the direction from a survey station to an adjoining station or some well-defined and
permanent point.
6.3 Direction of lines
The direction of a line is defined as the horizontal angle the line makes with an established line of reference.
In surveying practice, directions may be defined by means of: (a) interior angles, (b) deflection angles, (c)
angles to the right, (d) bearings, and (e) azimuths.
Interior angles
The angles between adjacent lines in a closed polygon are called interior angles. These angles may be
measured clockwise or counterclockwise.
Deflection angles
The angle between a line and the prolongation of the preceding line is called a deflection angle.
Angles to the right
Angles to the right are measured clockwise from the preceding line to the succeeding line.
Bearings
The direction of a line may be described by giving its bearing. The bearing of a line is the acute horizontal
angle between the reference meridian and the line. A quadrantal system is used to specify bearings such
that a line may fall under one of the following quadrant: NE, SE, NW, and SW.
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N
W E
Forward and back bearings
Using the quadrantal system, any line on the surface of the earth may be defined by two directions which
differ from each other by exactly 180°. The direction will depend on which end of the line is observed.
Azimuths
Another common method used in designating the direction of a line is by the use of azimuths. The azimuth
of a line is its direction as given by the angle between the meridian and the line measured in a clockwise
direction from either the north or south branch of the meridian.
N N
W A E W A E
B S S
Azimuth from north Azimuth from south
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Forward and back azimuths
Any line established on the earth’s surface has two azimuths. Depending on which end of the line is
considered, these directions differ by 180 degrees from each other since the back azimuth is the exact
reverse of the forward azimuth. To determine the back azimuth when the forward azimuth is known, the
following rules is used:
RULE 1: If the forward azimuth of the line is greater than 180°, subtract 180° to obtain the back azimuth.
RULE 2: When the forward azimuth is less than 180°, add 180° to determine the back azimuth.
A C
Example 6.1
Given a regular octagonal lot ABCEFGH. If the bearing of side AB is N 18 W, what is the bearing of side DE?
Example 6.2
The interior angles of a five sided traverse are as follows: A = 117 30; B = 96 32; C = 142 32’; D = 132 18’.
The angle at E is not measured.
a) Calculate the angle at E.
b) What is the deflection angle at C?
c) Compute the bearing of line DE if AB is due North.
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Problems
1. An engineer setup his transit inside a triangular lot ABC and recorded the following data for corners A, B,
and C of the parcel.
Corner Bearing Length
OA N 78.23 E 58.63 m
OB S 42.25 W 85.24 m
OC N 46.32 W 68.55 m
a) What is the area of the parcel in sq. m?
b) What is the length of side AB in meter?
c) What is the bearing of side AB?
2. A surveyor sets up a transit at a point Q which is at the middle portion of a four-sided tract of land and
reads the bearings and measures the distances, as given below.
Line Bearing Distance (m)
QA N 41 W 430
QB N 35 E 535
QC S 67 E 497
QD S 56 W 621
Compute the following:
a) Length of side BC;
b) Bearing of side BC; and
c) Area of the land in hectares
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