Fundamentals of Surveying - Horizontal Distance
Fundamentals of Surveying - Horizontal Distance
DISTANCE BY PACING
Where:
= Pace Factor
L
= = Length of the known distance
M = average number of paces required to traverse
Calibrated ropes, cords, and lines were used by surveyor for many centuries.
The use of the steel tape only came about during the beginning of the twentieth
century. Before the advent of the steel tape, the chain was used for linear
measurements. A cursory look at very old American and British deeds and plots will
reveal distances measured with the chain. A surveyor might very well see a distance
indicated as 13 ch 18.5 lks or 13.185 ch. The procedure of measurement was then
called chaining, a term carried-over from the time when the Gunter’s chain was
introduced in the early 1600s. The term has apparently survived such that it still
continues to be associated with the operation of measuring lines with tapes. The
person undertaking measurement was then referred to as chainmen.
1. Head Tapeman
This is the person responsible for the accuracy and speed of all linear
measurements with the tape. He determines and directs the marking of points
or stations, orders the clearing out of obstructions along lines to be measured,
and is the person who carries the zero end of the tape ahead.
2. Recorder
3. Flagman
This is the person whose duty is to hold the range pole (or flagpole) at
selected points. He also helps the tapemen in making measurements and
assists in clearing out obstructions along the line to be measured.
4. Rear Tapeman
BREAKING TAPE
In measuring down slope, the zero end of the tape is carried ahead. When
the full tape length is stretched out, the head tapemen lays the tape on the ground
and returns up the slope to pick up the tape at some meter mark which will allow
him to hold horizontally a convenient length between himself and the rear tapemen.
The tape is usually held at about the level of the waist or chest. After the head
tapeman plumbs his end of the tape and marks its projection on the ground, he
drops the tape and proceeds down the slope to hold the tape horizontally at some
other convenient meter mark. The rear tapeman also leaves his end of the tape
behind and moves forward to hold the meter mark earlier held by the head
tapeman. The procedure is then repeated for a number of segments until the whole
tape length is measured out.
Although the procedure of breaking tape does not require any notekeeping
or calculations, errors and mistakes are likely to occur. It is usually difficult to maintain
good alignment when breaking tape.
Taped measurements may be made directly along the slopes when the
ground is of uniform inclination and fairly smooth, rather than break tape every few
meters. This very practical method is generally preferred since measurements could
be made quickly and more accurately than horizontal measurements.
If the slope distance between the ends of a line is required, the procedure of
taping is the same as on level ground. The measured slope distance is then reduced
to its corresponding horizontal distance by simple computations. To perform the
computations, either the difference in elevation between the two ends of the tape
(or terminal points of the line) or the angle of inclination of the slope measurement
must first be determined. The difference in elevation may be obtained by running a
line of levels between the terminal points. A clinometers, transit or theodolite may be
used to determine the angle of inclination.
Where:
CORRECTIONS IN TAPING
1. When a line is measure with a tape that is “too long”, the corrections are
applied to the observed length by adding.
2. When a specified or required length is to be laid out with a tape that is “too
long”, the corrections are subtracted from the known length to determine the
corrected length to be laid out.
3. When measuring or laying out lengths with a tape that is “too short”, the
corrections are applied opposite to these stated in the first two rules.
Where:
′ = corrected length
ML
= ML ± c = correction due to incorrect tape length
NL = measured length or length to be laid out
= nominal length of tape
An incorrect length of tape introduces an error each time the tape is used
and is classified as a systematic error. It is therefore advisable to periodically
calibrate tape lengths if accurate measurements are desired. When a bug number
of measuring tapes is used, it is wise to have at least one standardized tape that is
kept only to check the lengths of the other tapes which are regularly employed in
the field.
The tape lengthens as the temperature rises and shortens as the temperature
falls. Any change in the length of a tape due to variations in temperature is critical
when undertaking precise measurements. It can also be significant even for
measurements of lower precision as in most engineering-type surveys. In ordinary
taping of short distances it is not usually considered since the amount involved is
usually small and negligible.
Where:
Where:
A tape attains its correct length when it is fully supported and subjected to
the pull for which it was standardized. If the support is only at its ends or at the two
points measured, it will sag even if the standard pull is maintained because of its
own weight. The tape takes the form of a catenary when it sags between points of
support just as an electric or telephone wire which hangs and swings loosely
between two posts.
Sag shortens the horizontal distance between end graduations since the tape
length remains the same. Thus, when a stretched tape sags, the actual distance
between the points is something less than the reading on the tape. The magnitude
of the error due to sag depends on the weight of the tape, the unsupported length,
and the tension applied. What is given is the reduced chord distance between the
end graduations and not the actual sag of a tape. The correction due to sag is the
difference in length between the arc formed by the tape and the subtending chord
in determining this correction, the arc is assumed to be a parabola, and is
computed with sufficient precision by the formula:
Where:
w L
=
24P = correction due to sag
= weight per unit length
W L = weight of unsupported length of length
= = pull during measurement or laying out
24P
= distance between supports
a. Stretch the tape on a concrete pavement (or level ground) by applying its
prescribed standard pull, and mark its ends on the pavement.
b. Hold the tape above the ground by supporting it only its ends, then, pull the
tape until the ends coincide with the marked points on the pavement.
Where:
The normal tension is the amount of pull required to make the end points
coincide with the marked points on the pavement. A spring balance should be used
in measuring this value. Theoretically, the elongation due to increased tension can
be made equal to the shortening due to sag by equating the correction due to
tension to the correction due to sag. The equation for normal tension is solved by
trial and error. The normal tension computed only makes the tape its true length and
it does not compensate all of the cumulative errors. Normal tension is not commonly
used because it may be too large for convenient application and changes with
temperature variations.
1. A 45m course, AB, on level ground was paced by a surveyor for the
purpose of determining his pace factor. The numbers of paces for each trial
take are shown in the accompanying tabulation.
2. In five trials of walking along a 90m course on fairly level ground, a pacer
for a survey party counted 51, 52.5, 51.5, 52.5, and 51.5 strides respectively.
He then started walking an unknown distance XY in four trials which were
recorded as follows: 88.5, 89, 88, and 87 strides. Determine the following:
5. The length of a line AB measured with a 50m tape is 465.285m. When the
tape is compared with a standardized invar tape it is found to be 0.016m
too long in almost the same conditions of support, tension, and
temperature that existed during measurement of the line. Determine the
correct length of AB.
6. A rectangular lot was measured using a 50m steel tape which was found to
be 0.025m too short. If the recorded length and width of the lot are
180.455m and 127.062m, respectively, determine the following:
a. Dimensions to be laid out, using this tape, in order that the building
shall have the desired dimensions.
b. Using the same tape what should the diagonals read?
10. A steel tape, known to be of standard length at 20°C, is used in laying out a
runway 2,500.00m long. If its coefficient of linear expansion is 0.0000116/1°C,
determine the temperature correction and the correct length to be laid
out when the temperature is 42°C.
11. A heavy 50m tape having a cross-sectional are of 0.05 cm2 has been
standardized at a tension of 5.5 kg. If = 2.10 10 / , determine the
elongation of the tape if a pull of 12 kg is applied.
12. A 30m steel tape weighing 1.45 kg is of standard length under a pull of 5 kg,
supported for full length. The tape was used in measuring a line 938.55m
long on smooth level ground under a steady pull of 10 kg. Assuming
= 2.0 10 / and the unit weight of steel to be 7.9 10 / ,
determine the following:
13. A 30m tape is supported only at its ends and under a steady pull of 8 kg. If
the tape weighs 0.91 kg, determine the sag correction and the correct
distance between the ends of the tape.
14. A 50m steel tape weighing 0.035 kg/m is constantly supported at mid-
length and at its end points, and is used to measure a line AB with a steady
pull of 6.5 kg. If the measured length of AB is 1268.256m, determine the
following:
15. A steel tape weighing 0.85 kg has a cross-sectional area of 0.05 . The
tape measures exactly 30.00m when supported throughout its length under
a standard pull of 5.5 kg. If the modulus of elasticity is 2.10 10 / ,
determine the tension required to make the tape equal to its nominal
length when supported only at the end points.
16. A line was determined to be 2395.25 m when measured with a 30-m steel
tape supported throughout its length under a pull of 4 kg and at mean
temperature of 35 °C. Determine the correct length of the line if the tape is
of standard length at 20 °C under a pull of 5 kg. The cross-sectional area of
the tape is 0.03 sq.cm, its coefficient of linear expansion is 0.0000116/1°C,
and the modulus of elasticity of steel is 2.0 10 / .
17. A 50-m steel tape is of standard length under a pull of 5.5 kg when
supported throughout its entire length. The tape weighs 0.05 kg/m, has a
cross-sectional area of 0.04 sq.cm, and being made of steel, its modulus of
elasticity is 2.10 10 / . This tape was used in the field to measure a
distance that was determined to be 458.650 m. At the time the
measurement was made, the constant pull applied was 8 kg with the tape
supported only at its end points. Determine the correct length of the line.
18. In problem number 2, if the tape used was standardized at 20°C and during
measurement the mean temperature observed was 18°C, determine the
correct length of the line for the combined effects of tension, sag, and
temperature. Assume the coefficient of the linear expansion of the tape to
be equal to 0.0000116 per 1 deg C.
20. In the quadrilateral ABCD shown in the figure below, the following lengths
were measured by tape: AB=760.5m,BC=390.8m, CD=371.6m, DA=595.8m,
AC=765.4m. Compute the interior angle at each corner.