MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES

The accurate determination of the distance between two points on any

surface is one of the basic operations of plane surveying. Such linear measurements
are understood to mean the horizontal distance. If the points are at different
elevations, the distance is horizontal length between plumb lines at the points. In
many instances measurements are taken along an inclined line. These distances,
however, are subsequently reduced to their equivalent on the horizontal projection
for use.

These are several methods of determining distance. The choice depends on

the purpose for which the measurement is intended, the required precision, the cost,
and other conditions. In surveying, the commonly employed methods of linear
measurement include pacing, taping, tachymetric, graphical, mathematical,
mechanical, photogrammetric, and electronic distance measurement. In some
instances, a surveyor may find occasion to employ a combination of methods to
advantage.

DISTANCE BY PACING

Pacing consists of counting the number of steps or paces in a required

distance. A pace is defined as the length of a step in walking. It may be measured
from heel to heel or from toe to toe. In surveying, pacing means moving with
measured steps; and if the steps are counted, distances can be determined if the
length of a step is known. Counting strides instead of paces is sometimes preferred
by surveyors. A stride is equivalent to two paces or a double step. Because of its
many practical applications, it is one of the most valuable things learned in
surveying.

Where:

= Pace Factor
L
= = Length of the known distance
M = average number of paces required to traverse

Pacing furnishes a rapid means of checking measurements taken by other

methods. It is suitable in determining approximate distances in situations where a low
precision of measurement is sufficient. Distances by pacing are sufficiently accurate
for small-scale mapping, for locating details and traversing with the plane table, and
in reconnaissance survey. It is also used for many purposes in geology, forestry,
engineering, and agriculture. Under average conditions, a good pacer will have
little difficulty in pacing distance with a relative precision of 1/200. Results could be
attained within 1 percent of accurately measured distances. Unless a mistake has
been made in counting, it will seldom be more than 3 percent in error.

Fundamentals of Surveying Page 17

DISTANCE BY TAPING

The use of a graduated tape is probably the most common method of

measuring or laying out horizontal distances. Taping consists of stretching a
calibrated tape between two points and reading the distance indicated on the
tape. It is a form of a direct measurement which is widely used in the construction of
buildings, dams, bridges, canals, and many other engineering as well as non-
engineering activities. The technique used in measurement and the precautions
taken will define the degree of refinement with which tape measurements can be
made. Taping may vary from a relative precision of about 1:1000 to 1:25000 or
better.

Calibrated ropes, cords, and lines were used by surveyor for many centuries.
The use of the steel tape only came about during the beginning of the twentieth
century. Before the advent of the steel tape, the chain was used for linear
measurements. A cursory look at very old American and British deeds and plots will
reveal distances measured with the chain. A surveyor might very well see a distance
indicated as 13 ch 18.5 lks or 13.185 ch. The procedure of measurement was then
called chaining, a term carried-over from the time when the Gunter’s chain was
introduced in the early 1600s. The term has apparently survived such that it still
continues to be associated with the operation of measuring lines with tapes. The
person undertaking measurement was then referred to as chainmen.

Composition of taping party:

Taping is the process of directly measuring distances with the use of a

graduated tape. When the measurement is undertaken in fairly level ground in an
open field, the taping party usually consists of the following individuals:

1. Head Tapeman

This is the person responsible for the accuracy and speed of all linear
measurements with the tape. He determines and directs the marking of points
or stations, orders the clearing out of obstructions along lines to be measured,
and is the person who carries the zero end of the tape ahead.

2. Recorder

He keeps a record of all measurements, sketches, and observations taken

during the process of measurement. He also checks by pacing all
measurements made by the tapemen for possible errors, mistakes, and
blunders.

3. Flagman

This is the person whose duty is to hold the range pole (or flagpole) at
selected points. He also helps the tapemen in making measurements and
assists in clearing out obstructions along the line to be measured.

4. Rear Tapeman

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 This is the person whose duty is to assist the head tapemen during a taping
operation. He is the one who holds the 30-m end or any intermediate meter
mark of the tape during a measurement.

BREAKING TAPE

It is standard practice to hold the tape horizontally above ground and to

plumb at one or both ends when taping on sloping or even terrain surfaces. This
requires the measurement of shorter distances which are accumulated to total a full
tape length. The procedure is referred to as breaking tape.

In measuring down slope, the zero end of the tape is carried ahead. When
the full tape length is stretched out, the head tapemen lays the tape on the ground
and returns up the slope to pick up the tape at some meter mark which will allow
him to hold horizontally a convenient length between himself and the rear tapemen.
The tape is usually held at about the level of the waist or chest. After the head
tapeman plumbs his end of the tape and marks its projection on the ground, he
drops the tape and proceeds down the slope to hold the tape horizontally at some
other convenient meter mark. The rear tapeman also leaves his end of the tape
behind and moves forward to hold the meter mark earlier held by the head
tapeman. The procedure is then repeated for a number of segments until the whole
tape length is measured out.

Figure 1: Procedure of breaking tape

The technique used in breaking tape is illustrated in the figure. As an example

of this operation, assume that when 30m end of the tape is held at the initial point
(A), the head tapeman can advance only 10m and conveniently hold the tape
horizontally without having to plumb from above his chest. A chaining pin is then set
directly below the corresponding 20m mark. The head tapeman drops the tape and
proceeds down the slope while the rear tapeman also moves forward but leaves
behind the 30m end of the tape at the initial point. As the rear tapeman holds the
20m mark, the head tapeman selects another convenient tape segment which he
can hold horizontally and plumb, say, the 8m mark. Finally, with the 8m mark hel over
the second pin on the ground, the full 30m length is marked at the zero meter end
(at B) of the tape.

Although the procedure of breaking tape does not require any notekeeping
or calculations, errors and mistakes are likely to occur. It is usually difficult to maintain
good alignment when breaking tape.

Fundamentals of Surveying Page 19

SLOPE TAPING

Taped measurements may be made directly along the slopes when the
ground is of uniform inclination and fairly smooth, rather than break tape every few
meters. This very practical method is generally preferred since measurements could
be made quickly and more accurately than horizontal measurements.

Figure 2: Slope taping

If the slope distance between the ends of a line is required, the procedure of
taping is the same as on level ground. The measured slope distance is then reduced
to its corresponding horizontal distance by simple computations. To perform the
computations, either the difference in elevation between the two ends of the tape
(or terminal points of the line) or the angle of inclination of the slope measurement
must first be determined. The difference in elevation may be obtained by running a
line of levels between the terminal points. A clinometers, transit or theodolite may be
used to determine the angle of inclination.

Where:

= s cos α = horizontal distance between two points

= measured slope length between two points
= angle of inclination from the horizontal
= s −h =difference in elevation

CORRECTIONS IN TAPING

Taping operations could either be of the following: taping to determine an

unknown length, or taping for the purpose of laying out a required or specified
length. Regardless of which of these two categories is involved, there are some
corrections which are applied to the original measurements to determine the
correct and more accurate length. Corrections to taping are applied by the use of
the following rules:

1. When a line is measure with a tape that is “too long”, the corrections are
applied to the observed length by adding.
2. When a specified or required length is to be laid out with a tape that is “too
long”, the corrections are subtracted from the known length to determine the
corrected length to be laid out.
3. When measuring or laying out lengths with a tape that is “too short”, the
corrections are applied opposite to these stated in the first two rules.

Fundamentals of Surveying Page 20

 Considering these three rules, the student should note carefully when a
correction should be added or subtracted. This should be given an important
consideration especially when the tape used proves to be in appreciable error from
the standard. These three rules could be easily remembered by the following much
shorter statement: when measuring with tape too long, add; tape too short, subtract.
Do the reverse when laying out.

Correction due to incorrect tape length

Manufacturers of assorted measuring tapes do not usually guarantee their

products to be exactly their correct length. They do not provide a standardization
certificate unless requested, and this usually has to be paid an extra amount. These
tapes rarely correspond exactly with its specified nominal length since they may
actually be slightly shorter or longer. This is often due to imperfections in their
manufacture, stretching, or wear. Also, due to constant use tapes become worn,
kinked, and may be improperly repaired when breaks occur. The net result is that
tapes may vary by a few millimetres or centimetres from their correct lengths.

Where:

′ = corrected length
ML
= ML ± c = correction due to incorrect tape length
NL = measured length or length to be laid out
= nominal length of tape

An incorrect length of tape introduces an error each time the tape is used
and is classified as a systematic error. It is therefore advisable to periodically
calibrate tape lengths if accurate measurements are desired. When a bug number
of measuring tapes is used, it is wise to have at least one standardized tape that is
kept only to check the lengths of the other tapes which are regularly employed in
the field.

Correction due to temperature

The tape lengthens as the temperature rises and shortens as the temperature
falls. Any change in the length of a tape due to variations in temperature is critical
when undertaking precise measurements. It can also be significant even for
measurements of lower precision as in most engineering-type surveys. In ordinary
taping of short distances it is not usually considered since the amount involved is
usually small and negligible.
Where:

= correction due to temperature

= coefficient of linear expansion
= α(T − T )L = temperature during measurement/laid out
= temperature during standardization
= measured/laid out/nominal length

Fundamentals of Surveying Page 21

 Tapes used in surveying measurements are standardized at a specific
temperature. Since measurements are taken at temperatures which may vary
significantly from the temperature at which the tape was standardized, tapes may
be either too long or too short. The coefficient of linear expansion (the amount of
change in length per unit length per degree change in temperature) of the tape
must be known when computing the change in length of a tape caused by change
in temperature. If the tape used is made of steel, the value of “ ” is 0.0000116 per
degree Celsius. This means that for every 1 degree “ ” rise (or fall) in temperature,
the tape will increase (or decrease) in length by 0.0000116 times its length. Thus, the
change in length of a tape 1m long for a change in temperature of 1°C will be
0.0000116. For a 30m tape, the change for 1°C will be 30 times 0.0000116 or 0.000348.
The value of “ ” is usually taken as 20 degree Celsius. In determining the
temperature during taping “ ”, precise reading thermometers should only be used.
Tape thermometers are so designed that these could be attached easily to the tape
by means of clips. It is advisable to use two thermometers which may be attached
near each end of the tape. The mean temperature reading should always be used
when computing the amount of correction.

Correction due to pull or tension

During calibration (or standardization) a tape is subjected to a certain

amount of standard pull or tension on its ends. When used in the field during taping,
it is elongated or shortened accordingly, depending on the amount of pull applied
on it. if the pull is greater than that for which it was calibrated, the tape elongates
and becomes too long. Correspondingly, it will stretch less than its standard length
when an insufficient pull is applied thus, making it too short. An error in measurement
results whenever the pull applied is different from the standard tension used in
calibration.

To account for variations in applied tension, a correction has to be added to

or subtracted from the measured length. This correction for pull is a function of the
difference between the applied pull and the standard pull, the measured length,
the cross-sectional area of the tape, and the modulus of elasticity of the tape
material.

Where:

= correction due to pull or tension

(P − P )L = pull during measurement/laid out
=
AE = pull during standardization
= measured/laid out/nominal length
W = cross-sectional area of the tape
= = modulus of elasticity
δL = weight of tape
= unit weight or weight density

Fundamentals of Surveying Page 22

 By measuring the thickness and width of a steel tape by means of a calliper,
its cross-sectional area can be determined. The cross-sectional area may also be
calculated by dividing the total weight (W) of the tape by the product of its length
(L) and the unit weight of steel which is approximately 7.866 10 / . The cross-
sectional area of most light and heavy steel tapes which are 30m long vary from
about 0.02 and 0.06 sq.cm. The modulus of elasticity of a steel tape usually varies
from 2.00 10 to 2.10 10 / .

Correction due to sag

A tape attains its correct length when it is fully supported and subjected to
the pull for which it was standardized. If the support is only at its ends or at the two
points measured, it will sag even if the standard pull is maintained because of its
own weight. The tape takes the form of a catenary when it sags between points of
support just as an electric or telephone wire which hangs and swings loosely
between two posts.

Sag shortens the horizontal distance between end graduations since the tape
length remains the same. Thus, when a stretched tape sags, the actual distance
between the points is something less than the reading on the tape. The magnitude
of the error due to sag depends on the weight of the tape, the unsupported length,
and the tension applied. What is given is the reduced chord distance between the
end graduations and not the actual sag of a tape. The correction due to sag is the
difference in length between the arc formed by the tape and the subtending chord
in determining this correction, the arc is assumed to be a parabola, and is
computed with sufficient precision by the formula:

Where:
w L
=
24P = correction due to sag
= weight per unit length
W L = weight of unsupported length of length
= = pull during measurement or laying out
24P
= distance between supports

Either of these equations may be used in determining corrections due to sag.

First equation is employed when the weight of tape per unit length (w) is given, and
the values of L and P are known. If instead the total weight of tape between
supports (W) is given, the second equation is used. Whenever the tape is held above
the ground it will always sag and the effect is that of shortening the tape. A
systematic error is introduced unless the same conditions during standardization are
employed when obtaining measurements. The effect of sag can be reduced by
increased tension but is not entirely eliminated unless the tape is supported
throughout its entire length.

Fundamentals of Surveying Page 23

Normal tension

By exerting a sufficiently greater amount of pull on the tape when it is

suspended and sagged, the tape will be stretched and a considerable decrease in
the amount of sag results. The applied pull which will lengthen the tape to equal the
shortening caused by sag is referred to as the normal tension. Its magnitude can be
measured out in the field as follows:

a. Stretch the tape on a concrete pavement (or level ground) by applying its
prescribed standard pull, and mark its ends on the pavement.
b. Hold the tape above the ground by supporting it only its ends, then, pull the
tape until the ends coincide with the marked points on the pavement.

Where:

= correction due to pull or tension

=C = correction due to sag
= normal tension to eliminate effect of sag (kg)
0.204W√AE = total weight of tape bet. Supports (kg)
= = cross-sectional area of tape ( )
P −P = modulus of elasticity of tape ( / )
= standard pull for the tape (kg)

The normal tension is the amount of pull required to make the end points
coincide with the marked points on the pavement. A spring balance should be used
in measuring this value. Theoretically, the elongation due to increased tension can
be made equal to the shortening due to sag by equating the correction due to
tension to the correction due to sag. The equation for normal tension is solved by
trial and error. The normal tension computed only makes the tape its true length and
it does not compensate all of the cumulative errors. Normal tension is not commonly
used because it may be too large for convenient application and changes with
temperature variations.

Fundamentals of Surveying Page 24

Sample problem:

1. A 45m course, AB, on level ground was paced by a surveyor for the
purpose of determining his pace factor. The numbers of paces for each trial
take are shown in the accompanying tabulation.

TRIAL LINE TAPED NO.OF PACES MEAN

DISTANCE
1 AB 50
2 BA 53
3 AB 51
4 BA 45 53 52
5 AB 52
6 BA 53

a. Determine his pace factor

b. If the surveyor then took 771, 770, 768, 770, 772, and 769 paces in
walking an unknown distance CD, what is the length of the line?
c. Assuming that the taped length of line CD is 667.0m, determine the
relative precision of the measurement performed.

2. In five trials of walking along a 90m course on fairly level ground, a pacer
for a survey party counted 51, 52.5, 51.5, 52.5, and 51.5 strides respectively.
He then started walking an unknown distance XY in four trials which were
recorded as follows: 88.5, 89, 88, and 87 strides. Determine the following:

a. Pace factor of the pacer.

b. Length of the line XY.
c. Percentage of error in the measurement if the taped length of XY is
150.5 meters. s

3. A measurement is made along a line that is inclined by a vertical angle of

15°25’ as measured using a hand level and clinometers. The slope
measurement is 756.52. What is the corresponding horizontal distance?

4. A horizontal distance of 325.75m is to be established along a line that slopes

at a vertical angle of 13°06’. What slope distance should be laid out?

5. The length of a line AB measured with a 50m tape is 465.285m. When the
tape is compared with a standardized invar tape it is found to be 0.016m
too long in almost the same conditions of support, tension, and
temperature that existed during measurement of the line. Determine the
correct length of AB.

6. A rectangular lot was measured using a 50m steel tape which was found to
be 0.025m too short. If the recorded length and width of the lot are
180.455m and 127.062m, respectively, determine the following:

a. Actual dimensions of the lot

b. Error in are introduced due to the erroneous length of tape.

Fundamentals of Surveying Page 25

 7. A building 38m x 45m is to be laid out with a 50m long metallic tape. If
during standardization the tape is found to be only 49.950, determine the
following:

a. Dimensions to be laid out, using this tape, in order that the building
shall have the desired dimensions.
b. Using the same tape what should the diagonals read?

8. A line AB cannot be measured directly because of an obstruction on line.

Accordingly, the two lines AC and CB were measured as 2,400.850m and
1,320.420m, respectively. Point C was set at a perpendicular distance of
155m from point D on line AB. Using the approximate slope correction
formula for steep slopes, determine the length of AB.

9. A steel tape with a coefficient of linear of 0.0000116/1°C is known to be

50m long at 20°C. The tape was used to measure a line which was found to
be 532.28 meters long when the temperature was 35°C. Determine the
following:

a. Temperature correction per tape length

b. Temperature correction for the measured line
c. Correct length of the line

10. A steel tape, known to be of standard length at 20°C, is used in laying out a
runway 2,500.00m long. If its coefficient of linear expansion is 0.0000116/1°C,
determine the temperature correction and the correct length to be laid
out when the temperature is 42°C.

11. A heavy 50m tape having a cross-sectional are of 0.05 cm2 has been
standardized at a tension of 5.5 kg. If = 2.10 10 / , determine the
elongation of the tape if a pull of 12 kg is applied.

12. A 30m steel tape weighing 1.45 kg is of standard length under a pull of 5 kg,
supported for full length. The tape was used in measuring a line 938.55m
long on smooth level ground under a steady pull of 10 kg. Assuming
= 2.0 10 / and the unit weight of steel to be 7.9 10 / ,
determine the following:

a. Cross-sectional area of the tape

b. Correction for increase in tension
c. Correct length of the line measured

13. A 30m tape is supported only at its ends and under a steady pull of 8 kg. If
the tape weighs 0.91 kg, determine the sag correction and the correct
distance between the ends of the tape.

14. A 50m steel tape weighing 0.035 kg/m is constantly supported at mid-
length and at its end points, and is used to measure a line AB with a steady
pull of 6.5 kg. If the measured length of AB is 1268.256m, determine the
following:

Fundamentals of Surveying Page 26

 a. Correction due to sag between supports and for the whole tape
length
b. Total sag correction for the whole length measured
c. Correct length of line AB

15. A steel tape weighing 0.85 kg has a cross-sectional area of 0.05 . The
tape measures exactly 30.00m when supported throughout its length under
a standard pull of 5.5 kg. If the modulus of elasticity is 2.10 10 / ,
determine the tension required to make the tape equal to its nominal
length when supported only at the end points.

16. A line was determined to be 2395.25 m when measured with a 30-m steel
tape supported throughout its length under a pull of 4 kg and at mean
temperature of 35 °C. Determine the correct length of the line if the tape is
of standard length at 20 °C under a pull of 5 kg. The cross-sectional area of
the tape is 0.03 sq.cm, its coefficient of linear expansion is 0.0000116/1°C,
and the modulus of elasticity of steel is 2.0 10 / .

17. A 50-m steel tape is of standard length under a pull of 5.5 kg when
supported throughout its entire length. The tape weighs 0.05 kg/m, has a
cross-sectional area of 0.04 sq.cm, and being made of steel, its modulus of
elasticity is 2.10 10 / . This tape was used in the field to measure a
distance that was determined to be 458.650 m. At the time the
measurement was made, the constant pull applied was 8 kg with the tape
supported only at its end points. Determine the correct length of the line.

18. In problem number 2, if the tape used was standardized at 20°C and during
measurement the mean temperature observed was 18°C, determine the
correct length of the line for the combined effects of tension, sag, and
temperature. Assume the coefficient of the linear expansion of the tape to
be equal to 0.0000116 per 1 deg C.

19. The angle between two intersecting fences is to be determined with a

tape. A point on each fence line is established 30.0 m from the point of
intersection. If the distance between the established points is 12.20 m, what
is the intersection angle?

20. In the quadrilateral ABCD shown in the figure below, the following lengths
were measured by tape: AB=760.5m,BC=390.8m, CD=371.6m, DA=595.8m,
AC=765.4m. Compute the interior angle at each corner.

Fundamentals of Surveying Page 27