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 Contents
Construction Materials

MADEWYPubllcatlons
Chapter 1 1.7.7 Anenenles 2
Co<pora1o Ollie(); 44-A/4, Kalu Sarai (Non, Hauz KMs Moiro Smtioo), Now Deihl• 110016
E..fllail; ![Link] 1,1.B Hea1 or Hydratlon Test 24
CColact: 01 l-45124660, 1!&6037B0o? Cement ,...... ,............."._....- ..... _,,....~.......... 1
1.7.9 Speclfic GrallltyTe:11 25
Vis!! IIS al: Wfl\'f.n\adeeasypubioali<lr![Link] 1.1 lntroduttlon--------------
1.2 Cement and Umc _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ Objective Brain Tea1ell 26

1.3 Manvfaaunng ofCemen'---------2 Chapter2

1.3.1 ComposltlonofCelll(!ntCllnkef 5
Mortar and Lime ........... ~ ................................ 27
1.3.2 Fuocllons ofVailous Cement lngretllenlS--. 8 2.1 Bulkln9o(Sar,d _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 27
1.4 Hydration ufCement_ 9
1.S Type of Cements 11
2.2 Monars -----------27
2.2.1 Type ot Binding Matetial - - - - - 2 !
1.5.l Otdfnary Portland Cement (OPC) 11
Constnlc:tlcm Ma1erlals 1.5.2 Rapid Hardening Cement (RHC) l2
2.2.2 Special Monan --------28
0 Copyrigtil. by MADE EASY Publicatioos. 2.2.3 Propenle1 of a Good Mortar- - - - - 2 9
1.5.3 E,nr~ Rilpld Hardenlr.g Cement {ERHCl--12 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 29
· • Allrigh!sareraserved. No!Wtol lhispublicalion may ho reprod\lCed, slomd In 01 ln,roduced 2.2.4 Use1 of Mortar
1.S.◄ low Heat Cement (LHC) 12
into a rerrieval system. or lra11S1T1llletl in any form or by any ll'leans (eleclronlc. mwhanlcar. :u.s FunC!loru of Silnd In Momr ~ - - - ~ O
pho!o-copyin9. recording or othorwfse). wli!\olll tho prior wrillen permission or !ha above [Link] Portland BfaJI Furnace Sla9Cement _ _ _ 13 rs__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Jo
2.3 Tens for Mona
moolloned publisher Of lhis bock. l.5.6 Portland Pozzoiana Cement (PPC 13 _ _ _ _ 30
2.3.1 Adlit>slvencss to Bullding Units
1.5.7 Acid Resls1an1 Cement (AAC) 14
2.3.2 Crushing Strength - - - - - - ~ 3 0
1.5.8 Sulphate Resisting Cement (SRC) 14
2..33 Tensile Strength'----'-----30
1.5,9 Coloured Cement[WhlteCementl---14
1.5.10 Hl9hAlumlruCemeni(HAQ 15
2.M Ume -----------0
l!dhfon:l0t8
1.5 11 Quick Selling Portland CemenL 15
2.4 --------031
Some Baile Oefinllions
e__ _ _ _ _ _ _
25 Clanlfimlon of Um
1.5.12 Masonry Cement (IS: 3466) 15
2.5.1 fatlJmei - - - - - - - - - - l l
1.S.13 Super Sulphated Cement (SSC] 15 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 32
2.S.2 Hydraulic Lime
1.5.14 Air Entraining Cement {AEC) 16 e__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 32
2.S.3 Poor Lim
[Link] Hydrophobic Cemen 16
1.6 FleldTests for Cements 17
2.6 Impurities In limestone •~------~2
2.6.1 Magnesium carbonate _______ 32
1.7 Laboratorylem forCemen 17
2.6.2 Clay 3
1.7-1 Chem lea IC0mpoil1lan Test 17
2.6.l SIii 3
1.7.2 No1mal Consistency Test 17 2.6.4 rron(ompounds, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 33
1.7.l Initial Selling lime Tes 19
2.6.5 Svlphates 33
1.7A Anal Se1tln9 lime Test 19
2.6,6 A l l < a l l ~ s - - - - - - - - - 3
1.7.S Soundness Test 19
CAIi rights re•orved by MADE SASY PUBUCATIONS, No paH of thl, book m;,y be reprocluce<I 2.6,7 Classification cf Moriaron Strength B.!1i~_33
or m1llzed In any form wl!h0<1t the wrluen permission from the pubit,her. 1.7.6 StrengthTe11
Objective Brain Teams, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 34
 4.8 Bends ln Brlck-Wo 2 Chapter6
4.S.1 En9lfsh8on 92
Chapter3 3.20 Types or Admlxtu,es 60 Structu~al Steel & Other
4,11.2 FlcmlshBond 92
Concrete _.,.M _ _ _ ,.............. M..-•.. ··••M••· 35 3.20.1 Pla~ldrers !Water-reducers) Construction Material5.___ ,._, ........."-·--·· t.17
4.8.3 Double Flemlsh Bond 92
3. \ Propertl1!$ of Cement Concl'l!te _ _ _ _ _ _ 35 3..20.2 Superplasll cims 62 6.1 lntrodu(tlon . 117
62 4.9 Comparative Merits and Demerits
ll Classi~c:aUo,-,olCor.ae1e _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 35 3..20.J Alrentralners 6.2 fenous Metal - 117
cfEngllshandf!emlih Bond 92
33 Ma nufoe1uring or Conai,te 36
3.20.4 Accelerators 63 62.1 Iron m
4.10 OlherTypescfBond 93
3.20.5 Rela rden 63 62.2 Plglron 118
3,4 Materials Un'l'.! In RCCwork 40
4. IO. I Eccenlrici1y oflo3din9
3.20.6 Water Proofer 63 623 Casllron Ill!
3.S Different Methods of Propcnionlng Concretc _ _ 40 !14
4.101 ShapeFactor
3.20,7 [Link] 64 6.3 Wrought Iron 121
3.5.l IS Code Method« Concrete Mix Oeilgn-41 ObfeClive 6,oin Teosell 95
3.20.8 EitlmJllng Yield of Concrete 64 63.1 ProperdesofWtoughl Iron 121
3.6 Steps fOfCanoe1eMix De5ign as per IS CQ<le Method~ 42
Fine~ Modu!t.11 or Aggregate _ _ _ _ ,44 3.20.9 Water-proof Cement Concrete 65 6.12 Uses cfWroughl Iron 121
3.6.1 Chapters
3.6.2 Fineness ModuJ ....._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 45 3.20.10 Ca uses of Corros:ron In Steel In Concre1e-67 6.4 S!eel 121
Timber .........................................................98
45 3.20.11 Effoo ofCorroilon-------67 6.4.1 P!Opl!niesandlJlesofVariousTypesofSte<!L122
3.7 Durabmry of Cooot!1 5.1 Classificatlcn olTrl!Qs 98
3.21 Gunhing _ _ _ _ _ __.;__ _ _ _ _ 67
gg 6.S Heil [Link]"Stee 122
]JI Defects In Coooet 46 52 Slructure of a Tr®
Objror,e Brain Ttal'I! 74 6.S. l TypesoflleatTreaunent 122
3,9 Physical 1'1oponlon1 or Concret 46 5.2.1 Felllngomees 100
6.6 ~oiled S!eelSetllons 123
JJO Water•cemEnt l',;,tlo 47 Chapter4 SJ Ocferu In Timber 100
6.7 Relnforci119 SlEel Sm 123
3.11 [Link] of Coocret 47 5.4 Preservation ofnmoor 105
Bricks and Brl(k Masonry............................... 76 6.7.1 TypesofRclnforongSlee!B.11 12-4
3.12 FJctors Alfe<tic,gWorl<abllity 47 S,4.1 ~equirements or a Good Prt!serva1lve_ _ 10s
4.1 Composition of Good Brick Earth _ _ _ _ _ _ 76 12S
3.12.1 Water C011tenl/Water Cement Ra\10 _ _ _ 4g 6.8 AlloyS!!!el
SA2 Types cf Premvative 105
4.l. I Harmful Ingredients In DrlckEarth._.______ n 125
3.12.2 Mile Proponlon~Agg1C9ate Cement Ra1l0 __ 49 6.9 Other ConitruaionMatmlal
S.4.3 Me1hods for Prescr,a1lon 107
4.1.2 Clml~[Link]!rick eanh,---~--'7 6.9.1 Stone 125
3.123 Size oL½gregal-=--------49
41 ManufactureofBrl<M-------- 77
s.s Fire Res Is\~ nee of Timber 108
130
6.9.2 Gla~s
3.l 2.4 [Link] of Aggrega!c 49 5.6 Sl!ason!ng ofTimber 108
4.2.1 liandMouldln9 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 7a \JO
6.93 l'laslics
3.12.5 SurfaceTexture 49 5.6.1 Ob)11ets or Seasoning 109
4.2.2 Machine Moulding 79 132
3.12.6 Grading of Aggn,gates 50 109 6.9.4 fllPiflbrel!eln{om:dPolyme,j
5,6.2 Me1hcxk of Seasonln
4.2.3 Advantages of Clamp Burnlng 81 M.S Ceramic 1ll
3.13 Tem lor workability so S.6.3 Ccnver!lon oflimber 111!
4.2.4 [Link] of Clamp Burning '" ___ ,.__ 81 135
JJ3.1 SlurnpTes! _so 11\
6.9.6 Afumlnl11111
4..2.5 Sull'sTrt!nch Ki ..l,__________ 82 5.7 Markel fonmorlimber
I
6.9.7 FlyAs )36
l. 131 Proc<!dure so S.7.1 lndus1ri1I Timber 112
41.6 Hoffman's Kiln 82 6.9.8 Other Admlxtu, 139
3.13.3 Compac6o<"IFactorTes1 51 s.a Qualities or Good 1lmbet 114
43 Quali1iesofGoocl 8rick.l 84 ObJectweBr<lln Tcowr MS
3.1 l4 Vet>-llee Tes!N!'f'-8ee Consls1ometer T~t--53 S.9 lmportanl lndi,m TimoorTrees 115
4.3.1 Strength orBrkks 85
3.13.5 FlowTe11 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-53
3.13.6 Kelly&IITest _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 54
4.4 Tem for Bric
ObJecrive Brofn Teams 116
••••
4.4.1 Classifica1ion or Bricks 6
3. 14 Strength Test on Concrcte--------55
4.4.2 Unburnt Briel", '""'"86
3. 15 Compre11i</~ Strmgth Te, 55
4A.3 Burnt Bricks "·--86
l \6 Fle~ural Temile Sucngth Te~\
4.4A Colour1 of 81id;s __________ "_______ g7
(Modulu,of Rupture R'1l) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 56
4.4.S Size and Weight of B1lcks ....."_.,,......................... 87
3.17 Split Ten~ile Stn'llglh Teat 56
4.6 -flre-CTay _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ g9
3.18 Non Destructiveieu 7 4.6.1 Fl1e Bricks._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _g9
3.19 Rke<)logic.J B<,hav!our ofConcre\e 59
4,7 Brick Masonry •·-•·""'_90

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I l

Cement

1.1 Introduction
• Cement is an extremely fine material having adhesive and cohesive properties which provide a
binding medium lor the discrete ing,edienls.
• Toe cement is a product obtained by pulverizing (lo make into a powder form) clinker formed by
calcinaLing lhe r~w 111at~~aj,[Link] co.n;[Link] Lime {CaO),.Sillcate (Si02 ), Al1Jmina (Al2 Oal
andlronoxide·ti=ep;).'. :',;--.:.,~ <·.· ·. _.,
'.' . ..'·-~.i .:: .• ·· · ·
• When cement Is mbre-d w'iihwaiadt forms a [Link] ~indf ~~g;~gatos (fine and coarse) together
to lorrn a hard•i:[Link]·~ass"cii1ied concreLEi:) '., ': ' '" ; - :..' .. ·' .:. :,: ..
The cemem which'!~ fine ·i;,;;~t~i~Jd·assurne'1~ ha~~ good settiQg property, finer the grains ol lhe
cemenl more [ii the stre~gih of cement:> . .~·: I :: . •

• The cementis ·having good he~! of hydration duet; ~hich it seis earty as compared to other binding
malarial like lime.• ·. · · · · · · · ·
The cemente:,:perie~cesthee;,:o!hermic chemlcai"reaction when comes in a contact wilh waler.
The cement Is· assume lo have a speci!ic gravi1y· !lf 3, 15·. '. . _
• Joseph Asp dl'n [Link](rred c2me01 and 'called'JtP01i1and cement because when il hardened. il
produced a malarial res~mbling stone lromth~q°J'a~;les_ near Porll~ild in England.
oi of
During grindin'g ~ilrik~r. "Gypsum or pl~sler P~ris" is' added to ~revenl trash setting of lhe
cement The amount of gypsum is abou1 3 lo 5 per cent by weight of clinker. II also improves the
soundness of ~emen\. . .:_ . .
• The common calcareous materials are lfme stone, chalk, marine shell and marl.
The argillaceous materials are clay, shale. slate and selected blas1 furnace slag.
The processes used for the manufacture ol cemeni can be classified as dry and wet.
• The ideal nel weight of cement bag is so kg and volume or 0.035 mJ.

1.2 Cement and Lime

Following points or dillarences may be noted between ordinary cemer:11 and lime:
1. The cement is used !or \he gain of early strength whereas lime gains the strength slowly.
2. The cement and lime color are dilfereoL
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Postal Study Package fl'.iiE Conslruaian Materials l3
3. The cement and lime both is abinding ma1erial having good ultimate slrenglh but lime experiences Dry process:
less earfyslrenglh as compare lo cement

1 .3 Manufacturing of Cement
The cement is manufactured by inlegraling the calcare~:ws component and arglllaceous component
in ratio of 3 : t
The calcareous componenl can be limestone, chalk, marine shells, marl whereas argmaceous
components can be shale, clay, blasr rurnace slag, slate.
• The calcareous component is used to derive !he ingredient called lime whereas Iha argillaceous
component composed o! silica. alumina. iron oxide and 01her impurities.
[a) Wet process:
• rt is the old method of rnanufactunng which is now a days obsole,ed,
• It is a costly method of manufacturing because it requires higher degree of luel consumption.
powercoo~umpllon.: 0 _-. • ·_ ••• • • • • ·:-\·; '/i: 7 :L:i!t:,:\.,....__-_ _.j,o,__--~,..··:"'·:':,~---:=-,:_-_-~--,> :.: :_:· ·-: :~-- ·
In lhis pr~ess the prehe,ater is ~ot used. .·: u . . .t.....,a--.....::...,..,..,-,,.,,,,.,;;~
',. \ :..• ' ' ;.. ~ .-: ... ~ •-'•.::·;:.: ~-· ·,_
.' : .i.,_
Cnlca1,Q,s Malunal (Umo SltlnD) Argilaalcu, M,ito,W (Cl,iy)
••I•.•'

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,, ~ - -,.. ·~ - P"'"'VfUII '•: .
;,.:·..:·'_-.-:'_.·_,:",; . --~~;..;,.,.,,.....;.· :_; ..,, -:·:-

tn a dry proc~~- .ji~t)~;~ar~~s-4;;;i~;is·1i1i~!?i~~ ~~~-!r?niaceous compooent (clay or

shale) is reduced hf slie about 25 mm in ,fcrustiers sepai'alely in a ball mill or lube mill.
~go ·baslns (sllos) S!Qmil" basins (silos) . ;,', -: ' :_: ,..·.. _.. _.· .,.-
-.
. ChOnnol Wot 9riodlng mill (13,J~ mill) 1-'C"'hllll=fut'-'_.-__,
ID ma!<o [Link]

Blooding ol sluny ID ""'10<:I a:mP<»iUon

Fvd rod lrom lawvr

End(Conl,oilor Comx:lro sJ..-ry lod ID ro1my kiln (Imm uppor o~)
nawmlgas)

S4urry C<lm'llrtod 0110 clin~""5

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Addilicn ol 2 ID
olgyPsum
:i•.~."L
! ~----,-------

Flow dlogram or wet proeou

(b) Dry process:

• It is a new me1hod of manufacturing which is !rending now _a days,
CMlol
• The luel consumption, powe1 consumplion has been reducell 10 a greater extent by modifying Fig. Vortii:ll/ S""'1on of n BlJtl Mil
the wet process.

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• Bumlng Zone: In this zone tha ingredients of calcareous and argillaceous component i.e. lime,
silica, e,lumlna. iron oxide etc. get uniledwilh each other al a very high temperilture and this process
is called fusion.
2Ca0 +Si02 -cazSi04 = C2S (Dicalcium Silicale)
3CaO+Si0 2 ..._Ca3Si05 = C3S ffricalciumsmcate)
3CaO+A'20J--+CaJAIP6 "'C3 A (TricalciumAluminate)
4Ca0+ A~03 + Fep 3 --ca4 Alje 20 10 = C◄ AF (Tetra-calcium Alumina-ferrite)
The product obtained from rotary kiln is called clinker whlch is composed of major compound
Rg,~S<>c1>llt(Jfo T;,t,,At'!I (BougueCompound) and Minor Compound i.e~Alkalies(Soda and Polash).
• Thecalcarettsscomponent and ~giltaCi..'OUS compoor;rit aHer grindtng ere mixed with each other in • The clinker composedol (Bougue's compound) and Minor compounds i.e. Al!lalies (Soo'll. and Potash)
a eorrecl propo,tian and made it ready for next operaf on In rotary kiln. The clinker Is having tlash set property i.e. quick selling property when it comes in conlact wi1h
• Before feedilg .ii!'?~~-~~n tbe'taw mix i:!_8l/p)l(ed_ ltLP[!3h(!ater,!l.t a: temperature of 650-C which moisture. Ther~(ore, the retarder is added tQ the_ <;linker by its we_ighl i.e. 2 to 3 percent.
reduces lhefl!ir1Jlrjg:1rme·pl_f8W m~in rotary 'Klfn:·'/.('jt:(f,~f.':,{iii:~l.i':-f • The ,atarder is a~miXj~re wtitch delays the s~16ij~--iiri;i_~ of Iha
~rrie'ni'~llnker.
:_:~~··:· · =_;·t~-.~~-:(~ .~;~ :-~- -.·.~··>:-;:.(~:~:,.;r~tf'.~:;::~J1:-"/ The ullimately binding materiai' i-.; C - s - H gei i.e .. C_alciuni_'silicale hydrate gel which is lormed
when the hydratioo of cement lakes place._. . .

Raw malCl!al lor ciiment

.. -· Umoaton<>. day .
ahiilo loaltan,i:,i, ond e,gillllOJW9 m<>!orlal)

O:dde ~lllan In ra-,1 IMIC(Ulls

Co1rp0,1nd~

On

J>oi1fond camenls

On hydretloo

Producls of hydrntloo

1.3.1 Composition of Cement Clinker

Diameter = 2.50 lO 3 metre Table
lenglh=90IO 120metre Tho p<lnclpal m!nornl
e<>mpounda In Ponlond e<>mont Fomtulo Noma Symbol Pol'COntoeo
¼Jrume., 7C6.3m3
laid Gradie!ll = 1 in 25 lo 1 in 30 1. Tr'all<illffl silica\o 3Co0-Si02 Alilo <;s 30-50%

Revolution =3 round/min about longer axis. 2. Oic:>ldurn slic:a\o 2Cu0-Si01 Solito c,s 21)-45%

• Nodule Zone: In this zone calcinatioo ol limes lone occurs and limestone gel disintegrated into iwo 3, T""'11cium olomfnato JCaO .AJ,o, C<tll!o c,A 8-12%

parts i.o. lfl!Wl and carbon dioxide. 4. Tolrocnlci!Jm alumioo lorrilo 4Co0 -Al,Oi • Fo20 3 Folilo c.l>F &-10%

Besides major compounds, minor compounds are also lormed that are:.Soda (Na,0) and Po1as11
caco.i ~ e n >GaO+~{i)
(K20). These two minor compounds i.e. Socia and Potash are responsible for Efllorescence in a
As the CO2 is evaporated from Iha raw rnix, lhe raw mix get converleel into nodulos., cement concrete and cement mortar.
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Efflorescence: Emo1esce11ce is the migration of the seft to the sur1ace of porous material, where ii 4. Tetra-calcium Alumlnale ferrite C4AF {6-10%)
forms a coating, This process involves the dissolving or internally held salt in waler. The water wilh • It is also responsible !or high heal ol hydration as compare to Ct3and but less than Cit,
the sall migrates to the surface, tn ~n evaporates. leaving a coaling of salt. Its conlribulion in
strenglh is very less.
It is found that ordinary cement achieves 70 percent ol Its final strength In 28 [Link] and 90 • 11Is having contribution [Link] 24 hours ol adding waler 10 lhe cement.
percent ln 1 year.
• The heat of hydration 420 J/gm.
The strength in a cement Is majorly depimds upon the Bougue compound. The properties of Portland
cement varies significantly with the proporlion of lour Bougue compounds.
1. [Link] SIiicate C~S - {30 lo 50%)
• II is considered as a very good strength compound. ll enable: the clinker to grind easily.
II hydrates rapidly genera1es high heat and develop early hardness and strength.
• It increases the resistance to freezing ancl thawing.
• Rasing ol CJS content beyond specific limil the heat of hydration increases.
• The hydration ol C3S is mainly responsible tor 7 Clays str~l)gth anct hardness,
The c/1s't(l,S~ns'ible not only for the [Link] str~~\~-~~eart;·,bays but contributes
considerably' upto 28 days, . . · ' · •
• ll is lhe ~ly corn~nd ~1Ch has maxlmu~ cootr\butlcirii~·2s iJaysstrength, il is iesponsible
lor gaJn of strength lrom 24 hours lo 28 days where ii contrib1Jl8s {max) uplo 14 days.
The tieat of hydration is 500Jfgm: . : : ::,', . . • ~ _.'./. .
to
2. Dlcalclum.~l_llcete c;,- (20 45%) ..
• It hydra:tes and hardens slowly and cakes loog ii~ to_aciitto the strength. II is responsible
for u]{]mate ~trength.
It imparts resistance to chemical attack.
Raising·c,s content in cement reduces the emly_ strength: .
Aaisi~Q C2S content, decreases the resistance lo lr~ezing ·Blld thawing al early ages and
decreases heat of hydration. '
Al earty days C2S has liUle influence on strenglh and hardness, where after a year its
contribution is same as C3 S In strength and hardness.
The c 2s is a stable compound because in_ a low ~eat cement C:f, content is more as low
heat cement is stable cement with respect to durability ol structure, 1 ·.•. 111 - . ' ...100 180
: .·· ·,:. ·:,..- _'.'. ·; ., : 1Jmo{logscalo)~dayi;
The contribution ol CiS star1s from 1~ days and 1emains upto 1 year and or so.
•· · . · f'!B- ~IO of H}'dtrltk>nd Plnu ~ s
• Aller 28 days the gain ol strength is due 10 C2S. . .

The heal of hydration 260J/gm. • Rat~ [Link] evolution of Baugue compound, if equal amount of each Is considered wlllbe
3. Tricelcium Ahrminate CsA (B to 12 %) in l~ii~ing descending order . . .
It rapidly reacts with water and is responsible lor flash set of finely grounded clinker. c.). ca~ 4!gm}; ~s {865 J/gmJ > CsAF (420 J/gml > C2S (260Jfgm). ·
• The !lash set property of cement clinker is prevenied by adding a retarder gypsum 2% i.
Hoot cf lly<irnU~ o! tb1> tJiwn oge {Jll!)
103%. C4n1>wnd 3days !IOdayc 13'fOIW
• Least stable compound because it is responsible lor maximum heat ol hy,1ralion and very
C:,S 242.44 ◄34.72 509.96
less durable with respect to susceptible cracks in structure. c,s S0.16 176.56 246-92
• Any cement having CJA contem more is liable for sulphur aua.::ks. 4' aaG,15 1299,98 1354.32
C•AF 288.42 409.64 '1:16.36
II contributes in 24 hours slren91h after addition of water but il contribule !ess.
Ho11t or Hydrallon
• ll has hea1 of hydration 865 J/gm.
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• ~... .(.~"f't,•.-~~ 2. S!llca (S1O2): This is also an important ingredienL of cerneot and ii imparts strength to the cement
·due to the lormalion of dicalcium and tricalcium silicates. If sllice. is present in excess quanlity, 1h.e
sttenglh ol cement Increases but at Iha same time. lls selling time g1:ols prolonged.
~. Alumlna (~03): This ingredient imparts quick selling property to the cement. ll acts as a IIW{and
ii lowers the clinkering temperature. However high temperature is essential lor the formation ol a
suitable type of cement and hence the alumina should not be present in excess amount as ii
weakens the cement.
4. Calcium Sulphate (CaSOJ; This ingroolent Is In the lorm of gypsum 811d its function is to increase

(•C,·S\'i,•.S,r.'f'•• :IM~.-• ~§~~~~~ J··\ :.i··- ·t-·:~-..~-~~·-~1;~,;.. j~.;:!:~~~.~~~ / s.

/
the initial setting lime of cement
Iron Oxide (F920~): This ingredient imparts colour. h1;1rdness and strength 10 the comenl.
6. Magnesia (M9')): This ingredienl. ii present In small am01Jnl, imparts hardness and colo1,1r 10 the
cement. A high content of magnesia makes lhe cement unsouncl.
7. Sulphur (S): A very small amount of sulphur is tJSeful in making sound ~emenl. If it Is in excess, il
causes unscun~n~_lfl~~t r~ -~~·:\~}~-:-:f:~:t~ qa,t~~
8. Alkalles: The l)')O~(of lfiii_al~lies present in;'rp.w, ma_tiii.ii~!sare
t '}~/)(~ :'
away by the Uue gases during

1.J.2
-~ - ' _, healing and ui~'~i(for!Jairis only a ~II ~-or·alkali~s.: li'~ey are in excess in cement,
lhey cause a num~~9i ~bl~ s.i!cli as all<lili-agg,ajath ,~action,
efnoresc1mce and staining when
• 1lte ralalive ~ .oi ~~~d~~C?m~o;(i~'!~·-~~-~~sponsipl~ fqr inlluenclng the various usedinconcrefo:brl~kY{oik'o~~~l'.IIY·mo~ar.·,.:•.•.'~- · '-'.' .:· ·,:-:·.·

•
:)f'.:\..-/'<. ~• . .;••~ •'.~- /}'\,.:-: r:. •••••, •",-.•;
properties o f ~ • ~~-;l :•.~
~~~.~• existin1!1~ ~~~ker a~ .~H.~Olt}~-~n tin~urid cement- An increase in
1,4 Hydration ofS~;~~f <~.; ?<~i}{:_::)\t;""}.:;:
cement
\~·-:·(~(-.
The chemical r~actioris'.ffial take place.beiwee11 ar,id w:[Link] to as hydration 01
sbcon1ootaf~~~of aft,im111a anj:f fe~~(!lllde ~-1~ cen:ia~t dilficull foluseandrorm
crmr.. :· :··,:,:; :-. :·: ·r: .. ; .·:•. -~-:. •
cemem.
The hydrali011-0I
~:J-~~: · ~r: .
~: .-.: ~
~eiii'c:an
.~ ",: : ._. , ~ . '. . ~.
be visualized in two ways viz. 'lhro~gfi~\uUon· and 'solid state· type
• Rate of setting o~.~paste ~canttolte~fby_re?u!a~~-tli~_raii~ $[!)~A'2()1 + Fe::iO~
olmechanismi{'.',..'.,·,,:;"•: :·- .~·-: __;- .- >:- .:··
• Whendllvelopmeitqf ,J'lliat of hnJ#atiillnJs undesirable, the silica coritent is increasea to abOul 21
per cent and lh!f alumlria'~ ir(!JtOXil::te conten![Link] i1in1te<110 6 per c~ht each. The reaction o1 c~me~~~inwateris eKolhermlc f:e, if [Link]~ ·~onsiclerable qua11lily ol heat and
• Reaisfance to lhem:licnd sulphaJii watars is increased by raising further the slUca content to 24 per tMs liber~ted heat is called as heal ol hydration.
cemandreduCIRg lha81umfnaa!\8irdn contents in 4 pef cent each. • The hydra~on p r ~ is not ~n Instantaneous one. The 1eaction is last~r in the early periods and
• Small~oJimnoic!derehrfelslhehighlysif~eousrawina1erialseasiertobum. CQntinues indefinite~ al 8 ~ecr~slng re:te. . '. . , .
During hydrali~n •. 93s Sf!d C-z? r~c1ct wil~water _ar,d ~lciu~slli~~te hydr_a,e (C·S·H) is formed along
.rable
.. ..
'. wl,hca!ciumhydroxido(Ca(OHM ' .
Cllftllllllllll < '. Pol;conf411• ' A'ilira1111 perconi..110
Calcium sftica!e hydrate is the most important product ol hydration and ii determines the good
Una(CaO) 62fe>67% 62
Silcn(SIO,)
properlies of concrete.
17lo25% 22
AfflllniM~} 31o8% s • 2(3Ca0 Si02 )+ 61--f:iO ➔ 3C.e0 2S1O2 • 21-izO + 3Ca(OH}2
Cltim~(CaSO.,) 31o4% 4
or it can bo wrlllen as:
kmmlda(F'oA) 31o4'11, J 2C3$ + 6H ➔ <;S2H3 + 3Ca,(OH)i
Magnesia [Link]()) 0.1 lo3% 2 100 + 24 ➔ 75 + 49
&JIIIIUt 1 lol!l t The corresponding weights involved are
SlldaDIMtPOIMll(Na,P?[Link]} O.Sfo1.3% \ Simaarly.
1. Ume(CaO):Thisis lheimporlanlingredientof cement andils proportion is lo be carelullymainlained. 2(2CaQ.SIO7.)+4H2 O -l :JCa0,2SlOi ·3H20+Ca(OH12
Tftellmeln excess makes~ cement unsound and causes the cemenl to expand and disintegrate. or ii can be wrlllen as:
On lheOlher hand, ii lime is indelitiency, lhe strength ol cement is decreased and it causes cernenl 2C2S + 4H ➔ C3S2H3 + Ca(OH)2
lo set quickfy. 100+ 21 ➔ 99+ 22
 10 I Clvll Engineering Postal Study Package EmI1] fflRDE ERS!::I fflRDE ERS!::I Postal Study Package mil Comtrudion Marerlols I 11
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The corresponding weighls involved are:

.1.s Type of Cements
2C 3S + 6H- C3SzH3 + 3Ca(OH)2 There are dmerentlypes of cement .;s classified by the Bureau of Indian Standards{BIS}:
2C~ + 4H- C3S~H3 + Ca(OH)2 (i} Ordinasy Portland Cement
, , (a) 33 grade - IS: 269-1989
Teble ; PermissiblD Limit~ Tor /mpurihos In Ware,
(b) 43 grade - IS: 8112-1989

I: . lmpui'l_fy,·. : :. : ;,·''Piirmls&lbloi'Umli.. :'::;·:L (cl 53 grade - IS; 12269-1987

°'IJMlc 200 mg/I (ii) Rapid Hardenlng Cement-IS: 8041-1990
:I
I
lnorgmi:
Solphnloo (So/)
3000mg/l
400rng/l
(iii) Exira Rapid Hardening Cement
i (iv) , Low Heat Portland Cement..: IS : 12600-1989
Oilortd<tS(Cf) 2000 "'{11/ lco- plrln tonerlllO """1<,
i SOD "'II'/ lot MlnlmoJd C0<1alllo work
(V) PortlandStagCement-lS: 455-1989
I Susponood mall..- 2000 msill (vi) Portland Pozzo!ana Cemen1 - IS : 1489-1991(Part 1 and 2)
(viii Sulphale Flesi~li!l,g_Portland Cemenl-lS: 12330-19~_
II can be seen from lhe_al?Ovf! reaclions lhal 0 35 prociu~·a'pp!l)p?[Link](vely Jess quafllily or calcium
I siricate hydtal~·a'nd'more [Link] or calcTu~-li~ii!-9~i9i(1!1"anlhE!,l i~{gi;~ in the hydration of C-f,.
(\/!ill White Pol!land Cemetil-1S.: 6042-1989
(ix) Coloured PortJan~ Cement-'- IS.: 8042-1989
·

Calcium hydrril<ideisnota'ires'rrable product in ih'if&ricr~iemsss.a~iil:isoluble in water and gets

I leacheo cul lh~feby"m13kl~g_iJie'concire1e ~rous.·p~c:'lll~rfy1/i"hi~i'aulic structures,

rs
C2S reacts rat~i;i_slowly and i! r~ponsibl8 to~ ~tr&l')~lh of ~onc[~I~ -~\la!er stage. Uproduces less
heatolhydration:·.· ·.:· ·. . · · .. ·... ;-_.-:· _:<-;:,-,.-.··-.-,,_.~···'
(x) Hydrophobic Cement - IS :'.8043-1991
(xi) High Alumina Cen:ient-'-1S: 6452-1989
(~ii). Super SUiphated Cement- IS; 6909-1990
I The lack of du;a!)llity cl _ctjncr~I~ Is 6n ac;c~u·nl:q(t~~ p;~~.~e c,/~1cju;n hydroxide.
The calcium hydroxide also reacts 1•;i1h·sulphattii;''p~e~~~-driio11icii-"~~'ier to form calcium sulphate
(xiii) Special Cements
(a) MasonryCemenr
which furlher r~~ts willi C;i-4 and cause deteriorauon·_of ci?tJcr~t_e_. Ttl_l_s i~ k_nown as sulphate attack. (b) Air Enlrainin)J Cement
The only adva~tage:·o{ calcium hydroxide'is-that being ·aJkaline;ln-nature il maintains pH value ,(c) Expansi11e Cement
around 13 in Irie ~crete ~ich resists the corroslci_n· of rein(orcemen1£. :
(d) OilWellCement
From the view poi~! of hydration, ii is convenient to discuss c;.11:and C,AF 1ogelher because the
producls formed in lhe presence ol gypsum are similar. Gypsum and alkalies go into solution 1.5.1 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
quickly and the solubility is depressed. Depending upon lhe concenlrafion ol aluminale and sulphate • ll is obtained by Pulveri,ing argitlaceoos and calca.-eous material in correct propottion.
ions in lhe solulioo. 1ne preclpnating cryslalline produc;U9 ei![Link] trisulphale hydrate
• 'Porlland cement is mos! common 11arietyo! 'lrli!icie.l cemer>landmoS!cornmon!ykOO¥m asO.P.C.
or calcium alumina le monosulphale hydrate. The'calcium aluminate trisulphale hydrate is known as
Eltringi(e. (Ordinary Portland Cement).

II has been estlmated lhat on an average 23% of water byw1iigh1 ol cement is required for chemical • II is available in 3 grades:
reaction wilh PorUand cement compounds. This 23% of water chemically combines with cement, (a} OPC-33 grade {lS: 269-989)
\
and therefore ii is called as bound water. (b) OPC-43·grade(IS: 8112-1989)
A certain quantity of water is imbibed within tho gel pores. This water is known as gel water. The {c) OPC-53 grade(IS: 12260-1987
bound waler and gel waler me complimentary lo each other. The number 33, 43, 53 corresponds to 28 days characlerislic compressive strengih of cement as
ll has been estimated lhal about 15% water by weight of cement is required to rtll up lhe gel pores. oblained trom s1~nd~rd test on cement sand mortar (1 : 3) specimens. 1lt"1II
Therefore. a total ol 38% of waler by weight of cement is required for lhe complete chemical reactions The OPC 33 is recommended for concrete mix having strength upto Cnl"90!Y Slrll"Slh(MPa)
and occupy the space within gel pores. 20 N/mmi i.e. M20. A(OPC33) 32.5-37.5
11 water equal to 38% by weight of cement is only used then ii can be noticed that the resullant paste TI1ese are most commonly used in general concrete consl1Uclion, B{OPC33) 37.5-42.5
will undergo full hydration and no extra waler will be a..,ailable for the formation or undesirable where there is no exposure lo sulpl1ates. C(OPC43) 42.5-47.S
capillary cavilies. D(OPC43) 415-525
• Due 10 l,igh fineness. \he v,,-orkability or concrete increases for a given
II more than 38% ol wa1er Is used, then excess water will cause undesirable capillary cavities £{0PC53) 52.S-51.5
water-cement ratio. 1$10262 has classified the OPC gradewise from
which ul!imately reduces the slrenglh o! 11\e cement concrete. f(OPC53) 57.5-62.S
•Alo F" based on 28 days coinpross1vc slronglh as follows:
r:·w~:nfideei''· · ·u!:[Link];i· •; -riiR.,.,D:ecE=-=e=R""s"'!:i=-=--·--.!_-.:Jh,-'eo.,.:. ., ,....:witli-.- ___iir_i!ct'"".'•,....rx.,..,~-,.,-,,;"'"·.""·--1'"'•-•-
..'"",>.Q
\l. ,,,.. ,,. ..c•••~- •. , . ,.. ,,,..F9,. •- l'·S:c,•J•n, •· .ry,' .. ,• ''"•• ...•~•·•('•--
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Conmuction Materials
- ·---·--- _........ .......... ..
.. ,
j 13
,

" nis presenlly availablern lhre'1\lllierent grades viz. OPC 33, OPC 43 and OPC 53. The numbers 33, 1.5.5 Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement
«Jand 53 correspond to ihe 28<:tays (characteri~tie) compressi,·a strength of cemenl as oblained
• This cement is made by inte1grinding Portland C'riemctinker and granulated blast furnace slag,
rromstandard tel\lS on cci•~eni0sand mortar speclrr:,ns.
• The p1oportion of the slag being not less lhan 25% or more than 65% by weigh! of cemenl.
• It is used in general [Link] </O'hs1ruclion [Link] is no exµo,ure to sulphates in the soil or in
• The slag should be granulated blast furnace slag ol high lime content, which l~ ,:iroduceci by rapid
groundwatet.
quenching of molten slag ob1a1ned dU(ing the manufacture ol pig iron in a bias! furnace.
1.5.2 Rapidffardan!ngCement(RH<;) • In general blast !urn ace slag cement is found to gain strength more slowly than the ordinary Portland
ll lsfinl!f lhan ordinary Portland cement. cement
II contains moreC3 S and 1esst;sthan the OPC. Tho healo! hydration ol PorUaud blast lurnace slag cement is lower than that or OPC. Solhis cement
The 1 cfaysireng!hollhis cemenl ,s ,:qual lo the 3 day~ stren~lh 6: OPC wilhlhesamewater cement can be used 101 mass concreting but is unsuitable for cold weather.
ra!ic. • It has lairly high sulphate resistance, rendering it suitable for use in environments exposed to
• The main advanlage of rapfd hardening cement is !hat shuttering may be removed muct, earlier, sulphates (in lhe soil or in ground water),
lhOs saving coosiderab!e limitand e~penses. ' II is used !or all purpose for which ordinary Portland cement is used.
• Rapid hardenlng cementisatsil used !or road worl<. where ii is lrnpera'!"e to open the road tra!fic with • Because ol ils low heat evolulioo, ii cru, ba used Tn mass conc1etes1ruc1ure sueh as dams, foundations
the minimum delay,· · and bridge abutments.
Cost ol Rapid harqe~ing ce~nt is nearly 10-15% more than 0!'0.
ll can ne safely exposed \o inist as i1 malures more quickty. 1.5.6 Portland Poz:zolana Cement (PPC]
•
II can be produced either by grind:ng 1ogelher Po1tland cement clinker and pouolana wilh tho
t.5.3 Extra Rapid Hardening C~[Link])
addition of gypsum or by btending uniformly P(l(Uand cement and fine pozzolana,
• It i$ obtained by milclng carcrum chloride (not exctJedlng 2% by weight of the rapid hardening
As per lhe latest amendment, the proportion or poz;:olana may vary lrom 15 lo 35% by weigh! of
cement) wilh r~pid hafdening eernent, ' cement clinker. Earlier. it was 10 to 25%.
• A(lclilionof [Link] quick selling properlies in exlra rapid hardening cement.
A pozzotanic material Is essenlially a siliccioos or aluminous material which in itself possess no
• The acceteratton'o1 setling,h;iroen1ng and .,volufon [Link] lh~ early period ol hydra\ion makes
cementitious properties, which in finely divided lonn and in the presence of waler reacts wi\h calcium
this cement very suitable for concreting in cold weathers.
hydroxide, liberated in the hydralion process al ordinary temperature lo produce compounds
• The 1 or 2 day s11englh ot extra rapid hardening cement is 25% more tl1an that of rapid hardening possessing cementilious propenies. This is known as po2zolanic action i.e.
cement.
Ca(OH)2 + Pozzolana + Water- C-S-H(gel)
The gain of strength disapp,eatswtth age and 90 clays slrongth ol extra rapid hardening cement and
rapid hardening cementare ntiarly the same. The pozzolanic materials generally used for manufacture al Po111and pozzolana cement are calcined
• Use of extra rapid hardening cement is prohibited in prestressed concrele cona!ruction, clay {IS: 1489 part 2 of 1991) or fly ash (IS: 1489 pert 1 of 1991 ).
• Maxitnumtimeol using lhis cemem is 20 minLrle !or rnlxing, transporting, placing and compaction, Fly ash is a waste material generated in a thermal power station, wl1en powdered coal is used as a
I fuel.
1.5.4 Low HeatCement(LHC)
• PPC produces less heat of hydralion and oUers great resistance to lhe attacK or impurities in water
• It is a Portland cement which is obtained by reducing the more rapidly hydrating compounds. C3 S \hanOPC,
and<;A and increasing C~S.,
• PPC is particurarlyuseful in marine and hydraulic constructions, and o!her mass corn:rete slructures
• As per the Indian Standard specilicalions, the heal of hydration of !ow-heat .cement shall be as
Tl,e disadvanlag~ of using PPC is I/lat Lhe reduction in alkalinity reduces the resJstance [Link]
follows:
or st<iel rcinlorcement. But considertng the fact tl1a1 PPC s1gnif1canlly improves ihe permeability or
7 days-not more ttian 65 calories per gm
concrete, !hereby increases !ho resistance lo corrosion of reinforcement.
28 days -not more than 75 calories per gm
This cement has higher resistance lo chemical agcmcies and 10 sea wafer becauso of absence al
• Siflcelhe rareol gain of stmngth ol lhis cement is stow, 11ence adequate precaution should be taken
hme.
in its use such as with regard lo removal ol formwork, etc,
ll evolves less heat and its initial strength is less but fmsl slrenglt, (28 days onward) is equal 10
• LHC is used in massive conslruclion works like abuttnents, retaining waits, dams. etc. where the
OPC,
rale at which !he heat can be lost at 1he smlace is tower than at which the heal is initially generated.
II 11as lower ra10 ol development ol sliengtll than OPC.
u has low rate of gain of slrength. bul 111c ummale strength is practically the same as that ol OPC.
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Theory with Solved Examples
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14 I CMI Engineering Postal Study Package ---Publle:.lion:!'.
fflRDE EAS!:I
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Construction Marerials 15

• The average compressive strength or cement mortar (1 : 3) at ?5,TO HlghAlumlnaCement{HAC)

OJ at 1 day :t 1 hr 16 MPa (Minimum) rt is very ctillerent in composition from Portland cement
(ii) at 7 day :1: 2 hr 22 MPa {Minimum) ln this cement the Cf', con11m1 is very low due to whlch ii is resis1ant to sulphur attacks and
. (iii) at 28 day :!c 4 hr 33 MPa {Minimum} chemical attacks.
\ts sets quickly and aUains higher ullimato s!rength in a short period. Its strength afler 1 day ls
1.5.7 Add Resistant Cement (ARC)
abou;40 N/mm2 and that after 3 days is about SO N/mm2.
• An acid resislanl cement is composed or the following: • ll is characlerizcd by its da1k colour, high early strength, high heat ol hydration.
(i) Acid resistant aggregares such as quartz, quartziles, etc. • The raw materials used ror its manufacture coosists of limestone (or chalk} and bauxite which is a
(ii} Addi1iva such as N~SiFG (This accelerates hardening). special clay with high alumlna comenl.
(ffl) Solution of sodium silicate or soluble glass (sodium silicallJ is a binding material). The bauxite isan aluminium ore. II is specified that tolalaluminacontentshouk:I net belesslhan32
The addition 0.5% or linse11d oil or 2% or carussile increases resistance 10 water also. per cent and Iha ratio by weight or alumina to lhe lime should be between 0.85 and 1.30.
• It is resis1ant 10 rroezing and thawing.
15.8 Sulphate Resisting Cement (SRC)
• 11 has an initial setting 1ime of 3.5 hours and !inal setting time ol about s·hours.
• "The Portland cement with low C;iA and C4 Af and ground finer. -,han OPC is known as sulphate
High alumina cement is very Bll'.pensive to ma11~facture. ·
resisting cement and generally C~S and C~S kept ~bout 45·,;. each. _
• II is used where eariy removal or the formwOfk is [Link].
This cement ls sulpha1e:1esistan1 because th.e disintegra1ion of harden concrale caused by the
Its rapid hardening properties arise r(om !he pres~ce of calcium alumlnate, chiefly monocalclum
chemical reaction of C:f v~lh soluble sulphate lime MgSOJ! CaSO3 and N8:!S◊3 is inhibited.
, alumlnate (A~Ol. CaO), as the predominant compoond in place of calcium silicates o! Portland
The setting lime are same as that ol OPC
cement and for se11ing and hardening lhere ls no free hydrated lime as in the case of Portland
The compressive stre~grh or the cubes should be as tollo11(s; cement.
3 Day± 1 hr,, 10 N/mmt It musL not be mixed with any other type of cement.
7 Day: 2 hr= 16 N/mm2
1.5.11 Quick Setting Port!and Cement
28 Day± 4 hr "' 33 N/mrn~
• In 1he manufacture ol this cement, gypsum contenl is reduced to get the quick lieltlng property.
This cement is ·sulphate resistant· because Iha disimegralionof concre1e caused by the reaction of
Also small amounl or aluminium sulpl1a!e is added.
CJ, in hardened cement with.a sulphate sail from outside is inhibited. It is ground much Hnor 1han OPC_
• ll is used in marine structures. sewage rreatrnenl works. and in foundations and basements where U sets quickly bul does not harden quickly.
soil is infested with sulphates. Initial selling lime-= 5 minutes, Final setting time= 30 minutes.
However, recent reseaich indicates ltial the use of sulphale resisting cement is not beneficial in It is used when concrete is ta be laid under water,
envirortl1"ents where chlorides are pres em.
1.S.12 Masonry Cement {IS: 34661
1.S.9 Coloured Cement (White Cement) Masonry cement consists of amiKlureor Portland cement or blended hydraulic cementandplaslk:izing
The process ol manulacl1,;1ing white cement is the same but lhe amounr of iron oxide wl1ich is materials (such as limestone or hydrated or hydraulic lime) together with other materials inlroduces
responsible for greyish colour is limited to less than 1 per cenl. to enhance one or more properties such as selling lime, workability. waler retenllcn, and durability.
Sodium Alumino Farrite (Cryolile) N.L_i AlFG is added to act as flux in lhe absence of iron oxide. • Addition of these materlals gives good workabilil}( redUces shrinkage and water ietentivily.
This cement i& used for masonry works, plaster work etc.
The properties or while cement is nearly same as OPC.
This cement must npt be used lor concrete work buiused [Link].
Whiteness ol white cemen\ is measured by ISi scale or Hunter's scale. • Masonry cement when used for making mortar, lncorporates all the good properties ot lime mortar
The wt,iteness should not be less lhan 70% on ISi scale and on Hunte1's scare it is generally 90%, and discards all the non ideal properties of cement mor(ar.
The strength of while cernenl is much higher 111an what is slated in IS: 8042-1989, the code for
1.5.13 Super Sulphated Cement (SSC)
wl1ilecement.
ll is made from well granul;:ired blast furnace slag (80-85%), calcium sulphate ( 10-15")and Portland
• Grey co1ou1 ol OPC i, due to the presence ol iron oxide. Hence in white cement, Fe2O~ is limiled to
cemenl (1-2%) and is ground liner than the Portland cement.
1%. Sodium Alumina Fer1ile(Cryofite) Na3AIF6 is added 10 acl as flu~ in the absence or iron oxide.
In lhis cement C/1, which is suscept•ble !o sulphates is limited to less than 3.594.

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• Sulphele resislingcement can also b>1 produced by the addition ol extra iron oxide be!are firing tl1is
1.6 field Tests for Cements
combines with alumina which \-kikl cthe1wise lorm c;,. instaad terming [Link] which is not a11ecled
by M..lphales. · • Colour: Grey eolour with J :ight g1eenish shade.
• ll sht-uld be used in places wi!fi lem;::eralure is below 40"C. • Physical Properties: Cen•,;ml should feel smooth whun rubbed in between lhe 11ngers.
• Compressive slrenglh should be 11~ 1ol!ows: II hand is inserted in a bag or heap of cement, ll should leel cool.
3 Day :t 1 hr = 15 N/mm2 It a small Quantity or cement is thrown in a bucket of water, It should sink and shOuld not lloat on
7 Day :t 2 hr = 22 N!mn,: the surface.
28 Day :t 4 hr ,. 30 N/mm2 Presence of lumps: Cement should be free from lumps.
• Ii has low heat or hydration.
• It Is used for [Link] o! darns and other mass ccncretihg works. 1.7 Laboratory Tests for Cements
• Concrete maoe from super su,t>hated cement may e,rpand ii [Link] in water and may shrink ii lhe • Tests on cement are perlormed in accordance with IS: 4032·1985 and IS: 4031 (Parts 1 to 15)•
concrete is eu1ed in air. 1eae.9910 assess the tallowing:
• It has high resistance !o chemical a:tack. (i) Chemicl'll composition
15.14 Air Entraining Cement (AEC} (ii) Normal (standard) consistency
• This cement is made by mixing a small amount ol an afr entrafning agent with OPC clinker at the time (iii) Initial and firial selling limes
ol grindfng_ (lv) Sounclness
• ll is manufactured by mixing i, smaH amount of air entraining agent i.e. 0.1% to 0.3% with OPC (v) s1rang1h
Clinker at time of grinding, (vi) Fineness
• It offer,; good wotkabilily due to which ii is having higher Initial eelting time than OPC.
(vii) Heat or [Link]
• It is having lesser final selling time as compared 10 OPC, due lo which it offers resistance lo
(viii) Specific gra11ity
fr~ng ana thnwln11.
• Airenlrainmenl improvesworkabilily and w/c ralio can be reduced which in lum reduces shrinkage 1.7.1 Chemlcal Composition Test
ere.
• llis yet not been covered by Indian Standard so far_ Raliool percenlage or lime lo percentage of silica. ;Jlumina and iron oxide known as lime Saturation
• Some of lhe air entraining agerils are:
CaO-Q7SO:i
ti) Alkati salts ol wood resins: · Factor (LSF), when calculaled by the formula (2 SSi0z+ 12 AJA+0.6Sfe.P:i) shall nol be grea1er
{ii} Synlheticdeiergenls of!he al\\y!-aryi sulphoriate type.
than 1.02 and not less than 0.66.
(iii) Calcium lignosulphale.
• Ratio of percentage of .alumina (A120J) to lhal of iron oxide (Fe20 3 ) shall nol b.i less lhan 0.66
• It produces lou(lh. lir1y, discrete, non-coalescing a,r bubbtes at the Ume of mixing in the body ol
concretewhichwlllmodily![Link]\hrespec\toworkability,segregation Weight of insoluble residue shall no1 be more lhan 4 per cent.
8110 bfeedlng. • Weight of magnesia shall nol be more than 6 per ccmt.
Total loss on ignition sha!I not be more than 5 por cent.
1.S.15 HydrophoblcCement
Total sulphurcor\tentcalculated as sulphuric anhydride shalt not be more than 2.5% when C:J>. is 5%
• ll is obtained by inlefgrioding OPC with 0.1 -0.4 per cenl olwalor repellan1 li!rn•lormir1g substance or less and shall not he more than 3% when C3 A i$ more than 5%.
such as ofcic acid ot stearic acrd.
• The water repellant film lormad around each Qfain o! cement reduces lhe rate cf deterioration o! lhll 1,7.2 Normal ~onSl$tencyTest
cement dur1ng tong storage, lnmsportalion, or under un( avourable condiliom;. The normal (slandarcl) consislrmcy of a cenmnl paste is defined as 1hat consislency which will
• lhe propertiesol [Link] are neady the samo as \l1il1 of OPG. permit a Vical plunger having 10 mm diameter and 50 mn1 length lo penetraie a depth of 33 10
.,. The cost o! !his cement is. nominally higher \h,m OPC. 35 mm from the lop (or 5 to 7 mm from the bollom) of the mould .
Hydrophobic cement also remures greater water resistance and water impcrmeabillly.
18 I Civll Engineering Postal Study Package EiiJil fflRDE ERS!!:I mRDE'ERS!::I Postal Study Package EEil1] ConsmldlooMaterlaJs [ 19
----Publlc.1llon, ---Publ~c:aUom;
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This percentage Is genera11ydeooted by P.
This lesl stiould be conducted at a constant temperature ol 278 ± 2•c and a CO!lstanl humidity of
90%. . '

· .1.7.3 lnltlal Setting lime Test

It is the time elapsed between the moment that the waler is added to the cement, to the time !hat lhe
, paste starts losing its plasticity.
• The tesl p1oceduro is as foltows:
(i) Take 300 gm of cement and make a cement paste of C011sis!ency 0.85 P
(ii} Attach lhe square needle lo lhe Vicat plunger and lower it gently to make contact with the
surface of test block and quickly release it
(iii) When the needle penelrates only to a depth of 33 lo 35 mm J,om the top {or 510 7 mm ftom tho
bo!!om), 1he test Is completed.
Initial setting time should m;it be less than 30 minutes for OPC arid 60 minules lor low heal cement

1.7A Fina! SettingTimeTest .··, · .·

The final setting time is Uietimeela°psed between lhe nioment the~aterisadded to the cement and
Frontviow Sklo'licw the time when the paste has complet~ly lost its plaslicity and has attained sufficient rumness to
Vkol oppu.1111• with noodfo
lorlnilllll<O<l!o<l!m> !ool resist certain definite pressuce. · · ' ·

Vlcat Apparatus: • The lest. procedure is as follows: .

• Vicat apparatus assembly consists ol a plunger 300 gm in weigh! with a length of 50 mm and a
(i} Take 300 gm of cement and make cement paste of consistency of0.85 P.
diame!er or 10 mm and a mould which is 40 mm deep and 80 mm in diameter. {ii) Replace the square needle by a needle with annular collar.
There are two attachments for the plunger viz.; (iii) Lowei lhe allach·ment to gen Uy cover the sorlace or test block.
(iJ A square needle with 1 mrrtl cross-section which is attached lo the plunger for initial S'a!lling time {iv) If the needle makes an impression. while the annular collar of the allachment fails lo do so, the
test. cement is considered lo be finally set. Thus, the paste has attained such flardness that lhe
(ii) A needle with an annular collar of 5 mm diameter which is used for final selling time. needle does not pierce through the paste more than 0,5 mm.
The final selling time should not be more than 10 hours.
Test Procedure:
To prepare the paste, la~e weighed quanlity (300 g) of cement and place ii in a crucible.
Mix a weighed quantity ofwaler{approximately 24% by weightol cement) !or the first trial. . NOTE Slgnirlcance of inlUel and final setting time: . • . ·

~
The time of mixing or gauging should not be less than 3 minutes nor more than 5 minutes and {a) Concrete once pfac~ should not be distulbed tili final setting has lake place.
gauging time should be counted !rom the lirne o! adding water to the dry cement until commencing {b) Thetransportalion of concrete from the place where concrete is prepare1i1olhe placlng or
lo !ill !he mould. concrete required some finite time 1nat should be within the Initial setting time.
• The [Link] mould is mred wilh the paste, which is levelled oft al its top. (c} Final setting lime test is dOll(tbecause the concretre should aeh1eve1hedesifed strength
• The mould is placed under the Vicat plunger. as early as possible so that the shuttering can be removed and reused.
• The vicat plunger is bioughl down to touch the surface ol paste in the mould and quickly released 1.7.5 SoundnessTest l I
allowing ii to sink into the paste by its own weight.
Soundness or cement indicates !hat lhe cemem paste. once ii has set, does nol undergoappreciaole
• Take the reading by noting the depth ol penetration of the plunger. ' change in volume causing concrete to crack.
Similarly conduct the trials with increasinglywaterfcemcnt ratios till such limelhe plunger penelrates The eemet1t having some quantity ol free lime, magnesia and excess sulphates undergoes large
!or a depth of 33 to 35 mm lrom the lop (or 5 to 7 mm from \he bollom). changes in volume as the lime elapses lending 10 cause cracks,
Thal particular percentage of water which allows lhe plunger to penetrate only lo a depth or 33 to3!i Thesoundnossofcementisdeterminedeilherby'leChatelier"smethod'orbymeansol'Autoclave'
from the top (or 5 to 7 mm from the bollom) is known as the percentage o! waler required 10 produce 1€S1.
a cement pas1e ot normal (standard) consistency. I

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• No satisfactorytesl i5 availablel« assessment of i:ouhdness due 10 excess of calcium sulphate, • In this test, a cement pas!e ol 25 mm x 25 mm x 250 mm is
but ilScontent can be easi!y o-rmlne<l by chemical analysis, placed ln a standard autoclavo.

(a) Le [Link]'s Melhod: • lllov1, the s1eam pressure inside lhe autoclave is raisea at such a
,ato so as to bring the gauge pressure or the steam lo 21 kg/cmi
165mm
~- ,n 1 hour lo 1 hour 15 minutes \;om the time the heat is turned on.
30 mmdlllmoior • This pressure is maintained for lhree hours.
• Theautoclaveiscooledand tenglho! the specimen is measured
[Link]
again.
• The expansion should not exceed 0.6%.

+1 l,c[t==="".,"".
. For OPC (33. 43, 53): SAC; P?C, RHC, LHC, Slag cement
1% for masonry cement
===
l,7,6 Strength Test
Frg. L...O,ohJl1'Jrappllllllla for tinoing "1UOd110u ;;t gimmr
(a) Compressive Strength Tesl:
• lha Le Chalelier's app~~sisls of a small ~plil cylinder of 11pring brass. II is 30 mm in
• The compressive strength ol the hardoned cement is the most
diamlller and30 mm
hi_gh.: On llilher side ol lh~ spill are atlachod· two indicator arms 165 mm
important of all the proper lies.
longwllh painted ends. · 'l
• Take 185 gm of standard sand (Ennore sand), 55 gm or
• Toke 100 gmof cement ericlinatie a cement pasle ol consistency 0.78 P.
cement (i.e. ratio ol cement to sand Is 1: 3) and mix them
• Fill lhecen'llll\lpaste in lhet'llelillliand keep ii on a glass plate.
with a !rowel lor one minute.
• Cover lhemouldon lhe [Link] anolherglass plats.
"· In waler at a lemperature of :27°-32"C and kept lhera for 24
• The whole assembly is lmme:sed
hours. \
f }l', or
Add waler ol qua~lity ( + 3.0 combined weight of

• Toe assembly Is laken out llller 24 hours anq the distance between the indic:.alor poinls is cement and sandwllere Pis lhe pe1cen\ageol water required
~ "l•·· to prociuce aceme/ll paste o.1 normal C(lnsistenc:y.
• lhemould islhen lmmerseqln a water balh, • This time of mixing should not be less than 3 minutes and
• lbewaterol lhe bath is bro~l to boiling point wilh the mould submergfld in 25 to 30 minules not more than -1 minutes.
and kept boiling for 3 hour. }- • Immediately, aher mixing. !he mortar is lrlled in a cube mould of size 7.06cm. The area cl the
• The mould islakenoul rromwate, and allowed to cool. lace or cube should be so cm?.
• Oislance between !he point4is !hen measured. • Compact lhemortar ei\her b\• hand [Link] in a standard specified manner or on \he vibrating
• Thedifterence betweenlhe lvlo measurement represenlS lhe e~pansion of cement. equipment lor 2 minutes. (vibra1ions"' 1200 :t 400 vibrations/minute)
• TheleChatelfer's melhod detects unsoundness due lo free lime only. ·• Keep the compacted cube in the mould at a temperature ol 27° ;1; 2'C and el least 90% relative
• This melhodol testing does ~olindical8 lhe press nee and alle1 e!leol or lhe excess o1 magnesia humidi~/ lor 24 hours.
andcalCiumuphate. • After 2-1 hours, the cubes are removed from lhe mould and immersed in clean fresh water until
• ThetxpanSionof cement must not exceed 10mm rorOPC, rapid hardenfng and low heat Portland taken oul.101 testing.
cemeois by lhis method. .• Three cubes are tasted for compressive slrenglh at 1 dav. 3 days. 7 days and 28 dl'!ys [Link] !he
• OPC. Rapid Hardenin,9 Cemem, Low Heal Cement, PPC can have maximum expansion less period of lesling boing reckoned lro.m the completion or vibration.
than 10 mm Whereas high alumina cement and super sufphated cemenl can have maximum • Tt1e compressive s\tonglh shall be the average o! \he strengths of the th!ee cubes for each
eJCpansioo less lhan 5 mm. period respectively.
{b) Autoclave Test: • Tl1e compressive slrcngth ol 33 grad a OPC at 3 days, 7 days and 28 days is 16 MPa. 22 MP a
• • lndlill1 Standard specrllcotion fecommends th,11 a ccmenl having a magnesia content or more and 33 MPa respectively.
than3 per cenuhal ba tested !or s01,rndnoss by au1ocrav1ues1 wl1ich ls sensilive to bolh free • Load applied 91arJually 11s Olu 3!i IJ/mr11 2/rnin on cubes by using compressive lesl(ng machine
magnesia and free lime. (UTM machine).

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(b) Tensile Strength Test: • There are thtee melheds for testing fineness vii!.
Ccmonl (i) Sieve method or particle slzedistribulion melhocl
(ii) Air permeabililymelhod (Nurse and Blaine's melhod)
._____ ______.II~ (ill) Sedimentation malhodorWagners tu1bidimeter methoG
El<Mllian (a) Slav& Method:
1----38.10 ---><i-o---36.10 rm,--1
• 100 gm of cement sample is taken and air set lumps. if any. in
Iha sample are broken with fingers.
• The sample is placed on a 90 micron sieve and continuously
sieveo lor 15mimrtes,
• The residue should not exceed the lfmitsspeciliedbalow:
1---i----
12.70rm, 1Z.70 nm S,No. 'l)Jl•of~t•··: -: ·_, 'Jl,'RDsldU!JbywelgM_
70.20 nn, I
Pion
Fir,. Slundiml brlqu6(/o .(II) Ra~d hordoning Clll1lllnl 5
• dt
The tensile strengt~ cemel"!I may be obla1n~d by Briquette le~I~ . OiJ • .Porl!Blldpaud111111 CM11t111 • • •• -5 •·
• A mhrture 1:)f_c~menl an~ s'llmj !s gauged in the proponion oi l :3 by weig~t.
{b) Air Penneabll~M~~~d:'
The per~tageif~er l~ be~ ls calculaled'by th~ lormufa ( f + 2.5) % where Pispercenlage
0
\i

of water re~uired to produce a 'past!" .or s1andard consisle~cy.

• The ml)( is _filled In the briquelle moulds and the surface of the mould is finished with the blade.
ofa1rowe1:
• Brique\te mould Is then kept lor 24 hours al a temperature or 27' :1: 2•c and in an atmosphere
haYing 90% humidity. CopllaiyU.
[Link]-
• The briquelles {6.45 cw) are lhen kep! in clean water and are taken out belore 1es1ing.
/ 2118t>nlang
• Six briqueues are tested and average tel\Sile strength is calculated_
• Load is applied steadily and unnormly, starling rrom zero and increasing at the rate oro. 7 N/mm2
in 12 seconds.
• OPC should have a tensile strength ol not less than 2 MPa and 2.5 MPa alter 3 and 7 days

~
1espectively. _,,,,,_ f'kr.\molllt
• Generally tensile strength is 10-15% ol compressive strength,

1.7.7
• Load applied steadily or unilormly lrom 0to0.7 N/mm 2 in 12 second,

Fineness Test I= 1
~
Monomoler "2
•

•
Fineness is lhe measure of the size ol the cement parlictes in terms of specific surface (f.e. surface
area per unit mass).
The rate of hydration and hydrolysis and ihe subsequent selling ol cement depends upon its !ineness
or particles.
l
The rate cl gain ol strength is rapid lor liner cement, though the final strength ls nol allected by
lineness.
l'ineooss or cement is measured in terms or its specific surface.
Ftg. PomllllAllilil)" ~ · _,,,,_lfOW_
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• FJneness or cement is repret"erned by specific ~tdace i.e. total surface a,ea incm2 per gram of • Toe heal 01 solulion of hydrated cement is calculated by using calorimeter,
cement. The heat ol hydration for low heal Portland cement should not be more than 66 and 75 cat/gm for
" Fineness can be estima1ed ellherby using Lea and Nurse alr pi:rmeability apparatus or by using 7 and 28 days 1especlively.
Blaine's air permeability apparatus.
1.7.9 Specific:[Link];Test
• To determine !he fineness, ;iperoolil sample o/ 2 cm height is placed on a pe1forated plate (size
of perloralions is 40 Jt)andall' i;mssure is applied, Th!l specilic gravity ol cement is obtalned by using Le Chatelier's flask.
• Themanomatar Is connectiftfrc the Lop of 1he pe:meabmty-c,,,!i and 1he air is !urned on. Long seasoning is the chior c~use !or low specilic gravity in an unadult<Jrated cement.
• The lower endo! tho perrne$lfily cell is !hen s!owly connected lo lhe other end o! the manometer. The flask is filled eilher with kerosene free of water ornaphtlia havlng a specilic gravity not less lhan
• The rate or fto1v is so adjusle'd that lhe llowrr1e1er ;;hows a1pmrsure diJlerence {h2) ol 30-50 cm. 0.7313 loapoinlon u,e stem between zero and 1 ml mark.
• Tnereadinginmanometerln,)isrc-corded. i · The flask is lhen immersed in a coost:ml lemperalure water bath and the reading is recorded.
A weighed quantity of cement is then introduced in small amounts al the same temperature as that
:: h,
• The process is repeated till yie rallo /12 attains a constant value. o! lhe liquid.
• Aller introducing all tllo cement, the stopper is placed in lhe flask and the flask is rolled in an
• The specific surface is give~ by lhe express fan inclined position, or gently whirled in a horizontal circle so as lo rree the cement from air until no
further air bubbles rise to lhe surface o! liquid.
14 [Alfi\
5 "' c(1-wJV'"KL 1Ti; • The llask is again rmmersed In waler [Link] ar,d lhe final reading is recorded.

""'1e(e L is thickness of eemen!

la}'eT A is area of cement layer
Tho dif!e1enco be1ween the first and the linal [Link] represents the volume o! liquid displaced by
dis density of cemilflll the weigh1 o! cement used in the te~t.
II' is porosity ol cement (i.e. 0.4 75)
~ is ltowme!er re~ng h, is manometer readlng
,. . Weight ot c:err21t (in gms)
Kis (tow meter ccinstanl
Spec,r,c gravity " Weight of displacechlO!lJ'l"e of liquid (in nY)
(C.) Wagner TUlbidlmetar Test:
• The specific gravity ol Portland cement is generally about 3.15.
• The cement is dispersed uniformly in a recIangular glass lank lillod wilh kerosene.
• Specilic gra11ity is nol an indicalion or qualityol cement. It is used in ca!culation of mix proportions.
• Parallel llghlia~arepassed'lhroogh Iha solution which s1rik.e the sensitive plateol a pholoeleclric
cell Table
• The lurbidily of the solution at a given instant is measured by taking roadings ol lhe current
generated by Ille cen. FlnoMH S.,..-.dnou By Sa-lUngllmG Comproat,lw Slttl'lg1h

• By recotding the ,eadings at regular intervals wnile pmticles are falling in the sorution, it is Typt>clC.,..,nt
{m>ll<al u,[Link] Autodl'll'O lolU.1 Flnal 1 bll'J• JDay• 7Day,, [Link],,
Mln (rnml,...,._ {%)~ (m!O) (mt.) min min min mLn
possible to secure inforr11ation. regarding the grading in surface area and in size of parlicle. min. ma. !,IP• 141'• MPa MP•

• Readings are expressed in ctn2/gm. 1.a:JGrndoOl"C(l$:21;9-1!)ag) 225 10 08 30 000 NS 16 2l 33

2.•3 Grado OPC(IS 0112-191191 225 fg O.B 30 600 NS 2l 33 •3
1.7.8 HeatofHydratlonTest
J. 5J Grodo OPC (IS 1~9-1987) 225 10 oe 30 600 NS Z1 l7 ~
Hoat isevoiveddu:mghydralion:o! cement, the amount being de~ndent on the relative quantilies
of crrnker compounds. · ·
4 SRC ii$ 12l30-19&8)
5. PPC (IS N69-1111ll)PM I
=
300
10
10
0.8
o.e
30
30
600
600
NS
NS
10

IG
16

22
3J

J.~
Tlw appararus used to de:ermirre Ille heat ol hydration of cemen, is known as calorimeter 6. R.o;,,d HOltkri-,g (IS BOC 1-lilOO) l2S 10 OB 30 ~00 16 2T NS NS
60 gm ol cement artd 24 ml ol dis!i!led water are mixed for A minutes m a temperaturv between [Link]""'"'"' fS~G,-1989) 22!i IO o.e 30 600 NS 1G 2.2 33
15°-25"C.
Tti,ee !lpecimen glass virus 100 mm x 20 mm aie lil!ad with this rnixlure, corked and sealed wi1h
B H,g~ Numloo [;oQionl (15 &l~2-1989)

9, l""'lfo,1\C,,.,,...,I (ISGm...19001
=
400
5
s
NS

tlS
JI/
~
600

GOO
JO

NS
JS
IS
NS
22
NS
JC
V{3)(_ 10. Lowtfoal C<!wml 1IS l:!WG-1980) ~w 10 o.e w WJ NS 10 10 ~5

Ttievials a~e lhr.n :;tc,n1d willt mi~tllr:c: in a verlical i:,:is,tion ol 27" ± 2'G. 11. M»o<U,y 6:mon1 (b a4.0· 1~8lll 10 I 90 1440 r;s NS 2~ 5

lhe heat vi n;-dm!ion is obta111ec! !Jy subtraGtiog lhe ,c!;/;ecti~e 11.-,m of :mlulion ol hydrated cement 12. IRT•T..\O 370 s 08 6(l 600 NS NS 3'7,§ 1-!S

lrornthe heat of solution oi unhydraled cement colculat<'cf nea1es1 to 0. I calm1e,

--- -
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..a !f'eory with ~olved &amp!Es
---. ~------- --- - -- . -·-~·· ... -
DIRDE EA$~
- . - -- ....
(. '!'•·tw.J:11mdeeasypl\l?llc:[Link]
.... __ . -~..,._, __ , _ , ___ ·.. '·-~· ~--
~ ~
m~a~)~i=ls~ · · - Theory ~11i;s~r~~d &:~mples·~
--,---------- -- ----------. -·-------- ----------- ____ ...aiiiilJ
26 Civil Engineering Postal Study Package Eiil::m fflADE ERS!:I
---PtJblle:mon~
·---···-·---·-------------

Q, 1 The main ingrooients ol Portland cement are (c) calcium carbonate

{a) line and silica (d) noneollhe above
(b) line and aknlina
0.7 The most common admixture which is used lo
(c) silica and [Link]
accelerate lhe initial set cl concrete is
(d) line and ircn
(a) gypsum
Q.2 The constiluenl ol cement which is responsible (b) calciumchloride Mortar and Lime
lor all the undesirable properties ol cement is (c) caJciUl'fl carbonate
(a) dicalcium silicate (d) nonedfthese
(b) iricalcium si",cate
0.8 According to IS specilications, lhe compressive
(c) tricak:iumabninale
.strengihol or<llria,ry ,Pprtland cement alter three
(d) !elracalcimalumlnolerrite.
da~:-~puld not be less than
The term mortar is used to indicate a paste prepared by addilion of required quanlity of water 10 a
Q.3 Le Chate!ier~ device is used for determining lhe (e} 7MPa (b) [Link]
mMure or binding material like cement or lime and fine aggregate like sand.
(a} sel![Link] , ·.. (c) 26 MPa (d) 21 MPa
(b) soundnessolcement · • 1 Building mortar is defined asa mixture of cement, sand and water.
0.9 Increase· fn fineness ol cement • Mortar is simttar to concrete but it does not contain coarse aggregaie.
(c) tensile s1renglh of cement
(a)" reduces the rate of slrenglh development
(d} compressive strengt,h of cement • Mortar is used lor filling joints as a binder in stone and brick masonry.
·and leads to higher shrinkage
Q.-4 Add~ioo ol pozzolana toordinaiy /:'ortland cement ' (b) increases !he rate ol strength devetopment
Increase · ·end reduces the rate of deterioration 2. 1 B'Jlking of Samf
(a} bleeding (c} · deereaseslhe rate or strenglh developmenl • The presence or moisture in sand increases the I
(b) shrinkage and increases the bleeding ol cement volume of sand. This is duo lo lhe fact that J 40,1-----..-------.--,,,,....""T"---.
(c) permeability (d} increases lherate ol strength development moisture creams a lhin film otwater around the 5 ~ft,1----."-11---1--...---1----1
(d) hea1 ol hytilalion and leads to highet shrinkage sand par~cles which reSUll$ in the Increase of § =
Q.5 Proper amount of entrained air in concre1e results Q.10 The ini1ial selling lime for ordinafy Portland
1 volume of sand. For amo1s\ura content o! aboul ·_ i
510 s percent, !his increase or votume may be
in cemenl as per IS specificalfons should no1 be
1. better wolllabilily less than
as much as 20 lo 40 per cent, depending upon .ff
the grading or sand. The liner lhe mateJial, the ~
2. belier resistance or freezing and II iawing (a} 10 minutes (b) 30 minules
more will be the increase In volume for a given
3. lesser workability (c) 60 minutes (d) 600 minutes t 10 ..
molsIurecon1enl This phenon;ena isknowri as
4. less reslsianco lo freezing and thawing the bulking ol sand. The graph below ihows the • ~-Weight rdMobutv
The correct answer is
1111rialion or percentage increase in volume of Rg. Chan showitl9 hulkflrg of sand
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 4 1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. {b) 5. (a) sand with molslurecontent.
(c) 2 and 3 (d} 3 and~
6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. ,(d) 10. (b)
Q.6 The most commonly used retarder in cement is Do you know? The bulking of band affecls the volumetric propomoning of sand toa lat~·eldent. ll is more
(a) gypsum wiIh line sand and less wilh coarse sand. -
(b) calciumchloride
2.2 Mortars
Mortars are classil1ed on the basis ol lhe following :
(i) Bulk density (ii) Type of binding materials
{mJ Na\ureo!applicalion {iv) Special mortars

fflADE ERS\i
 28 J CIVIi Engineering Postal Study Package flilE Construction Moretial$ I 29
Bulk Dena!IJ;Accordfng to the~ densily of mortar in diy slate ~re are two types of mortars: · • This mortar is fire-resistant and ii is therefore used wilh firebricks ror lining furnaces, lire places,
(Q 1-feavylfartarS! The mortars ~frig bulk density of 15 kNfm~ or more are known as heavy mortars ovens etc.
and lheJare prep11rtd from hdiJV quartz or other r-ands. (Ii) Light weigh\ mortar : This mortar is prepared by adding materials such as saw dust, wood powder
{II) Light 11111ghl mortars: The rnQrfar$ having bulk dMsily fess lhan 15 kNJm3 are known es light to the rime mortar or cement mortar.
I
welghllllClt!IJa and lheyare ~mpared frorn l!9hl poroussands, pumice andolherllneaggregates, • Olher materials lllhioh may be added o,re asbestos fibres, iute !ibres, coir etc.
:U.1 t,peofBlllllllngMateri11I • This mortar is used 1n the soundproof and heatproo! con$truction,
ThelYf)totlildingmalerial loc a ~ is selected by kcepfn9ln mind several !actors such ase;(pacled (Ill) Pecking Mortar : To pack oil wells. special mortar possessing lhe prop~rty or high homogeneity,
[Link]!ureconditionsett· 1 J
According IOlhe type of bind"rng materials, the mortars are c ilied into the following calegories;
water resis1ance, ability lo form solid wa1e1proof plugs in cracks and voids or rocks etc. is used for
/ " this purpose.
(I} llmeMartar: In lhislype or nfcittar, rme is used as the binding material. The lime may eilher be fat
llmecrt(Jdmulielime. . ,:\ [Link],1:. i!Jiaw! Th~ ~pc>!!il!on o~ p~cking mo(tar !s decided ~~tak!ng int~ con~rat1on the hy9rogeologic
• Fat line shlinks toa great.t;(tent and hence II requires aboul 2-3 times 115 volume al sand. \~~~~!l1b~:.~4C?l<lr:ig'[Link]!9· : . ._ . . . .
• lsneshouldbeslakedbefcirus~ . . (Iv) Sound absorbing mortar : To reduce lhe noise level,' the sound-absorbing plaster is lormed wilh
• l.imemortar_~·unsuilab!& forwaterlogged are~s 9r in damp situa~ons.
~ . . ~ .... . .' . \
• For [Link]!C lfme. lhe profll'.lliion of lime to sand by [Link] Is about 1:2.
the help or sound absorbing mortor.
• The bulk Clensiiy~r s~ch a mortar varies from 6-12 kN{m3 and the binding materials employed ln
• Unemortar ~s ~ high pl~t1y end il can be placed easily. · its composition may be Portland cement, limo, gypsum etc.
• II sbrilk.s ve,y &Hie. 2.2.3 Properties of a Good Mortar··
• It is sufflclenl\y· durable.
It should be capable ot°developing good [Link] the building units such as bricks, stones
• llhadens.t..t"'m.. "" .. !'"·!':l~ --..·,
:''.,..'7' .. . .. : 1::" ·. •• . . etc.
(R) SUfkhl lfllrtar : This \y!Jli' ol mortat. ls prepared by using fully Sutkhi instead ol sand or by replacing II should be capable of developing Iha designed stresses.
half of $!rid in llfise. of fat lim~orlar. ·
It should be cheap.
• lheSulkhimonari;used lcr,ordinary masonryworko( ~tikirld~In lwndalion amisuperslluC!ure.
11 should be durable.
• I( can not be used forplasi¥1lng or pointing since surkhiis likely lo disinlegrate airer some 1ime,
It should be easily workable.
(Ill) CamentMonar: In this IY.P8 "mortar, the cemeN is used as 1ha binding material.
[Link] set quickly so that speed in construction may be acl1ieved.
• Dependlnguponlhestrengll'uequirementand importance, \he proportion o( cement to sand t>y
• 11 should not affocl lhe durability or [Link] with which it comes into contact.
\IOb'nevaries f,om 1 :2 tol: for more.
The joints formed by mortar should nol develop cracks and they should be eble 10 [Link]. thoir
• TIie cement mortar is use'1whei'e a mortar ol high s1reng1h and water-resisting properties is .
appearance for a suHicienUy long period,
teqlliedsuch as undergrcimd consltuclion. water seiuratea soil.
(Iv) GaugedMorrar: 1o improve tne
quality of lime mortar and to achieve early strenglh the cement is 2,2,4 Uses of Mortar
somelins added 10 ii. This prO'cess is known as gauging. • To bind the building units such as bricks, s1ones etc.
• Jtnaes lime morl8f economical. strong and dense. • To carry oul poinli,ng and plaster work on [Link] surfaces of masonry.
• The usual proportion of cement lo ~me by volume is about 1 : 6 io 1 : a. • To form an even ~nd soil bedding layer for building units.
• llisalsoknownas the composite mortar or lime-cement mortar and it can also be lormed by the • To ro1m joints ol pipes.
COlltinalicnof cement clay. and I • To hide the open joints of brickwork and stonework,
• Thislll0ltar may be used for bedding and fonhickbrick waifs. • To fmprove 1he general appearance o! structure.

2.2.2 Spedal Mortars

, The setdng action ol mortar is aflecled by the presence or lrost. II is \hererore advisable lo
(I) Fire reslslant mortar: This mortar is prepared by adding atuminous cement lo the finely crushed Do slop the work in frosty weather or 10 execute it with cemenl mortar which will set before ii
powderal lire bricks. u
9ommenc~s lo lree~e.
• The ll5U8f proportion is t part ol aluminous cement to2 parlS of powder ol lirebricks.

mADEfEAS!f.
~~or.1:~1
 30 I Civil Engineering Postal Study [Link] m£l fflRDE ERS!:::I
---~=---~~b-li_c.,_Uo_n~-
r! Postal Study Package E!m Collsr,udion Matelfols I 31
2.l.S Fundlons of Sand In Mortar 4. Quick Lime; The lime which is obtained by 1hecalcinatlon ol compaialive!y pure limestone is known
as the quick lime or caustic lime. fl is capable ol slaldngwilh water and has no aflinily lor camonic
1. Bulking
acid.
2. Selling
• lls chemical composition is CaD Le. oxide or calcium and ii hasgreatallinity for moisture.
3. Shrinkage gels avoided due m sanr.J,
4. Slrenglh gels imparted due to sand but doesn't often binding slrength and shrinkage, :;:QC\Y~~ kriow7 The quick lirn~ as itcomasoutlromkilns i~known as_lhe!um~lim_~:: . '. ....
·.-" .., · 5. , S~tll~g ; Th~ process of him:leni~g ~I lime aller ii has been convened into pastetorm Is kno'lm as
2.3 Tests for Mortars Ille selling. fl ls quite dil[erenl from mere drying.
6, Slaked Lime : The product obtained by slaking of quick lime is known as lhe slaked lime or
2-3.1 Adhesiveness to Building Units
hydrate o! lime. It is in lhe lorm or while powder and its chemical composition is Ca(OH}2 or
{i} Two bricks are placed al right angles 10 each olher. hydrated oxide or calcium.
(ii) Mortar is placed to join 1hemso as lo !orm a horizontal join!. II size of bricks is 19 cm x 9 cm x 9 cm. CaO + Hp- Ca(OH)2 + Heat
a horizontal joint of 9 cm >< 9 cm= 81 cm 2 will be formed. (Oulck Umo) (l'/0101) _ (Hydta\ll<I Limo)

(iii) Ultimate adhesive strength of mortar per cm 2 area is ob1alned by dividing maximum load wilh
81 cm2area. , ·. l)o_yo~ know? A thin Pourable suspension of slaked lime in water Is known as !he milk or lime.

2.3.2 Crushing Strength 7,, Slaking : When water is added to the quick lime Iii sul!icient quantity a chemical reaction takes
place.
Brick masomyor stone masonry laid In mortar lo be tested are crushed in compression machine,
• Due lo this chemical reaclion the quick lime cracks, swell and !alls inlo a powder !Olln which is
• The load at which the_ masonry crushes gives lhe crushing sLreng\h, Ihe calcium hydrate Ca(OH}2 and it is known as the hydrated lime.
2.3.3 Tensile Strength • This process Is known as lhe slaking.

Tho briquettes are tested in a tension testing machine.

Cross-sectional area of central portion ls 38 rm, x
38 mm or 1444 mm2 or 14.44 crn 2 , .______.lli El<waton
2.5 Classification of Lime
(i) Fatlime
(ii) Hydraulic lime
2.3.4 Lime
' (iii) Poor lime ortean lime
The use of lime as a cementing maIerial has beer, in

l!
use since ancient times. 2.5.1 Fatllme
Al pre~ent, the cement has replacixl lime 10 a great • This lime is also known as the high calcium lime. pure lime, rich lime or white lime.
e~lent. Bulat places where lime is locariv available ll is popularly known as the ra1 lime as it slakes vigorously and its volume gets increased to about
and when there fs acute shortage o! cement, the lime 2-2.5 times lhe volume of qulcll lime.
certainly provides a cheap and a reliable alternative ----1sz 11m1----1 The percentage of impurities in such limestone is less than 5%,
lo the cement. f'l>ll
The characterislics of lat lime am:
Fig. 81iquerro for lens1!o1 sr1englh or mortar
(i) ll hardens very slowly.
2.4 Some Basic Definitions (ii) It has a t,igh degree ol plasticity.
1. Calcinalion: The l1ealing o! limestone to redness in contact with air is known as calcinalion. (iii) It is soluble imwater which is changed lrequenlly.
2. Hydraulicity: ll is \he properly ol lime by wl1ich it sets or hardens in damp places, water or !hick (iv) as colour ls !Jl;r!ecu-,, while.
masonry walls whera there is no 1ree circulation of air. (v} ii sets slowly in presence o! air.
3. Lime: Due to calcinalion ol limeslone, the moisture and carbon dio~ide are removi;;d from it. The (vi) It slakes vigorously.
product wllich remains thcreafteris known as 1he lime. lls chemical composition is (CaO)1.e. o~ide Its main us-es are:
of calcium. The cllernicat reaction is as 1ollows: · • (i) II is used in white wash1ng and plas\ering of walls.
(ii) Wilh sand, it forms lime mortar which sets in lh1n joints.
(iii) lt is also used in tho manufacture ol cementand in mela1lurgica1 industry.
( ~:mli_dmsypubllcatioris.org ... __ ., ~-R~-=:EA$~ ...... ~ •...·-The-
__ -• .,..~--~-_-h_so_·,-vec1·-.-._Eum-.""'..~ 111-j
..r,1es'""·-,":1,•11
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mRDE EASY EiilI:l
Postal Study Package
____,___
Construction Moteria!s I 33

tt,[Link] . I The magnesium limestones display irregular properties or calcination, slaking and [Link].
t
• This lime Is also known as lite water rrrne as it oot::; under water.
f upto 5% of magnesium oxide Imparts excellent hydraulic propenies lo the ~me.

• ltconlains clay and some a~~l of ferrous oxide.

2.6.2 Oay
• Depending on the percent• of clay present, the hydraulic ilme Is divided into following three
• 11 is mainly responsible lor the hydraulic properties cl lime.
lw,es (a) Feeblr ¥rauflcllqie. (b} Moderately hydraulic ritne, (cJ Eminently hydtaullc lime
• The pe1centage of clay lo produce hydraulicily in lime stone usually varies rrom 10 to 30%.
• Thelncreaseln r,ercenlage of'Glay makes lhe slaking difficult and incceases lhe hydraulic property.
• Limes containing 3.5 par cent of clay do nol display any hydraulic property and do not set and
• The hydraulic lime C1,lll set Uf!(fer ..,,m,or am:t in !hick wans wtiere !here is no free 'circulallon of air,
harden underwa1er.
1ilble : ~ oon'6M Fat Ume and Hydrar.,/ic lime
No. ....... ,. - ... 'Fat~,- . .. ;
~
1~ !. 11,drauUc 111110
• / When clay is presentas20·30percentoflime, ii exhibits exceHen1hydraulicproperliesandlsmo&1
suitable lor aqueous foundations.
1, ~ It ls Dllllllnod flom ~<'l)lvoly putO 11 Is oblOlmxl Imm lilnest- oantslnfng day to !ho
C81bunaleoll!IPOl:Clllaittlljl~ SporCl!llll o! Sl(\onl d ilbcxlt 5 lo JO per cent 1!111!1 - QJ!Kl<lnl QI 2.6.3 SIiica
~lies. '\<, kl.,,,IIH-id!i-
• In its free lonn, il [Link] a detrimental effect on the properlies of lime.
2. Slall/l9atlal lttlalces~riiaoasedto lt ..iilkos PY,ooly. hs lo'Ollllm Is sllghUy lnaaa$0d. Toa
ellollt%tom drnllslllo · afqt,i,;.\Sme.. $lllll!ngltflal,~~~d-ncll!lhoo~
"IJtaelalagls .',I\YQ'[Link] 2.6A Iron Compounds
llOU!ldllllllllllllt. . .:_,
• Iron occurs in smaHproµo~Uons es oxides, carbonates and sulphl~es.
3, ~at:lloll It 1111$ llkll,iy kt prosenr:•{Tit m. ti absott,a II sol& l!ncler wall!r, II ~ • \llilll wntnr 111,d !ORM
_._ dlnlclo fft>l'D ~ and , _ c,yslalsafaunlnali>IIRf dk:[Link]:a1a. • Pyrite or iron sulphide is regarded to be highly undesirable.
[Link]. t:'•":: - • For hydrauQc limes, 2•5 per cent ol iron oxide is necessary.
4. ltdoHIIOI~~~. lll!0$5M18S~mtd~~ny.
$. Cdlu- lllspotf~llu:dCIII'-, llsi:ofOurlsoobowhlioa,~limol. 2.65 Sulphates
- ~ ~. .... . . . .
&. Sln!nrlllt If Is nat llOIY fflftfl•·"'-'11~ bo used llls$1tOn9..idc:a,1Uloo,lon,l)onclr:lpll)dYihenlS11-lhJ,; • Sulphates ii ~esent, slow down the slaking aclion and increase IIM;l setting lime of limes.
'""-~IIIC(llftd.-,·<. roqu&,id._
..
1. u- II luieodi'Dr-plasledr,g, ~ " 9 , ... 111d ltb usoclb'Pn!PMl!IJl'l1)!1ar(or llrid<walls, damp plDc,es, 2,6.6 Alkalies
lilrlll'IPOlf8llll!Ollerwll>[Link]<li, 11!c..~c=aialsmqu&cd1G pn,p.110mortararlhls limo • When pure lime is required, lhe alkalie.s are undesirable. However, up to 5 per cent of alkalies in
fi:>rpl!ISlorWOlk. • ·
hydraulic lime do not have any ill ellecl.
2.5.J PaorUme
2.6.7 Classificatlon of Mortar on Strength Basis
• This lime lsafso known as the fmpure or lean lime,
1. H,Mortar-10N/mm2 (min)
• It conlains more lha11 30'.lf. of clay.
2. H2 Morlar-6 • 7.5 N/rmn2 (min}
• It slakes very slowly.
• It forms a !llin paste wilh waie~ 3. M, Mortar - 3 - 5 N/mm2 (min)

" II sets or hardens very slowly. 4, M2 Mortar - 2 - 3 N/mm2 {min)

• It has poor binding proP!!fliesano ifs colour rs muddy whfte. 5. Ma Mortar - 1.5 N/mm2 (min}
• This rime makes a wry poor rnorlaf. 6, L, Mmiar-0.7N/mm2{mln)
• Such mortar can be used lor_inler[or typaol work Ol' at places where good lime is nOI available. 7. ~ Mortar-0.5 N/mm2 (min)

1!0~ ~The~klime gives out Immense heat whirs s!al<ing and hence au suilab'l3 measures should NOTE • Use ol C. Mortar richer than 1: :3arenol us,ed inmasonrywo~asil provides n!'.l•Qaln of
betaken toawidchanees of any fire he~rd · - strength of masonry and its prone to hJgh shrinkage.
. • By adding Su1khi to Pura Lime (Quick Lime/Fat lime): the Art![Link]. Hydraulic lime is
2.6 Impurities in Umestones - obtained.
• Calcinalion ol-Kankar· Gives Hydraulic Lima.
U.1 MagnesiumCarbonate • Modulus of Rupture @ 28 days ol Mortar Should not be less than 1.5 NJmm2 ,
• Toe magnesium limestones are hard,. heavy and compact in te1«ure.

~_!l~.,~:-!.i"'-· ·-- ·~w;in~~u.~~~!~~s:o,i)

,
.- '
 I

I I
.I El!IE
34 Ch/If Engineering Postal Study Package fflRDE ERS!:I
----Pub Ire.,,~ ••

l Q.1 Study the following stalemenls: Q.5 Quicklfmeis

i 1. Hydraulic lime Is suitable Jor while washing,

2. Fat lime is suitable for whitewashing
1- slow in se1Ur1g
2. rapid in slaking
! 3- Hydraulic lime is suilable for making mortar 3. good in strength
4, Fat lime is suitable for making mortar. The correct answer is
The correct answer is
(a) 1 and4 (b) 2and 3
(a) Only 1
(c) Bolh 1 and 2
(b) Only2
(d) Both 2 and 3
Concrete
(c) 1 and 2 [d) 3and ~ I
0.6 A gauged mor1ar is obtained by adding which ol
Q.2 The main consl~uent which impans hydraulicity !he lollowing ingredients lo cement?
lo hydraulic Hme is (a) sand stone
(a) calciumoxide (b) silica (b}"":sand and su~hi
(c) clay (d) waler (c)" 6al1d and lime The cement concre1e is a mil(ture of cement, sand, pebbles or crushed rock and water which, when
0.3 Hydraulic lime is obtained by .(cl) surkhi alone . placed in the skeleton forms lollowed by curing becomes hard like a stone.
(a) burning o! lfme stone \. Concrete is a composite man made material and is mos! widely used building malarial in the
Q.7 Surkhi is added lo lime mortar to
(b) burning ofkankar conslruc!ion industry.
(a} prevent shrinkage
(cl adding water lo quick lime 2., II is a mixture ol binding materiel such as lime or cement, well graded coarse and fine aggregate
{bf decrease selling lime
(d) calcinalion of pure clay water and somelime admixtures.
(c) increase bulk
3. Most ol the ancient slrucluresand hlstorical buildings had been constructed wilh Umeconcr,ete but
Q.4 Quick lime is (d) impart hydraulicity
with the invention of cement. use or Lime concrele is limited in making bases of conciete foundatloos
{a) CalciumCarbooate and roof terracing.
(b) Calcium Oxide
1. (b)
4.' Basic requirerrient or Good concrete is lha\ ii should hBVe good strength in hardened state and
(c) Calcium Hydroxide 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (c) 1ernain ·rresh" p!aslic during transporlallon, placing, compe.c11on.
(cl) None of these 6. (c) 7. {d) 5. In fresh state, consistency ol mix should be such Iha! i\ can be compac1ed by the desired means
without e)(cessive e!fortand also the mix should be cohesive enough lorthe rnethodsol lransporting

•••• and pleclng used so as not to cause segregation.

3,1 Properties of Cement Concrete

1. High compressive strength
2. Free from corrosion and there is no appreciable ellccl of atmospheric agents on ll.
3: It hardens with age and the process ol hardening continues for a rang lime.
4. It is proved lo be more economical than steel.
5, ll binds rapidly with steel and as it is weak [Link], Jhe steel reinforcement is placed in cement
concrete at s4i1able places to take up the tensile stresses. lhis is termed as the reinforced cement
concrete or si/nptif RCC.
6. ll has a 1endency lo shrink,
7. II forms a hard surface, capable or resisting abrasion.

3.2 Classification of Concrete

1. Based on Cementing Material.
(a) lime concm1e (b) Gypsum concrete (cl Cement concrete
C3'J:"Theoij with Solved _Exam pl~ .• mAOE EAS~
·-- - ~ -·' .. w~[Link]:asypubllcail(!ns.~rg I ([Link]~b!icat1~n$'.~rg. ......... 11!~~ -~~~!:l- ____ · • Theoiy~si)~~mi,[Link]
Ii 36 I Clvll fllglneefln9
2. Basedangraaeof cement c&,;;reta
3. Base on Bulk densily
PrJstal Studyllfkage EiiJm fflADE ERS~ I_
---P~bllcoUom f mRDE Et:aSY
---Publlt,tUons

Hand Mixing:
Postal Study Package EI'iim Cansrructlon Maretlals I 37

I I-- • Hand mixing is adopted for small jobs where the quantity of concrete involved is small and lhe
l!x!lalighl~ht ., 500 lqJlnil approximate time is 2 minutes should never 8)(Ceed 3 minutes.
I .Ug,htweii,it - 500-_ f800 kg!..,,
Ma(hlne Mixing: . . .
Doll$cYJ!llghl 1000-:u;oo l<glm3 • When a large quanlily ol concrete of lhe desired quality is lo be produced, the machine rnIKmg
; S.<!ioo,,yW!!loli >-25001\g/ni' becomes imperative as Concrete can be produced at a faster rale with belier quality.
Concrete mixers are specified by the volume of mixed concrete discharged alter mixing o1 each
4, Based on place of casting }. ' . . ~)
batch expressed inm3 (such as0.25, 0.3B, 0.57, 0.75, 1.5, 2,25and 3m .
(a) ln-$llu com:rete: When ~ote is placed in position Juh• si:e it is known as ln•silu concrele. ,, · • Sometimes lhe total volume of the unmixed ingredients in m is given as a prefix. i.e. 1.0/0,75
3
(b) Preeuc concrore: Wherli'el'Jnerele Is used tor making ~refa!Jricated unils in a factory ls called mi,cer takes 1 m~of unmilled mat,rial and gives 0.75 nrl ol mixed concrete in each batch.
asprecaslooncrete. I!
• The machine mixing is done by using _1. Titling type [Link], 2. Npn [Link] type 1'.[Link]. 3.
3.3 Manuf1cturing of Conake Batching plant.

A. Batching: . . ·· t- _ ·. _.· · . · :· ·
1. Aggregates, cement anf til:enhoutd be measui~d wilh eri accuracy of ;1: 3 per cenl or batch
1. Tilling type mbrture:
•
. .
In this mixed'concrele is discharged by lUling lhe drum about lhe horizontal ilXIS.
,

· quan!by and th!'l 8!,fm• by 5 per cent cf the catch [Link];ty.. • Tilling mi~er!! are useful for large construction ~rlcS.
. lhoreare two pr8l(Slent mi,th0(!$of batching materials are: • It gives better results even will dry concrete.
(a) 'Allumebalching • It can be used for aggre11ale size moro than 75 mm,
(b) Weight batching • Tilting mixers ere easier to clean am:l' can discharge the mix quickly and wllh minimum
segregation. . _
2. FormostimpllrlantWO!ksveighlbatc:hinglsrecorrymerided~ereas,~volumebalchingisgeneralty
ieccmmendecftorsmalljobscnr/, · · -····· ,,.. : · ·, • The tJiiing type 11iixlures are representeci as 85T. 100T. 140T. 200T (where 85, 100. 140 are
in litres.)
VelllmeBakhlug:
2. Non-lilting type mixture:
• Amount of [Link] irlgred°leltl is measured by ioose volume (net compaoied).
• Non-lilting mixers are suitable for small woit<s. ·
Example. volume of moist sand in a loose CO!ldalion weighs mueh leS& lhan Iha same vo!umo or
drycompactedsand. 1 • Non-tilling mii«lr is equipped wllh a drum rotating aboul a horizontal axis.
,_ I • Non-tilting mixers cannot be used when 11ggregate size more than 75 mm.
• lherefore cartection for bulking ot sand Is done ir volume batching is adopted.
• Non-lilting miKers are represented as 200 NT, 280 NT, 340 NT. 400 NT, 800 NT.
Weight Batching: .'
'1-
• Cement is al\vaysmeasure111 by weigh!, irrespective of mqt~od ol ba1ching. Sometimes lhe mixers are si:;ecilied by lVfO quantities the total volume or ingredients added
• Waler is measured in kg oflifers where density ol waler is ·1 gm/cm~. and the volume of concrete produced for example 285/200-lltres mixer lakes 285 litres ol
• Volume of 1 bag af ceme~ Is 0.035 rrii (or sometime also said 35 litera) ingredients and yields 200 Hiers of concrete. ·
a.~
• Oblecrlve or mbcing is toobiain homogeoous, unlkmn colour and consistent concrele of desired C. Transportation:
strength. . .
• Spec~icationi s1a10s that the process of mixing transporting placing and compacting the conctele
• Milling time depends on Ifie type andeapaclly of mixer but 1S456 sugge&t appt())[imalely should not lake more than Initial setting time of cement (30 minutes using OPC)
mixing time as 2 mlnutes.
• ll must also ensure that segregation not look place.
• Generally 20 revolullon o(iconcrete In mixture provides sufficient mixfng.
• II milling time is Increased ttl)to 2 minutes the compressive stronglh of concre1e produced is • The transporting of concrete can be .done by following methods.
enhanced and beyond lhllrlime Ille improvement in compressive Slreng\h is insignific-an1 and 1_ Pans: Recommended only for small job~ ..
prolonged mixing may Ci!U$e segregaffon as due to longer m,[Link] periods 1he water may gel 2. Power Buggies: Those have sped up to 24 kmJh_
absorbed by Ille aggregales or evsµorate resulting in loss of wo1kabm1y and strength. 3. Chutes: When concrete is to oe deposited below mound level at a liigher dep\11, ii can be
• The mixing is done in two ways is. 1. Hand mixing and 2. Machine m;xing (mixrure) discharged through a steel shalt called chute.
 I
38 Civll [Link] Postal Study Package mlJ fflADE EAS!:I -~
PubH•Ulons f mADE EASY
-Pu'ollc~llons
Postal Study Package raD [Link] Matetiais I 39
4. Cooorele Pumps: II is used commonly for lunnel worf<s and on locations which are not f
I Bui they are very much helpful for concrete sections'Wllieh ate too lhln for the use
easily accessible where concrete can be pumped rora dislance of about 400m. horizontally
and 60 m vertfcally havJng slump value 50 mm 10 100 mm and the pipe used in concrele or inlernal vibrators.
pump having diameter 10 cm lo 20 cm, ◄. VibreUngTet>les
5. Transit Mhter: Transit mixer is a lruck on which a concrete mixer is mounted and useful in • 11 ls very efficient in compacting stiff and harsh concrete mixes required for lhe
built-up areas.
manufacture cl precasl elements.
6. Bell-convayer: Abell corweyer is used when lhe concrete is 10 be lransporled conlfnuously F. Curing ,
and loan inaccessible area.
• The test specimens should be stored in a place free from vibration in mosl. air of at lea$l 90%
D. Piecing: relalivehumidi!y and at a temperatureol 24-30"Cfor 24 hours from the lirnecl addlllon orwatef
• Research has shown that delayed placing or concrele ref:[Link] in a gain in ultimate compressive to the dry Ingredients. , ,
slrenglh proY1dcd lhe concrete can be adequately compapled. • Arter this period lhe specimens are marked end removedfromlhemouldsand unlessreqwed
• For dry mixes in hot weather delay of half lo one hour Is allowed whereas for wet mixes in lor test within 24 hours immedialely submerged in clean fresh water kept lhete until 1aken out
cold weather it may be several hours. just prior to lesl, .
''
I • As per 1$456 maximum permisslble rree !all of concre\e may be taken as 1.5 m . • The specimens are not to be allowed to become dry at any time unlil lheyhave been tesled.

ii E. Compacl1on: ". :·. • Cement gains strength and hardness because of lhe chemlcel action between cement end
water. •
!! • The process or removal or entrapped air and or uniform placemen! of concrete lo form a
homogeneous dense mass is terrned compac1ion. • The water in aconcretemiKtakes oneol the following three lormsasaconsequence olhydratiOn
are:
The density and consequtmlly lhe strength and durability of concrete depends upon the quality
of compaction. · 1. Combined water: Which combined wllh hydration products <Ci', Cp. C,.AF} ils not
• The presence or even 5% and 10% voids In hardened concrete lall due to Incomplete evaporable. .
compacUon may result In a decreases In compreseiva strength by about 30% and 60% 2. Gel water: Tile water preva!lsovar cemen1.Ge1$1:1rfaceArea.
respectively. · 3. Caplllarywater: Which •ocoupycaplllaiy pores~ (Evaporable).
, • Increase tn strength ol concrete is very rapid from 3 to 7 days and continues slowly for
The various types of vibrarors used are:
1, Internal Vibrators Indefinite period. · • _.
11 has ooserved 1hat moist cured concrete for 7 days is n88lly 50% stronger tttan lhal Which is
• These vibrators consist of a metal rod which is ins1:tr1ed in lresh concrete. eKposed to dry air for entire period. , • ·
Skilled and experienced men should handle internal vibrators. These vibrators • u concrete is cured ror one month, s1renglh Is nearly double than that or COllCl8le exposed
are more e!licfenl than olher types or vibrators. to dry air.
• These vibralors can compact up10 450 mm from the lace but have lo be moved
lrom one plate lo anolher as concrete progresses. · Objective of [Link];
• The frequency cl vibration is about 4000 to 12000 rpm. • To prevent the loss of moisture from concrete doe to evaporatlon or anyolber Nla80tl supply
addlllona1 moisture or heal and moisture ta accelerate the galn of •trena~-- . ·· .
• The needle diameter varies from 20 mm to 75 mm and Its length 25 cm to
90cm. • 1b keep capillaryporessalurated 1oe11sure hypiationof cement: lo increases durabilll.Y, impermeability
2. Surface Vibrators ol concrete and reduce the shrinkage. _ . _.
• As per IS: 456 concrete membeis shall be kept under curing ror a minimum periOd cl 7 Cays for
These vibrators are rnour11ed on platform or screeds.
OPC at 90% t1umlcllly and atluasl 10 days where mineral admbdures and blended cements
They are used 10 finish concrete surfaces such as bridge 11ocrs, road slabs. are used.
slalion plalform, ate.
II is placed dimc1ly on tlie concrete rnass for lhe compaction or shallow clements NOTE: Lowertemperal\Jre~etivces
' the rate oJ selling and higher temperature <educes theI\lllmate
• stNtngth.
(where inreinal vibra1ors canner be, applied) Le. depth :;. 150 mm, Ex: Road Therefore cu1ing temperature neeci to be wilhin5 lo ao•c; .
surfaces, plain concrete lloors etc.
Steam Curing:
3. Form Vibrators or Shutter Vibrators
• For concrete mixes wi1h water Ci'!menl talio ranging from 0,3 to 0.7 lhe lnt:reased tale of strength
• These vibrators are aoached lo the lormwork and external centering of wafts, development ca~
1:le achievodby resorting iosieam curing. . .
columns. etc. The vibra11ng action is conveyed lo concrele through lhe formwork
during lransmission of v1lmaions. Hence they are not generally used.
This melhoc! or curing Is also
known as accelerated curing since an increased fclte of stre~h
development can be achieved.
m~Theory,wlth solved ~mp!ts ..·· ·.... ~m~-~?~~~~~-· --~-~-- -~niadee~sn,ubli,ati~~
 40 l
•
CMl inglneerlng

Concrete membersare heat~;t1eam at 93°C dher al low pressure or high pressure.

fflRDE ?uhllcotl~n•
ERS!;f I
.
mRDE ERS'!::1 i;ktU/ilffl@¢G@t)..:019j
:::·=::.::..:..;Pu::1>:.::11<;:;_n_llo_n_•_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

... ..
Con51Tuction Mdrnria/s I 41

l! • By low ,>ressure steam m:!~ about 70 per cent or the 2e day compressive stcenldlh cl
concrete i:11-1 be obtained fiabeut 16-24 hou:s and high Pressure steam curing Is usually
I ·'
0
P,rpl,i'o_,i10,n of :
Jori,f!iiomlll · ,,
-:~~mu~_~lia,
018ggrug11ta ..
'•

NPlurn ofworl(
,:•

f
1
. applied to precast concret6,members and gives 28 day ccmpresslve strength at 24 hours.
II reduces shear elrenglh of concrete •
1;1;2
[Link]
121020mm
12lo20mm
Hoavily loaded RCC columnsond flCC BldtesQ!klng span.
SmaD pro<:osl members of conc:rele sueh as polos fOf fencing tclogrophs.
• llalso results in increased r&iance to sulphate action and lo !ieezing and th~wing . clc. 11:>r>g p;Jcs. walertigh1consln.i(:tjo(\g aid hCDvlly $1nlSscd members of

i • Rate of increase or decreas, of temperature shoufd not exceed 10 to 2o•c per hour 10 avoid 20mm
lhestructuros.
Wator retaining struduros, pil os, prc<:ast pn:dv,;ts, olc.
1:1.5;3
J the,[Link] shocks.
[Link]or 20mm Walorlaoll.s, roncrolo deposiloo underw..tor, bMgo<OllSlnJction and
I • ,nrra Red Radlalion' is alsofe1pfu1 method or Cll<i:,g for rap\d Gain or Strength . sowors.
! G. f"rnlshing; ; I · '
1:J.66:3.3:!
1:2.5:3.S 25mm FOD!palhsand road work.
I
I • Finishing isdelirn!d asU1tiptoeassotlevemng and smoolhing lhe top swlace o! freshly ()laced
[Link] 40mm For ell goneral RCC """lltS In bUikll119 S1.1ch as stair, banm, colvmn,
weather shoo, slab, linlBI, otc., machino loundatiQ<ls sµbjoctcd to
!! concrete to achieve the dqsirell appearance i,, done by as follows; vibrollons ond RCC p!les.
1. Scr~din~: S!nking;ir tho excess concrete to bring the top sutlace up to proper grade is [Link] 50mm rt•.
Ma.;,;,;aictate work In wive rolalnrig walls, olc.
1' caltad~im,. } ' ' ' ' [Link]or .60mm. Masscoocretev,olk!orhoavywa1&~
2. Trowefln~; Finer oP<fation or finishing b~ doe aher a'! excess water has evaporated by [Link]or[Link] 10'.-.dation lootlngs, etc.
steel float iri, c;on,lcal.~!lpe giving a very s;noolh finish.
Maturity or Concrei. ' · ~For general guidance. Iha nominal mixes correspond approximately to thediflerenl grad as as

•
•
•
The strenglhotcohcfete,de~n~s on both period o! ~uring (i.e: age) ~nd [Link] during curing,
The product {period x lemperatu1&) is call_ed the malurity ol concrete
It is measured in "C hOJJrs to "edays, .
. .. ~ - .
· · · · ·
_,•. -
["° ', '"' :, ; 'M20
1 ,,3·: 6
1·:1½ ;3
M7.5
M15
M25
1: 2: 4
-1·: 1: 2
3.4 Materials Used in RCC wcrk
1. Cement • In order to get a_99ncrete of minimum voids ll",e quantity of line a~grGgate completely fills the
3. Steel
2.
4.
Aggreg"tes (bolh coarse and line}
Water ,·
voids of tha coarse
aggregate and 1ha quanmyof cement should completely fills lhe voids of the
line aggregate,
• The suf!icient water is added lo the mix ol cement fine aggregate and coarse aggregate !omakle
The hyrib which is a sled! lath may also be used as steel rein!orcemen!. lhe mix workable.
The water, which is u~ !or making concrete, should be [Link] free from harmful • In this method the grading cannot be accurately achieved and there is no control over lhe
lmpurilies such asoi, l:ilkali; acid, etc. In generaf, Iha waler which is flt /or drinking should strength of concrete.
bern~ed lor making cd~<ete, ·
2. Design Mix
• When the task of deciding 1he proporiion ot the consliluen1s or concrete is accomplished by use
3.5 Different Methods of Proportioning Concrete
of ce1!ain established relationships (which are based on inferences drawn from a large riumber or
1. Nominal Mi:< experiments) the concrete thus produced is lermed as design mix concrete.
• In !his rne1/lod, there is no rfgid ccntrol on the slrenglh or the concrete mix. Howeverthis method · • For RCC wqrk, lhe maximum size of aggregates is limited to 20-25 mm,
is widely used fora& works of small magnitude because of its simpricily in the design, Theretore, • For a concrete or given workability, tounded aggregates require least waler-cement ratio. Particle
the ronowing table need to Ille considered by doing nominal mix..
shape is very important since \he water cement ratio governs greally the strengtt1 of concrete.
• When lhe proponions ol cement, aggregate and water arc adopted based on any arbitrary
Coarse aggregates > 4.75 mm size.
standard, lheconcrele proquced is termed as nominal mix concrete. 1
Fine aggregates< 4.75 mm size.
• Nomi_n~I mfx con~role is used in wo1ks whero lhe quality conirol requiremenl Jor design mixes
are d1llicul1 IO be implemented. Nominal mix concrete can be produced by taking cement, tine 3.5.1 15 Code Method of Con,rete Mi>C Design
and coaise aggregate in lheratio or 1 : n,; 2n for normal work. However, the ralio ol the coarse Concrete miK design procedure lor apanicular grade of concrete depends Oil tl1e following requirements:
aggregate to line aggregare can vary lrom 1.5: 2.5 in si!ua!ions where dense1 or more workab!e 1, Characteristic strength of concrele(f.,) required.
conae1e is lo be produced,
2. Degrce or wo,kabilily required.

IDRDE ERS!::i
--•·-P,1,, ,.,,
42 I Civil Engineering
------------ ----------------------'-
3.
4.
Postal Study Package

Specific gravity and bulk density ol cement.

G1adin9 :zone or fine aggregate (sand) and size cl coarse aggregates.
El!m fflRDE Publlc:,\la"'
EAS!::I I Connections:
Postal Study Package fEE
------· --- --·- - -----------
• Tho so computed maximum waler con\ent is reduced if aggrega«ls used are:
Consnuction Materials l 43

l Sub angular aggregates- 10 kg/m3

5. Specific gravity and bulk densily of coarse and rine aggregates.
6. Moisture content i.e. water absorption ol coarse and Rne aggregates. Gravel wilh certain C1Ushed paitic1es-20kgfm3
Rounded gravels-25 kgtm:i
3.6 Steps for Concrete Mix Design as per IS Code Method • For slump of 1han 25-50 mm. increase !he waler content by 3% for each additional 2!i mm slump, •
IS 10262 : 2009 gives gufdelines for concrete mix proportioning. Sw,-4: Cakulatlon of Qmentatlons material content .
Step-1: Targ11t mean Jtrength and standard deviation • Cl.-4.3 of IS 10262: 2009 recommends tocompuie lheceroont and supplemenlalycementalions : ·
Cubes made of same concrete show slightly dillerenl strengths. JS 456 : 2000 recommends lhat material con;tent per unit volume of concrete lrom ltce water-cement rallo Le.,
standard deviation for each cone re le grade should be determined separately. Further, ll states U1at 1 , • Water content used
not less than 30 samples are to be tested, ' Cementa1ions material. C= Waler-cement ratio
In the absence of sumcrent test result, Table 1 ol 1S 10262: 2009 and also IS 456: 2000 suggesls • From clurabmt;i consideraliOns, the above computed value of cementations material (C)should not
the lolfowing standard deviation: be less than the values as given in Tabla.
The targe1 mean strong th is then determined as,
Table : Maximum cef!!lllll CUl'llel1l tor normal Wf1/gtlJ aggmgates of 20 mm
r,,;"' felt+ kS

-
Plalnconc,oto ttalnforced ami:mli
Where S = Standard deviation E,cpcsuro
(kalmi tltlllm'>
k = A constant which is as per IS code is 1.65 Mild 220
The largel mean s1renglh Mcldntv 240 300
,.,; "' '<>, + 1.65 S 320 :-•
$o!'OIG 2so·
Slep-2: Selection of w'!'ler-ce1ne111 ratio :!60
··340
VO'ly-'tllll
• Cl. 4.1 of IS 10262 : 2009 specilies guidelines lor selection of waler cement ratio. For the same &homo 280 360
waler-cement ralio, lhe s1renglh ol concrete ob1ained may be dlffer&nt because of dillerence in the
rabis ; AdjuSlment ID ccmonr COt!IOOf
cement quality and dillerence in shape, size and grade or aggregate.
Nominal ~In GI .1111gn,galo Adfustmelll to mlnlmllm
It is important lo estabUsh lhe relationship between water-cement ratio and sirengm of concrete. In (mm) - ' conlllnt
the absericeol this relationship. Table 5 of IS 456: 2000, gives free waler-cement ratio ror dillerent +.tOl<glm'
10
grades of concrete, 0
20
Table : M,,,,imum froo wsler-cemenr rsrio vis minimum grade of concrora. 40 -◄Okgh112
[Link] conm,lo R11lnlorcc,d concnlll
[Link] Step-s: Estimate of coarse aggregates
Mmr, '"'" wfc rullo Min. concrvlv oni<lo Max. fn,1t Wh: f'IIIIO Min. c_,.,,. grade
• Cl. 4.4 of IS 10262 ! 2009 sla!eS abOut the· estimalion of coarse aggrogates per unit volume cl·.
Mrld 0,G - 0.55 M20 concrete, Table 3 of IS 10262 : 2009 gives volume or coarse aggregates per unil volume or
Modcr.>!o 0,6 M15 0.5 M25 concrete for dillerent zones oHine aggregates.
So-io!D 0,5 M20 0,45 M!IO Tabla : 1,tl/tmle of i:oa1seagg,sgmes per 1111il'W/um8 of COll£lele
fO' diffetertr 20/IDS of fir,e IJ!]gtegalt1S (itJ., salfD}
Va,ysovorn 045 M20 0.45 Ma5
E.<1nima 0.40 M25 o.~o M<IO
Nom1...i.:,,l ~b:o Voluma of com.o ~porunltvelum1 of COOCftlltl
(ordllfonmt-of flndl!lllfOIIOl8S{lltlm'>
Df8Qllni{IOIO
(lnmmJ :Z....o,,1 Zol'Ju,2 Zane4 2!llalM
Step-3: Selection of water content
10 [Link] 0,48 0.46 OM
• Cl. 4.2 ol IS 10262 : 2009 states aboul selection ol water content, Table 2 ol IS 1021!2 : 2009
gives maxinium waler content per cubic meter of concrete lor angular coarse aggregates [Link] for
20
4D
.
• 0.68
!1.15
[Link]
0.73
0.62
0.71
0.611
0.69
25-50 mm s11,mp. I

• Wa1ercon1ent as arri\led at corresponds to saluraled and surface dry aggregates. The above value are based on saturated and surlace dlyaggregates condilion.

G[rh;;ty w~ Solv~ Exam~les -· - . - ~~-~. ~;>~ - .. ~-1'1~~~~~,vp,~.~il~~ions.~ig ")

44 I CJvH 1ar,1neer1n, fflRDE EAS!:I
---Publlc:nlon, Postal Study Package ml1l Cons1wc1ion Moteria/s ] 4S
:r.·"'.
Step,& [Link]._,e,ates .
3.6.2 fineness Modulus
• After atriviOQ Sl lhe massesf?menl .ind waler, i!1s volume or iota! aggregate is computed as;
• Toe fineness r,,;:idulus ol an aggregate Is all inctex number which is roughly proportional to the

A
tfGS., W]
V. = 1... -+- x -1-
; 1 1000 ·
.. average sizeol the paniclas ln lheaggregale, The coarser the aggregate, lhe higher is the fineness
modulus.

• •IQ!
Wherv C= Mass of cemeni;Se,. Specilic gravity of cement, W"' Mass ol waler
tr olhermaterialalike lly ash, admixtures.;[Link]!ded, air-entrainment is also Incorporated
lhen lhe volume of all lhese [Link]!s must be subtracted from unily in 01derto get the volume ol
• Fineness modulllll is obtained by adding lhe percentage of the weighl ol lhe material [Link] on a
total of ,o numbers of IS sieves {of sieve opening between 80 mm to 1501,1m) and dividing ii by 100,
,,;

IOf8I aggregaiesss. •
:
II ! 3.7 Durc1bility of Concrete
.,,_,__._.... 1-(..£+ W+£. .,. P)k-1_:v
S., i & Sp · 100:J
• / ...,~ durable concrete fs one lhat performs sa1is!actorily um:ler anlicipaled exposure conditions lor its
slipulated life.
Ir"' -,
• Various laelors alfecting durability ol con.:rete are as follows:
wheJe F = Mass of lly ash,'r• Mass ol pli$!1c!zer. S1 =Speciffc gravily ol ~ ash
1, Permeability
S,, = Specillc gr.w;t.y:- plasticizer. \' " \Jolume of e11trained air (in lractlon) Ingress of water l~(!s concrete susceptible to chemical auack, forest action, rusting ol steel etc.
• Fromlhapercenlageofc:oarse'ag~le (p} as lound l~step5above, 1iie massol coarse aggregate We can reduc;e penn~bility by
iSCOlll!)UIGd as: - ; . . · ."'- · (i) Providing high gra~~ or"concrete
Mass of coarse aggregate (ii) Using weu:graded dense aggregate
;.~V;.Sc.t X 100) (iii} Using lowwaler•cementralio. adequate cement and ellec6ve curing.
where. SCA= Speclllc gravilf of coarse aggregeie (iv) Using appropriate admiictures . . .•
Slmilatly. mass of fine !19grega1'1 is given by. (v) Achieving maximum compaclion
(vi) The above pEll'tV~eler is giving thrust to 1he concrete of Dense Mix to reduce Permeability.
Massolfineaggr'9ale~{1-p} VASFA it 100'.)
~ Sa "'.specific gravftt&l llne aggregat~ 2. Frosl action _.
Sb!p-7: Con'ettlon for actual site ci>niffltons • The Le Chalelier's
• Concrete is be affe~ted due 10 being permeable or by temperature below o•c.
• Oftenlheavalfablecoarse amfhsggregales available et site are not In saturated and surface dry Because of eKpanslco or absorbed waler on lree;i;lng ice buildu up In lsrgi.? pores causing large
aondlllona. z.. expansion in local areas the others being dry cause disintegration. ·
• lhhere is some moisture content af1eady present in \he free stale then reduce the amount or wa1e1 • Low temperatures increasing the extent or migration ol water resulting in lree~1ng to greater
required la that extent andincreae the amount o: aggregate by 1h11 same exten!. dep1hs in the concrete.
• If aggregates absorb molslure'fien delfnUely it will pose a deliciency in w.i1er required lor conc:rete,
So increase Iha water contentfly tl'lal extent and decrease !he mass ol aggregate by the same 3. Sulphate attack
extent. ' · • Sulphate attack is a chemical reaction between lhe products of hydration of cement and solution
containing sulphate ol calcium. Magnesium and sodium (water).
3.6.1 Fineness Modulus of Aggregate • Thei:e sulphates reactswilh C{', and ro,med calciumsutphoaluminate (e1trin~fle)wl1ich expands
The. term rineness modulus. ls usid to indicate an index number which is roughly proportional 10 the and causes disruption of concrete.
average site of !he particle in the entire quantity of aggregate. · • Magnesium ·sujphate has 1he most severe discrip1i11e action.
[Link] p be Ille designedtineness modulus lor a concrete mix ol line and ~oarse aggregates. • Common souri:e ol sulphate sails is the soil around the concrete foundation is lrom the wator
used in making concrete, and by using unwashed aggrcgales,
Table: ABsumod Srandard D1nia1ior1
Then • It can be reduced by use ol blast Iurn ace slag cemenl. sulphate resisting cement super sulphated
Grad<> of c,,ncralo Assumod atandard davla!lon cement. and by reducing lhe permeability.
(Nln,m')
\\ilere R = proportion of fine agg,egate to lhe 4. Org1micAelds
· combined aggregate by weight [Link] 3.5
• [Link] acid, lactic acid, and bulyric acid severaHy attack concrete.
p 1 = fineness modulus or fltie aggregate ~20.M25 4.0

p2 =linenessmodulus of coarse aggregate MJOloMSS S,O 5. Sugar (Retarder)

• It is o retarding age111 and gradually corrodes concrete i! added in excess as a admixlure.

(~;~'ild;~_~YP,Ubjl~a~~!l.~~~9-~.:~_:_~:--~~~g -~·R_~-~ :··---·- :~:J6~~ ~lt_h_~~I~~~-~~~~~-

 46 I Clvil Engineering Postal Study Package Ei!l]] fflRDE EAS!:;1 Po?tal Study Package mI.l ConstfUCflon Mawlals I 47
- -- ---flubl1c:.;:iU~"1
----· ... ·----------~·-
3.8 Defects in Concrete 3, Creep • lnililil Tangant Mcddus T-.,,nl MadalllS
1. Cracks • It Is continued deformation with lime under
a constant load, ii is also llnown as plastic
• Cracks are inherent in concrete and cannoI be completely prevented but can be minimized.
now or lime yield.
The reasons for cracks in a concrete are; • Rate of creep decrease with time and !he
(a) excess water creep strains at five years are taken as terminal
(b) early loss ol water values. It Increases rapidly with tho stress,
(c) Alkalf aggregate reaelion loading at an early age of concrete.
(d) Freeze and thawing
2. Efflorescence 3.10 Water-ceme'1t Ratio
l"
• It is appearance of f!u!iy while patches on the surface ol c;oncrete members. Toe waler in concrete has lO perform the following two l'fs. Diflll9lll)fl0 ofmodrlfus
• 11 is caused by poorly washed aggregate, salty waler used in making concrete Ille salts being functions: o1ellulldl'y1n11111 ~ -
leaching out to lhe sutlace by rainwater arterwards on evaporation whUe patches appear on the 1. The water enters ln!o chemical action wilh cement and lhiS aclion causes llteseldng and hardening
surface, of concrete.
3. Segregation 2. The water lubricates the aggregates and ft racilitates the passage D1 cement 1hrcugh voids or
• II is separalion of (a} coarse aggregate from line aggregale, (b) paste from coarse aggregale, or aggregates. This means Iha! wa:termakes1he concre1e workable.
watcrlrom ll!e mix and lhe ingredientsol the freshconcrele nolooger remain uniformly distributed,
Water-cement ratio and degree of c:ompaCllon f!R3 the two major parameters which determine
• II can be reducM by increasing small si.c:e coarse aggregate, air en11ainment. using dispersing
agenls and puzzolona. thestrenglh of concrete. Higher !he water-cement ratio, lowerislhe strength of coocrete. Simiiady,
lI • Causes ol segreoation are a:,ccess water, dropping concrete from heights, badly designed
1he strength Is reduced with lower degree of compaction.
-·. ~·-· ....:.· .
·
I mixes, concrete carried over long dis!ances excess water-pumping, bell conveyor system elc.

Ii
j:
4.
•
over vibrations and during concrete finishing extra floallng and tamping.
Bleeding
II is an llow of mixing water within or emergence lo the surface !rom lreshly placed concrete is
3.11 Workability of Concrete
• Workability is tile amoun1 or work 10 produce full compaction
I: usually due to excessive vlbraUons Imparted to concrele to achieve fun compacllon, • Toe important facts in connection with workability are:
Bleeding can be reduced by the use ol uniformly graded aggreuates, puzolona- by breaking {i) JI more waler is added to allaln U1e required degree of workrnai,Ship, It resullli m conctele of
the continuous water channel or by using - linlreinlng agents, finer cemenl and a rich low strength a11d poor duratlllily.
mix. (ii) If the strength ol concrete is not to be alfeoted. lhe deQ(ee of wort<abilily can be obtained:
--¾ By slighlly changing lhe proponions of fine and coarse aggregates, in case tho concrete
3.9 Physical Proportions of Concrete mixture is 100 wel: and
1. Stress [Link] ➔ By adding a small quanlity ol water cement paste in lheptoportion of Original mix, in case
!he concrete mildure is too (;ry.
• Stress sirarn curve or concrete in compression shown In figure.
(iii) The workability of concrete ls also atlecled tlylhe maximum siZeoflhc coarse aggregates iobo
• Since mortar and concrete have no alaslic limit, the modulus ol elasttcily for concrete
used in tl'le mixture.
must be the slope of the stress delormalion curve et zero stress.
(iv) The workabifity of <joncrete is alfecled malnly by water content, water--<.ement ratio and aggregate·
• Elastic modulus of concrete in compression, _E~:::: 5000 /C ,where '•k is the charaClerislic cement ralio. l 1, I
slrenglh ol concrete.
• Elastic modulus of concrete increases willi the density, compressive strength end to 3.12 Factors Affecting Workability
some extent with age. Following are the !actors which affecl the wrnkabilityol concrete.
2, Poison's ratio (a) V,valercoment {b) MixprGpOrtions
• It is determined as the ratio or 1a1i;ral to longi1udinal strain in compression test and vmy from 0.1 (cl Size of aggmi;iatcs • (d} Sha()Qofaggregmes
100.3. (e) Surfacclexloreolaggregates {I) Graaingofaggrega•
(g) Uso of admixtures
'. ;.,ww,madeeasypubllcatlol'[Link] IDADE EASY . .. Tneotywldl Solved &ample;--.
~ --···---•--·-·•·· .. _ ... __ .,..--•.a•• .-··- ----- .-... . . . . ,. -- ..ailil"
 48 I CIYBEnplnffJlng Postal [Link] m.] mADE ERSS
---P<lbllc::allc,\J
mADE ERS!::I Postal Studyflatkage mJil Comtrocrlon Materials I 49
..,;..-Pubf!eaijonJ --------~-___ -···--·

3.12,1 WaterContentJWaterCeme•iltio \' '.'··'..[Link]~~e~.a,Qiii.~~~~? ~.'.Cubtc:iil ~g~fegate > ~q~nd~d .a~greg~t_a :i,f~~Jlr,r!t)~~lo/:
• Water eonlentin a giv!i!n vohot: [Link] wm have signili~~~linQuence on the workability, ::: .-.';=s~11.:e,fa1a·'.--.::t:•:·;':f':;,\.: ·,. , :-~. · · ·. ,__:: .:.-:-.- : - :·:,:.-· .·.-:.· :.·:.
,.;_...'?•:ji;adeqU$!t~ctJ/)i1 l~adi,ng to_.iir'void C91'!18f,li~ol 5per ceni ap{jol 1.0.J?.8f Ce!)\ ~~t
• The high« lhe water cmleriper cubic meterol c.-,ncreta. the ;;;gher win be lhe llw:liW or canctele ':·•·:_:~,.1~·~'~·oisire~gu(~,:~ p~r:~nt'ai:id:55i~r.~_en(respe.~vely; . . -. . •·: .
•

•
which isoneo( lhe lmporlantfactor alfecling wc;;.abllHy.
According to Abram's law. tmi. strength ol WQrJ,;.,,Je concrete 1$ only dependent on water-cement
ralb. ;,
The wlume of water in fr~dc~rote is refatcd directlv to lh~ volume of empty pore space in
\')ff{/ :l!~;it . ·' ·. .
, .. _. ·•-· -. · •f.··•OA ·/
;< I .

.hardenedconctete. Simi!~ volume or cemer.1 in fresh concrele is refateddirecllv to the SOiid

volume in har<SmeC, conCiel~o/-cemenl ra\io is therit<jreia measure of the void volume relat111e
to lhe solid volttme is har*el!t cement pasle, and ilj; ·
./ >":.'>;_:._:.~.-:. ~ <t:::~;. ~:.
. . _:;;_:·:;,:: :.· ...::D.D ··0.75 0.8
v'- .
0.85,0,80 0,95 ·1.0

~:/.:::.;:-~!'/\\-,{_, ::.J\f;~:~:=·:;;~;;:;:~~
snnglh goes up as the v o i ~ goes down. So, !he
IOwerthowalel-cemenltalid. :-tne·, [Link]~ t

•
aolidwlumetallO and siro_-lhenardened concrete.
In a hardened &!ate CO!lftle~ sirength-is inversely.. ~ f .
pmportiooaltoinewa~riioasshownin lhegaph. · ..i
Toe mason wftflhe~'Slfengthof concce!e does ·. -~ :'
I
I
,
,--~-
A
.. - .
-
. : ·,
··- .
., &ll\lctaf,C041lP!',;\IO~~-ntheStra~~Concn,lo

J.12.2 Mix Proportions/Aggregate Cement Ratio

.~ .. .· .
:

not actually !olk>w a hyperboli~at lesserwaier-cement

I
;, S lnsutrldonlly
• Aggregate/ce~nt ratio is·an important Iactor inrtuencing workabUity.
• The higher the aggregale-cementralio, leaner is the concrele.
rallo Is when water to ~ - rat~ is low in a lresh ~ix, ' ~IIClod Concro\a
1hen less water is available'~ fAe hydration of cement.. • In lean concrete, less quantity ol pas1e Is available lor providing lubrication per unit surface area al
ttence,someamounlol'~pi1$1eremainsun-hydrafed 0 aggregate anci hence the mobility of aggregate is rj:1:slrained,
• The &trenglb of concrete mtlCh dependent 011-1he foHowlng four feotors: • In case ol rich -c~ncrete with lower aggregale-ce~eot ratio, more paste is available to make the mi~
1. Wa1enocementrallo cohesive and !,atty io give belier workability.
2. Cemennoaggregaterat~ 3.12.3 Size of Aggregate
3. Maximllmaggregatesi~ The bigger the size of the aggregate. lesser Is the [Link] area and hence less amount ol waler is
4. [Link]:al properllesofaggregates required for welling the surface and less [Link] or pm1le is required lor lubricating lhe surface to
reduce internal lricl1on.
NOm The laclors (2. 3 and-4) are oflesser impommce While factor (1 ), is !he major inllueheing !actor
\f . . . For a given quanUty of water and paste, bigger size or aggregates will give higher workability.
• Toe strength or concrete c!ecreases with increase in perconlage or air voids where air voids are 3.12.4 ShapeofAggregate
fOfflled byevaporalionof wat!r 0000 in makingconcretnnd by enlratned air.
• The shape of aggregates influences workability to a large extant
• Angular, elongated or flaky aggregate makes the concrete very harsh when compared to rounded
MJJE • As acemenl ageln!X'mlses it strength reduces since fl get sel partlaRy by absorption
of moi&tute and formi smali lumps. aggregates or cubica1 shape aggregates.

~
· ·
• When the uniexial e&mpressive load is appUed where Iba line ol action ol l~d is Rounded aggregate will have less surlaoe area and less voids than angular or flaky aggregate, not
perpendicu[ar to
maximum. .
th•;
axis of the cube then !olid cariying c~ity iS ~sumed lo be
· ·
only lhal, being lound in shape, the lricti011al resistance is also greatly reduced.
Because al above reason, river sand and gravel provide greater workabihl)' toconcmto 11ian crushed
• By increasing the cement to aggregate ratio the 1.11\irnate strength witl increase up\o aggregate and sanci.
some exient.
• The crushsd aggregate gives maxfmum strength as it offers minimum voids In 3.12.5 Surface Texture
concrete. _ • nie lnllucnco ol surface texl\Jrc on workability is ,!.gain due to the lac1111111 .the 10.1a1 l!Vrlace [Link] of
• The rounded spherical or cubical shaped aggregate when compacted contains rough textured aggregate 1s more than [Link] surface area ol smoo1h, [Link]! aggregate cf same
less voids than an Irregular and flaky aggregate ol the same nominal size and they volume.
give 11101'8 strenglh. The strenglh order acoordlng to the type of aggregate as: • ·Smooth or gl;'lssy lextured aggregate will give better workability.

i
.!
 SO I (Ml Engineering Postal Study Package Em11J fflRDE EAS!::I Postal Study Package Hrn Constrlldion Marerla/5 l 51
---Publlo.>llon,

3, 12.6 Grading of Aggregates • This subsidence is referred as SLUM? of concrete.

• TI1is isooe or the factors which will have maximum influence on workability. The dille rence in levels between the height of lhe mould and lhal of the highest point of Ula subsid~q
A well graded aggregate is tho ono which has least amount of voids in a given volume concrete is measured.
Beller !he grading. lesser is 1he void content and higher is the workability. • The difference in height in mm Js taken as slump of concrete.
rn order to measure !he workability of concrete mix1ure, various tests are developed. Tests such as
I , Tabla: Recommend&d Srumps of COflcre/e Table; Classillcalioo of Com::tele Mixes
flow lest, Vea-Beo test and compaction factor lost are used in great extent in laboratory. Slump test,
which is commonly used in the field, is briefly described below. :r,pe ofconcrc1<> Slump .. N&IURlofconcnllomlx
I s,Na: Slump

' ! 1. Cor,cmln for ro.1d ,;onslruclioo 201'l40mm Naslump 51l11Mllox11Dsb!!mix

3, 13 Tests for workability 2. C0mrotoforloJ1.: of curbs, Fmm10mml030mm f'oody~IID;
p,,rnpolll, pier.,, slobsnnd From40mrnlo \50mm Mobilomi>c
3.13.1 SlumpTest wolls lhlllarohortzcnlBI 401050nm
Ovet150mm C..sl,m
Slump 1est is the most commonly used method or measuringconsistern:y of concrete which can be 3. Conaoleforcnnol Onlng, 701080mm

employed either in laboratory or at site of work. . 4. Ccncrnlo lornrdlard sldiJ

[Link] 90lo100rm'I
II is not a suitable melh~ for very wet or ve_ry dry C0/1Cre1e and stilr"mix.
0

s, N0ffllalRCCwork 8010150mm
ll does not measure air' factors contributing to workablli;,
The diame:er of the· rod is
from 20 10 30. . . •
16 mm anrt its length is 60 cm. The stro~es 10 be given lor ramming vary
6.
7.
Mass IX)n,;mlo
Concm\010 bovibrollld I 2SloSOmm
101<>25mm

Advantages of Slump Test:

1. II grants the facility toeasilydetecl lhediiference lnwatercontentof [Link] concrete
of 1he same identical mfx.
2. , The apparatus is cheap, potable and convenient to be used at sile.
limitations of Slump Test:
1, There is no direel re!atlonship between lhe workabHil>' and Iha value ol slump.
2. II is not suitable for a concrele in which maximum size of the aggregate exceeds 40 mm.
3. , There are chances of many shapes or slump to occur and ii is di!!icull to decide which-one is giving
the correct value.
4. Slump occurs only in case ol plastic mixes. II does not occur in case of dry mi1tes.

3.13.3 Compaction Factor Test

PIM of Slum? Cooo • ' In the compaction lactor test, \he degree of wo1kability ol concrete is measlll'ed in terms of internal
Fig. Slump Tesr energy required to compact the concrete thoroughly.
A compaction racllX of 0.95 represents flowing concrete having high workability: 0,92 plastic concreie
3.13.2 Pro.::edure having medium workability; 0.8.5 slif! plaslic concrete having low workability and a compaction
factor of 0. 75 represents slill concrete [Link] very low woikabilily,
The mould is placed on a smooth, horizontal, rigid and non-absorbent surface.
The compactin~ lii"4tor test is designed primaril}' lor use in the laboratory but il [Link] be used in
The mould is then filled in four layers, each layer approximately 114 th of the heigh! o! the mould,
the field.
Each layer is tamped 25 times by lhe tamping rod taking care to distribute the strokt,S evenly o11er
thecrw.,s section. It 1s more precise and sensitive than the slump test and is particularly useful for concrete mixes of
very low workability and is normally used when concrete ls 10 be com1,acled byvib1alion fike, dry
The mould is removed lrom the concrete immediately by raising ii slowly and carefully in vertical
concrete which is insensitive to slump 1es1.
direction.
The 1es1 works on !he principle of determining \lie degree of compaction achieved by a standard
This allows the concrele lo subside.
amount ol work done by allowing the concrete 10 !all tllrough a standard height.
 I Clvll Engineering ~ fflRDE ERS!:I fflFIDE ERSY
52 Posta, Study Packa ---Publl~~n• - - - Publtt11ti¢n,:; Postal Study Package Et!m Construction Matetials I 53
• The degree of compaction catied lh(eompacting factor ,s measured uy the density lalio i.e .. the 3,13.4 Vee-Bee TesWee-Bee ConsistometerTest
rallo or Ille densie;, aclUSUy achievectin the test to denr.1ty or same lui!1 compacted concrete.
This is carried out in such a manner that the specimen concrete In the test receives more 0( less
• The sample of ccncrele to be tested9is placed in the opp,.,,. hopper up to the brim.
same treatment in respect of the method of placing as it would in actual execution of the WOfk. This
• The Imp-door is opened so that the ~A1:!e fatls into !he !ower hopp£r. lesl is preferred for finding wo,kability or still concrete mix having very low workability.
• Thenlhelrap-tfoororthelowerhoppe,Jtopeneoandthomncrate In this test. a Vee-Bea time or 3 10 5 seconds represents still plastic concrete having medium
is allowed lo !all into the cytfnder. workability, 10 to 15 secOflds represents sli!! concrete of low wor1mbility and Vee~Bee lime or 1810
• In !he case or a dry mix. It is likely lrjal the concrete may not fall 10 seconds represents very sli/1 concrete having very low workability,
on apenlng the trap-<foor. In such ji case. a slight pok.1::; by aj This is a good laboratory les! to measure indirectly the workability or concrete
rod may be required lo set lhecon~e in motion. i This test consists or a vibrating table, a metal pot and a standard iron rod.
• lhe ei«:eSS concrete remaining above the !Op level ol lhi:: cylinder
Slump test as described earlier is performed, placing the slump concrete inside the sheet metal
Is !lien cut olr with the help ot plaM blades supplied •,11:ih the cylindrical pol or the conslslorneter.
appara!!J$..
The glass disc auached lo !he arm is tumed and placed on
• Theo~ideof~ecyfindel"iswipedclean . :::,," .• the top ol lhe concrete in the pot . · . . . ·.
• The concrete is_!illed up exacllyup to1fie lop toyel of the (;y!indei; The electrical vibratoi: Is the~ switched on and slmul~neo~sjy
• [Link] tOQm.c.~, ·, ~.: :_ a stop watch st~rted.· ·
lhisweigbtlsl<rroM\,Vleightofpam)[Link]. The vlbra1ion i$ continued ~II suc;h a Ume as the conical s~pe
Toe cylinder is eqiplied ano thenr~fed wlih the coi:ic:.:, !e ~om;· ·:l .. of the concrete disappears end the concrete assumes a
the Sam& sample In 18yers appioximately 5 cm dE:ep. cylindrical shape. · · · · '·
sl . ·
Toe layers are heayUy rammed or,prererably ,.;,orated so as tq .·:,,1·,.
-:~.[ • Immediately when the concrete fully assumes a cylindrical
obtain full compacllon. ·· shape, the slop watch is switched off. ·
• This weight Is kl)OWnss weight ol wily compacted concrete l~~~:;.---l The time requlred for lhe shape or concrete to change tram
slump concrete shape tocyfindrical Shapeinsecond is known
~ of partially QOl"ll)SCled concrete
as Vee Bea Degree.
C.F. -= ·Weight ol ru!ly ~ l e d cooc'rete
• This method fs ·very suitable lor very dry concrete whose
Table Wamabllily. Slum!) and CCfftfJBo/i()g Factor of Concrates- wi!h 20 mm or 40 mm slump value can not be measured by slump test
. [Link] Size of A99rega1e
3.13.S FlowTest
~facto•
Ooi>Nllf $1,omp u..,1.,,..iikhcollenltol•~!ablo This is _a laboratory tes1 which gives an indica1lon or the quality ol concrete wilh respect lo consistency.
I~ mm ' lmll! l.a'l!O,
lpjlllllmll •pplr>IUS' cohesiveness and the proneness 10 segregation.

- In this lest. a standard mass of concrete is subjected to jolting.

-
v.,yi.- 0.18 [Link] R.!ak1nbn!IO<l"7~r_.<odfflllCl\lM._A!lhomor•-l>lo•rddW.
-,.,diog !lfOIIP,-"'"""""~in<M'""'1l<Sl...,ol!hf'IMdt>p!lrn>)d
-b rMctjaQ1~ The spread or lhe ll□w or Ille concrete is measured and this flow is related to workability.

.,_ 5-75 [Link] 1),81 ,woc:..,..._byham__,.all>onw,:=,/\lll'><t_,,_1o,l,lo(W\ddlli• Spread diarreter (in cm) - 25

Fl ow. percent.. ------;:::-'---~- x 100

-
- - ~ ...."l)'b01Mlu,llr~loroodil~-•10ol
r,;u\il<>d o, ltr"ll')W ~ - Mooo ,mat« 1...-.J•""" l'Ullo\ll rilmtlon o<
25
igllUl'n,/tl/'o<a/d~n!lh_,,
The value can range anytl1in9 lrom 0.150%.
~100 0.92 o.935 lllll'eJ0$11-bll• 0<1'!<111,b i,u,p, """""31y--113tolobtusi"ll
~"!l'J-lft. Normal-"°""''"
ho>w,roi1/0lffi!........,...,1h<dlrn11on
m.,Bl311y ~od4"1 It can be realized 1l1at tt,e compacting lac1or test measures lhe inherent characteristics ol the
concrete which ,elates very close lo tho workability requiromcn!s or co11cre1e and as such it is one or
[Link] l!l'>ISO 0.9S O!IG fgttiOdJ(;(,,s'Mt~~ll043:rt'Wo(tnmeflf,~ncon:[Link]..-'1:lalo-"'brotion
Forp!IT1!l'ngnrd11c,r,oi:,l«ing. lhe good test lo depict lhe workability of concrete.
VetrK!lh - - - Fro..t,1,10,..1isrraoamolilt. ~
 I 55
_______ __
fflRDE EASY IIIADE EASY Postal Study Package flim Construaion Materials
Postal Study Package ffil1l
-S4 . Civil. Engineering
I_____ , . ---·- ---------···-···--··"---····---···-!.'.'..bl~~~
__.-fubl1c:~tion'5

3.14 Strength Test on Concrete

• The strenglh of concrele Is determine as compressive slienglh end 1ensile-S1tength.
• The compressive slfenglh ol concre!e Is much greaier than ks tensile strengthvAlerv lhe tensile
slrenglh is about 15% of its compressive strength.
• 1 • Quality or grade of concrete Is designated in terms cf a numbers. [Link] denoles it characteristic
.1
compresslveslrenglh {cl 150 mm cubes al 28 days), expressed inMPa (or equivalenlly N/mm2).
• Number is usually preceded by the JetterM, whlch refers lo mix. For example M20 grade concrete
denotes a concrete whose mix is so designed as to generateacharacierislicsSlrenglh or20 MPa.
But It is ~served that tensile and bending strength
of concrete are of the order of 10 and 15 per cant,
respectively.i:lf the compressive strength and shear_ ~
TabloTop
is approximately 20 par cenl of the unlaxlal f
(DJ 1 compressive strength. l!
l • Characlerislic compressive strenglh is defined a& ii
strength of materlal below which not more than 5% f
·' of test resulls are expected to fall.
• It means lhal accordingly, the mean slrenglh ol 1he ,.. ~
• concrete fm(asoblainad from 28-daycompressioo lesls) 2May compn,ulw alNngd,
has lo be signilicanlly grealer than the characterislic (~0islrilxlllanCmve)
s11ength ft.I< that is specified by the designer.
ii
1
I
·1 3.1 S Compressive Strength Test
I
Cen:ent, line aggrega1e and coarse aggregale (up to 38 mm) tobe used for making concrete are
weighed ln (he ratio to be used In \he lield and areaol hand mixing or by machine mixing.
Now waler is added and lhe entire batch mixed until the concrete appears to be homogeneous and
has lhe desired consistency. Test .specimens recommended are 150 x 150 / 1SO mm cubes or
cylinders ol 150 mm diameler and300 mm height
Mi,ced concrete is filled inlo the moulds In layers of SO mm and each layer is tamped wllh bar
(b) 16mm In diameter and 600 mm lo"g 35 times orwllh a vibrator.
Tesi specim!!ns are s\ored a1 a lempe1ature of 27 :1, 3"C 3190'1> hutnidity fer 24 "' 1/2 hour rrom lhe
3.13.6 KellyBallTest . . . lime ol add Ilion of water lo the dry ingredients.
• 'fhis is a simple field tesl consisting olfhe measuremenl of !he indentation made by 15 cm d111ma1er • Aller this time specimens are removed from the moulds and placed in water and kept there until
metal ham\sphare weighing 13.6 kg. When lreely placed on fresh concrete. The lest has been, taken oul just belor~ the test
devised by Kelly and hence known as Kelly Ball Test ~ Usually specimens-are lested for 7 days er 28 days slrenylh bul IS code only suggest 28 days
• rhis has not been covered by Indian S!endards Specil!~ation ~ strength only. I ,
• , 7 days snengtti ~ concrele should be a1 least m
. ~-f]
The advanwges or !his 1es1 is that ii can be performed on the concrel!! of 28 day sttength of concrete.

u
placed in sile and ii is claimed tl\a! l~is test can ~e performed • Specimen is placed between the plates cf 1hecompreS$1on losling machine wtlh lhecare that Jho
faster wilh a greater precision than slump test. a~rs ol specimen 1s aligned wi\h lhe centre Ol lhrust cf the spl'lelieallyseall!d plate.
11 cannot be used wl1en lhe concrete is placed in lhin section. • Compression testing machine !lhould be able 10 apply gradual load of 14 NfmmZ/minule. TIii
• me uilnimum ol conc101e mu5l l>r. 1:1 leasl 20 crn and 1he minimum the specimen Is .crushed. •
disiancc rrom um centre ol 111e l)al\ lo nearesl edge ol lhe concrmc • Average ol the three values ls taken as the compressive strenglh of concrete, provided the
23cm, Kohy Ball individual variation is not more than :1: 15 per cent of Iha average. '
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---Publ1cotlon1
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• The compression load is applied diametrically and uniformly aloog the length ol cylinder until lhe
·. ~1s~~~~epfc~belii!~zs_1oq_)(·1S):)1:<:1;:o_ri,11,,jiro11ic1oa,neagtfre'ga1a~iz.e;~. -~ failure ol the cylinder along vertical diameter.
·:~-~~~ii}5~:~: .: .~~ ~ ~~-~~·t'i~-.:.;·-:r~·,_ ~· ·· :~ .j·) ~ \.-.·)~·-:.·:::·r.~:~ ·:. ··,\:_;: ~::\~;\~-~~ >·:.-;:.•-f.r~·~· • On eppUcation ol load, a unilorm tensile slress acts over two-third ol the loaded diamelt•
• Thecubestrengthis,. t.25 limaspylinder1,trength. • The magnitude o! the tensile stress is obtained by
'
• CVbe oornpiess'IVe strenglh of C011ere1e obtained Iron, 15 cm cube is higher than 15 x 30 cm,
cylinderc:orr;,ressiv&Slnmglh b~se contact area o! ,i standard cube mould with the upper plane
ill [Link] is more whidlfesutts in more confinement. Mote conlinements resist against
specimen expansions cesultlng in fnore compressive s,r ongth.
• The compressive slrenglh ol cont:rete al 7 day ShO\.lld be atlo~tJ2/.3 of compressive strength or "'¢'---+-!- 0/3
same concrete sample ai 28 days. I
Ofl

3.16 FlexuralTensile Strength TtlSt (Modulus of Rupture Test) D 20/3

• Oirectmeasurem~nt ol tensile st~r/glhel concrete l;, oilfjc~l_t: . SD!e-

• Nellher ~ s n o r lesling ~ralushave. been [Link] which assure unilo/IT! distribution ol
1he ·pu1r ~ed to concrete:thf! · - · ·. . · ;z o. -2 . .--1 · i, . a.,~. ·12 14 16 1a 20

• [Link] len$!~ strength test is d$~ to determ1ne ihe te~il~ l~d al whi~h concrete may crack. .S!rcs.s ;, .LD
. 2P
• II is an lndired .!est
£or asS~SS!ri(#tne t~si1; s1rengl'1_ ~I. [Link].
• Same material is usad. as'.used l~i' oo:r,pressive:sirangth
. . . . ' . ..'te~L : -
.' .2P'
. · a"' iDL . :
• Furthetconcreteisfil!edinlhe mduli:lol size 150x 150 x 700mm an-dtampedwilh the lamping bar
weighing2kg:~O(_)mmlong. ' . . . ·'; . . where, Pc= Applied load
• Specimen is placed in,the !esti115 machine on !WO 38 mm diameter rollers with a c/c distance ol D= Diamel!)I or the cylinder
600 mm. Then load Is applied lhrpugh lWO similar [Link] al lhe third points of supporting L = Lenglh cl the cylinder
span i.e.. spaced at 200 mm c/c; • The load is applied gradually and increased continuou;l~-u~tl1 !allure at a rate within the range o! 1.2
• Loadisappliedwithoutshockandincreasing cont[nuously at a ra!eof 0. 7 N/mrn2/mlnute until the MPaJmin lo 2.4 MPa/min,
specimen falls. • Between the loading pla\ens and Iha specimen cylinder, packing strips of plywood are placed
pl : 3pa for uniform distribution ol load and to avoid high cqmpresslon stresses near 1he point of
Modulusol rupture= bdz_(a > 2t)O mrn). bd2 (200mm >a> 170 mm) appllcallon.
Lim] lat! o ns of the Test:
t.= dislsflCe between lhelineof fracture and the nearest support measured on !he center line. of !he
tensile side al the specimen (cm}, · • The test calculates the maximum tensile stress assuming line lo~ds and a uniform distribution of
band dis measuredw!dth and dep!h of specimen, respectively, tensile s\resses, cul concrete has a non-Ifnear stress-strain dislribulion.
r .. tengIh of the span on which tile specimen is supported (cm) • The stre_ng!hol specimen depends upon the diameter of the specimen and hence it is not necessarily
p = maximum load applied 10 rhe specimen. a material property, but a reliable value that can be used for comparison and design.

3.17 Split Tensile Strength Test 3.18 Non Destructive Test

• Duetodilficultyin applying unialllaltensfon to a concrete specimen, u'1e tensile strength isderormined • Non--o'eslruclive tes1ing (NDTJ is a wide group of analysis techniques used to evaluate the properties
by indirect methods.
of concrete without causing damage.

• llialhe Slandard tesllo determine the tensile sltength o! com:rele in Indirect way in accordance • So, instead of absolute values, an estimate of its s\rerigth, durability and elastic parameters are
obtained.
wilh IS: 5816·1970.
• AS!andafd lest [Link] or concrete specimen ol 300 mm x 150 mm diameter is placed horizontally • Though these tests are easy to perform but their analysis requires special knowledge.
belween the loading surfaces of compression testtng machine. These test am conducted to keep a quality control of cons\ruclion.
 58 I Civil Engineering Postal Study Package E!'ilE fflRDE ERS!:I mRDEERSY
----Puc!tc>1lans -P••hc~Uons Postal Study Pa(kage fim ConsltUCtion Mattfials I 59;
Monitoring of strength development in relalion to lormwork removal, curing, prestressing load
2. Press the plunger against the surtace o! the concrete keeping lhe instrument perpendicular lo the
applicalion or similar purposes.
test surface. Apply a gradual increase in pressuro unlit the hammer impacls.
1. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test: 3. The spring controlled mass when rebounds, it 1akes with it a <ic!er which slides along a graduated
i,cale. It can be held in posilion on the scale by depressing the locking button.
This test is based on the principle lhnt velocity of sound in a solid material is a. !unction of .j£lp
4. The test provides useful lnforma1ion for surface layer up lo 30 mm depth and is suitable for
where Eis modulus of elasticity arid r is density. concrete having slrenglh of 20-60 MPa.
• An ultrasonic pulse apparalus consists or a transrnilter and a receiver which are held against
5. The concrete surface mus1 be smooth and loose material should be ground olf.
two faces or concreto.
The apparatus generate pulse of ultrasonic frequency which are lransrniUed through concre10
by the transmiller. On the other lace, the receiver receives the pulse and lhe apparalus record
them.

•
The velocity of the pulse is found which is correlated lo lhe s1renglh or lhe concrete.
Higher the velocity of pulse, groa1er the strenglh of concre1e,
t
"'ti
• At present the ultrascnlc pulse velocity method Is the [Link] one or dynamic test typs that
shows poten!ia( concrete strength in-situ. ·
R. Bwnd Hammer Numbor (N)
Quality of Concrolo ond Pulso Velocity
Genor;i1 Condition Puls• Voloclty llmlsK
Excc!lon1 o,ncrnle ~-5
Good c00aoto 3.$-4.5
MooitJm concrolo 3-J.5
,,
i
Doubtful tonacto bolc,.o,3

Some major [Link]:

Estimation ol Strength of Concrete
• Establishing Homogeneity ol Concrete
• Oelerminalion of Dynamic Modulus of Elaslicity
2. Rebound Hammer Tes I {Schmidt Hammer Test):
Some otfier commonly employed NOT methods:
• ll is done to find oul lhe, compressive wongth ot con.::rele by using rebound hammer.
1. Surface hardness tests
• Tho principle of the test is that rebound o! an elastic mass depends on the hardness of the
surface againsl which ii strikes. 2. Dynamic or vibration tests
• When the plunger ol lhe rebound hammer is pressed against the surface of the concrete, the 3. f,ladioactive and nuclear methods
spring controlled mass rebounds and the extent of the rebound depends upon 1he surface 4. Magnelic and electrical methods
hardness of lhe concrete,
• The surface hardness and lherelore the rebound are taken to be relaiod IO the corn1,resslve 3.19 Rheological Behav;our of Concrete
strength or rhe concrete.
• li!heology Is solenc, (jll flow and deformation of matter and describes oneinie«elat!on between
The rebound value is read (rorna graduated scale and is designated as lhe rebound number or force deformation and lime.
rebound index. The compressive strength can be rnad direc\ly from the graph provided on !he
Rheology of frosh concrete like workability includes the parameters of stabHily. mobility and
llody of lhe hammer.
compatibility.
Th<! procedure: ~echanical behaviour of hardened cem;;n1 pasle, whir,h oxhlbirs both el'as!icand inelaslicde!01111a!ion$
1. Apply ligt,t pressure on n,e plunger: 11 will ro!ense it rrorn the locked position and allow it to e~lend can be expressed ill rheological terms.
to lhc ready posilion !or the tosl, Tho rheology deals Wilh rate of shear and sheaf stress cl [Link].
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factor Aflecllat llliealoglal Properties:
3.20.1 Plasth:lzers (Water-reducers)
1. Mix Prapartlons 1 . • Chemicals to improve plasticity ol lresh concre1e tha1 is improving worlcabmty tor a given w/c ra1io
• eoncrn tiamg &XC8$$ aboiit cl coarse eg:;.regale will Jack su!ftcient mortar \0 rm lh~ va,d and maintains workability with a reduced amount ol water.
system, re$ultlng loaloss-of dlltesl!:!n and mobRily. &tell a mix is termed harsh and requires a
gteatamountof effort top~compact. • Main lypesol plasticizers are Jignosulphonic acids and [Link] salts. (e.g. ca. Na, NH, salts) hydroKY1ated
carboxylic acids and their sails polyglycol esters and carbohydrates.
• WheteasaneKCeSSiveamoi!nlttineaggregataorc,ntrainedalr:n,;iconcretemixlurewillgreally
iricree:ses lhecohesicn and ~ r the concreted!tfa:ull to movo. • The typical dosage of a plasticizer varies lrom 200 ml to 450 ml per too kg ol cemenlitlous material
[Link] I, .. plaslicizers are used In 111e arr,ounl cl 0.1 % 10 0.4% by weigh! or cement.

• Consislencyol concre1&me&fred by the slump test is an ~lillqat,Jr of lhe relaliv~ waler content
in lheCOncrvleniix. ~. I
• An increase inlhewawr~ sblrnp abOl/e that required to achieve woll<able mix produces
greaterfluidilYand decreasedinlernal friction.
3, Useotaccell!~1Jad!{llx1Uf9f· .• •• •O. . •··:,: ::•;":',;:.!';:' ,
• Hlgh~1jncrease_llierate ot har~enifig.".":hll)h ~11'~~-~~:_lhe m0bD11Yof concrete.
4. Aggragateah¥,ejiJdiextur& t; . ·.. ' :- :· . .. '.· '.·'.·t:;/t\:.
6. Aggregale~,g __ :,..:: ·:·.,,. • . :: :,. _;, -:•.. <•-··.·.-,c•, ...
• Wellgraded,~ate~tves~ ~-~i~ty ".Iller~~~ G,t~ra~~~-~?gregateal!ects void and
worbbllfty. ;: : \'·: •... -_
6. [Link] -., .•
t:--· ..··:: . ,.. _· -_··>u~t:r(
· .... .,.s·,i;:, . ..
,
., measei~~mai<Jmumsizetr·•tegateWl!lredu~the_{~~~~te requirement 1omalnlain
aQiVenwoikabii,-and\'lllllth~y$d~lhesur!~area lobe wetted and hence the cement
content~'rorecons1Jntwafer-amentrello'; . 0 •• ; : :··1·· ?
7
' ~ ~ signiticai elfect; th~ ~l~;·o! oefl~; ;: plasticiZers and super-
plasliciiers. air-enrralning ~ acereralcrs and regards.
• Super-plastlcizers and plasliP'.9rs Pf&Venl lhe lonnalicn o! ~ui,ted structure by changing
111& inlef paltlcleallmeting rer,u!Sion. . • . •. .
• [Link]$1n!~l!spherical air bubbles 10lo_25m~ l~~iamel'."° by modifying Ille
s1111ac9 ,ensmof !he aqueous phase in the mix. Bubbles act like.l:iall beartngs lo altow larger
Cemont Panida
·ea,,,.nt/>arlldos Floo::ullla In Iha llblllnca
parf!CleS to trow past each oiMr more easily thus decreasing plasllc viscosily, cf a dispan;ing aganf

Ri,. £ffact "'"""PCl>-<laMJ - · on da/loa:u/;Jlir,g "'"""""'' (1/Dins

3.20 Types of Admixtures
• Admixlul8S are normally catag0rized accottfmg to their ellect
(a) Plaslicizels(water-redtlcing igenls) When plasticizers 1=1re added 1hey gel adso1bed on Iha cement particles.
(b) SUpefplssticizersthiQh range water reducers The adsorption cl cilarged polymer on the cement particles creates repulsive forces between panicles.
(c) Nt enlrainers This repulsive force is called ze1a potenlial which depends upon the quantity ol plasllclzer vsed.
(d) Accelllrators
• Hence structure er cemem changes from llccculaled to dispersed and thus waler Irapped inside the
lfoes gets [Link] and IJudily lhe mix.
(e) Relaldm
·• The adsorbed plasticizer on lhc surface or i::em11n1 inhibi.1s lhc surface hydration ol cemen! as long
as .sulliciem plasticizer are available.
• :;:ixtures providecombinalionscl properties such as plasticizer/retarders or pl~icizer/air
Plaslicizer decreases as lhe polymers get entrapped ir, hydration products .
emraineis. Each admixture type is discussed in the lollowing sections.
 I Postal Study Package EI;Rl fflRDE ERS~ mADEEAS!::I
62 Civil Engineering -Publi-c:.Uon::; --Publl<:-[Link]~ Postal Study Package fEil Consrmctlon Materials f 63
Uses: (e) Permits reduclion sand content.
I [Link] usually increase the srump or concrete with a given wa1er content (!) Improves placeability and early finishing
• Plasticizers can reduce tho water requirement of .i concr010 mix !or a given wor~.ability as a rule ol {g} Reduces the cement content cosi, and heal of hydration.
lhumb by about 10%. (hl Reduces !he uni! weight.
If
! The addition of a prasticizer makes ii possible lo achieve a given strength with lower cemen1 content (i) Permits reduction in water con1enl
;:
Plas!ici2ers may improve pump ability. mReduces the alkali-aggregate reaction.
3.20.2 Superplasticizers (k} [Link] !he modulus ol elasticity.

• These admixtures are chemically distinol from normal plasticizers and although their action ii [Link] 3.20A Accelerators
l/1e same, ii is more marked.
• These admix1ures (notably, claclum chloride} speed up the chemical reaction of the cement and
• When !hey are used to produce flowing concrete a rapid loss ohvorkability can be expected and
water and so accelerate the rate of setting andfor early gain in 3-lrengih ofooncre1e.
lherefore they should be added just prior to placing.
l'he less ccmmonly used accelerators cons isl of NaCl, NazS03, NaOH, ~C~ ~S04 and KOH.
• Among the cement constiluenls C:f, exerls major influence 011 the propertias or super-plasticiwr.
Uses:
Finer lhecemerit higher lhG super-plasticizer does.
Examples are sulphonated melamine formaldehyde condensates. naphthalene sulphomitcs • Where rapid setting and high early strengths are required (~.g. in shalt sinking,)
forrnaldehyde'condensa1es, modified lignosulphonate {MLSJ and mixture of saccharale5 and acid Where rapid turnover or moulds or lormwo!k is required.
amines. Concreting lakes place under vory cold conditions.
Higher is the molecular mass higher is the efficiency of super-plas1iciwr.
• It is capable o! reduci11g water requirement by 2010 40%. ,NOTE All chloride based accelerators promote corrosion ol reinforcing steel and shoo Id not be [Link]
.I

~
'•
(i). reinforced concrete .. , : · '
3.20.3 Air-entralners
(ill water.;etaining structures ,., • •'. '•!
A11 air-enlraining agent inlroduces air in lhe form ol minute bubbles distributed uniformly lhrougtioul
(Iii} Accelerators work more effectively al lower amblenl temperaltlfes. ,:~ .
the cement paste. The main types include sails of wood resin, animal or vegetable lats ar,d oils and
sulphonated hydrocatbons. 3.20.5 Retarders
Following are some ol !he examples or air entraining agents:
:11ese admix lure slow the chemical reaction of the cement and v..ater leading a longer setting limes
1. Na1ural wood 1esi11s and lheir soaps. ol which vinsol resi11 is the besl. and slower initial streng!ll gain.
2. Animal or vegelable fats and oils such as tallow, olive oil and their !atty acids such a5 stearlic
The most common retarder ls calcium sulpha!e. Oiher examples ineludes hydroxylated carboxylic
acids and oleic acids and !heir soaps. acids. lignfns. sugar, cellulose products and some phosphates.
3. Welling agents such as alkali sails or sulphated and sulphonall:!d organic compounds,
Uses:
Air entrainment reduces lhe strengthol concrete and overdosing can cause major loss of strength. '
1% air may cause a s!rength loss ol 5%. • When placing concro1e in hot weather, particularly when the concrete is pumped
The use of ground blast furnace slag and fly ash lends lo red11ce the amount o! air entrained. To preveni colcl Joinls due lo duraiion cl placing.

,~
In concrete which has lo be transported for a Jong lime.
Uses:
Where improved resistance al hardened concrete to damage from lreezing and l11awing is required,
• If a mix Is overfosed beyond the fimit recommended by the supplier, retardaiian can last
For improved workability, especially in harsh or lean mi~es.
tordays. l . • •
To reduce bleeding and segregation. • Ro1arders olle~ increasa plastic shrinkage and plastic selllemenl cracking.
Tl1e ell eel of air entrainment on 11,e properties or concrete:
(a) Reduces the tenclonc,es of segregation.
~ • Delayed addi lion of retarders can result in extended rerardation,

(b) Reduces the bleeding. 3-20,6 Water Proofer

(c) Decreases 1he permeability. Cement mortar or concrete should be impe,vious to wamr under pressure and also should have
(d) increases !he resistance to chemical anack. sullicient resis(ance to absorption of water.

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 +u1@R¼'.li&2o,,1 mRDE ERS\I
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Examplesofwater~I matetfits•has soda and1X)tashscaps are chemically active, whereas 3,20.9 Water-proof Cement Concrete
• calcun soaps, resin. vegetabte oit&l91f, waxes and co~I lar res,di.;a, Cement concrete to a certain exlent may be made impermeable to water by using hydrophobic cement.
To S10f> bleeding, pmallin wax ateci.10,2,-0,75 pe<:ct!nl by mass bl cement or air enlralnmenl is
• Following are the three me Ihods adQPled for water-proofing of ACC flat rools:
UQd, Air entrainment faller Is nlQiV tfteclive hut requ•res nigh degree or control. 1. Anlshlng: Fct ordinary building of cheap construction, finishing of roof su!face is done al the time of
laying cement conarete. The finishing of llat roof is carried out in cement monar of proportion 1 : 4,
9.20.7 Pcmotanas
i.e .. one pert ol eem&nl lo lour parts of sand by volume.
• 'Jheseareslliceousmale1ialswh~irethemsetves inactive but react in the presei\ce of water with
2, Bedding Concrete and Roaring: In lhis method, lhe su1face ol ACC slab is kepi rough and on this
1rme to lom\compoundshaving ~effliliousproport,es. .
surface,alayero!concreteislaid. Theconcretemaybebrickbatslimeconcrete(1; 2: 4)orbrickbats
• Pmzolanas react with free lime ill" cernant and improvt1 lM d~ral:f:;;y or concrete, and reduces the
//- ce,:nenlconcrele(1_; 8: 14). The lhfckriessortheConcretelayerisabout 10cm.
rate of lwlrdenlngof (;Ollerete, wnl'i:h ls lhe priricipa\ objeclio!) ta ils use.
3. Mastic Asphalt end Jute Cloth: In this method, a layer ol hol mas!ic asphalt is laid on the rool
• 6xamptes ol p02ZO!ana are lime,·ny ash. b1,1ml clay and bla~l furnace stag.
surlace. Jule cloth is spread over this layer.
<I. Use ol water,prooftng compounds: Some ol the waler-proofing compound like f'udlo, lmpcrmo,
t. NO
•: ·-~.:,-~u
· ' ...~.ffl~
.. Tl!fJfle DI ......... ~.,.~
aitlcimtxiure ,· "'' "reduc8!>
..•....these ......._..,, ·ar~
·, ,Q'regadon. bl~clltiQ'ci•~ete;·ltJ
••• ..:,, • .-,..,._.,.,,..,,..._,,;;•• ,, •• ,, · etc.. ere avai\~bl,e, i~.-t!'!e _market and when .such .a compound J~ ad~!ld to the cement during
;:,~~~ llY~~c~:-_: ~~r·~?--( .:-· ·: ,_ ··_. ---~ :JF~r~~r~-~~:~:t~:i~~,~i:.:r>;.1~\·:<:~' construction, [fpreverits f!eepage, leakage and
moisturaince,net\1,;~~~~~aa.d°_concrete,
da,mp· caused:
'., -:•· \·.'·:· ··..
f,y"i~il c:a,pillary absorption ol th!!
'i/ ._: ·. . .
.. lh&malnc:onsli~'o~~y~~:i!Je:. . ,.<-:i:·.-·. ::~:
1. Silica ;· ·: -:. i. ·:AJ~ido . . . .. .3__::i=eiious o~lde . Advantages of USl?Q ~~ ~~ilii/~~ter-proollng compound ~-r~ ~~ l~llo'w~:
i
,. Fly ash is a ~ A~•isasific~us or aiumino~iliceol!s m,aterial that, In finelydillided (~ II [Link]!s a b~d!y p19poni~neci concrete mixture. ·
fOmland in~ ~,ar~~mj~ally r~a~ts wiih t~~ catc:!~m~ydroxide released by lhe (ii) II cures immal~~g~t!~~~~re!e,: .. .- · .
hydralion of Pqrttarid .cet'l!ent 16'.~14 addil\o~al ca!cium slllcatl: hf~f~~ and other cemenlitiou-s (iii) II makes Rood.~rele free fiom lhe'pooi:'materi~ls ..
0 .•,' ., :

compounds. r-~•. ?•·:,.; ·... : :•,· . ' ::\,:·:>.r:::; I (iv) II permits less··~gld"s~pervision ol the"workmar:iship,' .
·.· ·.
3.20.8 EstfmatlngYieldofeiintrete " . . . . .. . . ... Coloured Concrete·; ii_\~~~~~ for the folfowing purposes: ·
• Arulu-ol-thumb it g~_below;~ be used 1~·find ~t t~e apprl,xi~;~ yield of concrete from a 1. Manufacture o~ ile~s for.~ublic welfare. .
givanconcl8t8milc. ... : 'l.• ·• •. . ·,· . • , 2. Ornamentallinls~es·!nbuirdings.
• If the proportion or concrete is9o: ti: c, I.e.. ii a parlS or cement. h parts of sand and c parr.s of . ! 3. Preparing parlc lanes.
coarse aggregates are mixedbtVcl11me, lheresulting c0110ret~ w\11 have~ volume ol 2/3 (a+ b + c). 4, separating lines ol 1tallic or road surtaces.
• Letw,a,bandcbeat,solute~[Link],llooaggregataand~aggregate respectively. 5. underground ~destrian crossings etc ..
lhon.w+a+b+~:1: · i,, ··
lightweight Concrete: The bulkdensi\yol ordinary concrete is about 2300kg/m3• Concrete having butk
AbsolulevoJums .. · ~toft1tema1eriats density between 500to 1BOO kgfm~ is known as lightweightconcrele and it i.s prepared from 1he lollowlng
Appmem. [Link] xunil wt of water materials:
\,(
• Bulking of sand 5hould be~ in»accounl when volumetric proportioning of !he agg1ega1es is 1: Binding material : Ordinary Portland cement and its varieties can be used as bindmg material.
adopled. Olhmwise, less quan~of concroteper bag ol cement will b~ produced. whicll naturally 2. Aggregates: For lighlweight concre\e, loose porous [Link] are used as aggregales.
willim:rease Ille cost of concre~. Also, there will be less quantfly ol line aggregate in !he concrete 3, Steel: Lightwei~ht concrete is highly porous and hence. ii leads t9 corrosion of reinforcement.
mix which mar make ttie con~ difficult to place-.
Advenlages ol lighlwelghl Concrete:
• Lel 1he bulking of sand be 25'-t
Then. for the concrete of proportion 1 : 2: 'I, !he actual volume of
1. The local industrial waste, ii found suilable [Link] lightweight concrete, can be economically utllized.
sand ID be used wHI be 1.25 ~ 2 in,lead ol 2 per unil volume o! cemenl. It this correction is not
2. Tli& reducUon in weight of concrete helps in easy removal, transport and erection ol pre-cast products.
applie!S. lhe aclUal dry sand inlhe concrete will be 1_~5 x 2"' 1.60, instead of 2 perunil volume of 3. The use ol lrghtweight coocrete results in the reduction cl cos I lo the extent ol about 30 to 40% or so:
cement. The proportion of cot\crete will !hen be 1 : 1.60; 4. This indicates ltiat less quantity of 4. The lightwoighl concrete does not pose spec\a.l problems wilh respect lo [Link] and thawing. It is
concrele will be producod end in !IIOSl eases,
there will not be enough quantity of fine aggregate to due 10 lhe fact Iha! the larger pores In aggregate ljre unlikely 10 become [Link], provided the
cement paste is protected by air en\raJnmenl.
give a workable mix. ·
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66 I CMI Engineering Postal Study Package rail mRDE ERSY mRDE EASY Postal Study Pilckuge ~ ConsftUCion M01etials j 67
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6, The quanlityol cement. sand, coarse aggregate should beconeclly measuradeilherbyvolumeOI'
5. The lightweight concrete has comparalively less lendency to spall. Hence its lire resistance is more
lhan 1hat or ordinary concrele. mass as desired in specifications Qf the mix proporfion. Measurement by mass is more accurate
6. The lightweight concreto has generally a lower thermal expansion than ordinary concrete. and results in belier qualltyconslruclion.
8. Complete mixing ollngredients eilher by hand orbymiXer should be ensured.
· ·· · · Toe only drawback ol lighlWalght concrete is l~allhe depll'i ol carbOl')ation i.e., the deplh v~thin . 9. Care stiould be taken to avoid bleeding and segregation during tran5P(lr1ing or placing conaeJe,
Do , '· which ~lon can occur under suitable condillons, Is ne11rly 1wicelhan·tha1 of rioimal concrete. 10. Form work or surface on which concrete is 10 be laid, should be cleaned and mois!enedwilhwater
' Hence special care will have to be taken lo provide sulllcienl cover to the reinforcement of !he belate laying concrete.
· ligh~eighl structures 10 grant protection against corrosion. ., , . •· 11. The form work or other base on which concrete is robelaidshaukJ be Cheeked lorils rigidity. shape.
size and other details and should be preparedwellbetoreconcreling.
No-fines Concrete: The no-lines concrete consists of cement, coarse aggregare and water, Thus lhe
12. Shuttering and centering should be checked and ensured thoroughly before concrellng operalion.
fine aggregate or sand is eliminated and such concrete has been adopted for cast-in-situ e~ternal load
13. Aeinforcoml))nl ;mdolher components to be embedded inconcrote shOuldbelhoroughl>/checked
bearing walls of single and mul\i•storey houses, small retaining walls, d~mp-prooling a sub-base malerial
for their posfllon. size. concrete cover and torract quantity before laying Iha conetete.
elc.
14. Laid concrete should be compacted thoroughly by manual tamping ormechanicel vibration in layers
Advanlages of No-fines Concre1e: of 15ci to 450 mm. Care Should be taken to avoid segregailon and bleeding due lo improper
1. The drying shrinkage o! [Link] concrete is relatively low.. compaction.
2. No transmission of waler by capillary action. 15. During inlermil!enl or concreting in different spells suilable construction joints should be formed to
obtainaproperbondbetweenlheprevious1yla1dconcreteandffeshlylaidooncretebyusingspeclal
3. II is a type ol lightweighl concrete.
techniques. ·
-4. npossesses better Jnsulaling charae1erlstlcs than convenlionalconcrele.
16. In long concrete structures, provide suitable GJ1pansion and conlraction joints.
Do you knoV(l: 111,e._unil weight or no-tines concrete is about two-lhlrds ol lh~ unit weight !)f conventional 17. During extrema weather conditions, precautions (or concreting should be 1aken by using special
concre_l:,•Hence lhe pies sure on ror111wo,1< is greatly reduced. admixtures in suitable proportion and applying proleclive techniques of construction.
18. Concre1e construclion should be cured lor sufli~ient period ( 14 to 28 days) as specified.
Aerated Concrete: It is rnanurac1ured lrorn cal carious and silicious mate~als like cement, lime, pulverzed
19. Shu1tering and cenleringshould be removed alter apredetermined peliodand ina predetermined
&'and. flyash, etc. by enlrappihg air cells. These entrapped air cell&' make the materra1 light, impervious sequence.
and a good insulator o! heal. 20. Patch work or surface finish ii any,on the concre1esurtaceshouldb8 done immedilll91yonrernova1
this concrete can be used for precas! cir cast in situ construction and can be produced in varying of shullering and such a work should be properly cured lor suffielenl period (14 to28 days).
densities. T11is materials can be used for insulation, or ror light load bearing roofs and floors. This can be
rein!Ol'ccd ii needed. 3.20,10 Causes of Corrosion In Steel in Concrete
Heavy Weigh! Concrete: It cah be produced by using soecially heavy weight aggregates and (i) Congested reinforcement in small concrete sections.
compacting well by mechanical means. These concra1es can bo suitably used for gravity dams, retaining (ii) Excessive [Link] ratio.
wall constructions or special alornic power plant vessels etc. {iii) Improper construclion me1hod!;.
Pre-packed Concrete Construclion: II is obtained by injecting cement sand mortar under pressure lo (iv) inadequate designpro::edure.
fill voids ol already packed and lully cornpac1ed coarse aggregates; This concrete is qulle dense and M lnsulficienl cover to steel from exposed concrete surface.
has very small shrinkage. (vij Presence or moislUfe 1.n concrete.
General Precautions in Cement Concrete Construction: Following procoutions should be observe-d: (vii) Presence or sails.
!
1. Cemcm should be fresh and free from sel cemen\ particles. 3.20. 11 Effect of Corrosion! 1 I
2. Aggregates should be well [Link] and lree from dirl, clay, sill and other deleterious materials. Important -effect o! cor rosilll\ is the !OrtnaliOn oi cracks and these cracks usually ptegmss or advance
3. Mixing water should be lree from harmful chemicals and foreign materials. most rapidly where sheering 11tfesses are lhe grea\es\ and where sfipping occurs duo to loss of bond.
11. The quantity of concrete p1epllred each time should oo used and finished wilhin 30 minutes or initial
setting lime ul cement 3,21 Guniting
5. Concrete should be prepared on c1 rigid, impervious ,md water lighl platform wilhoµ! loosing any • Tho gunilmg is 111e mos1 ellec!ive ptocess ol repairing concrete work mchhasbeen damaged due
cen,entorwater. to inferior work or other reasons. It is also used for PKMding an impelVious layer.
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68 I Civil Engineering . Po~tal Study P ge ili1JD fflADE ERS!:it
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v·
• Gunlleisamixlureotcement. . sancl, theusualpraportionbeirig 1 :3. Acemenlgun Is used to But minimum cement content required lrom durability consideration for moderate e~posure condition
deposit this mbdure on lhe ~ surfac:e under" pressure of about 2 lo 5 kg/cmi. = 300 ltg < 394.32 kg (OK)
• The surface lo be lreatedlsc~ and Wi1$hed. TI1e nozzle of gun is generally kepi al a disla11C& The cement content of 394.S2 kg/ml or concrete Is OK,
cf about 75c:mlOB5 CRrfromth& surface lo be trel.!.te¢andvel00I1yol jet through l)022le varies from Cowse and fine aggregate Is IOtal aggregates
120 IO 160 lffleC. : Since fine aggregate is in Zone Ill where percentage of coarse aggregate lor 20 mm maximum nominal
size of aggregate is 0,64 al a water cement ratio of 0.5.
Design anMm~retttmlxas i,er lS 10262: 2009 lor 1he lollowlng ~ondlllone; Now water cement ratio is 0.5,and thus no adjustment in the percenu1ge ol. coarse aggregate Is
1( . ' ' '
iype or 4"CPQSUrt :,~rate I1 1 required.
Slump ,; 75--100 mm 1 . Thus volume of coarse aggregate
Specillc g ~ of cement .l15 Vc:4 = 0.64 times of volume of total aggregate
Bdk density or cement 1450 kghw
Quallly control · Sianda,rd as tpecl!led In IS 456 ; 2000 So, volume of fine aggregate
•;;,_: ________ ·--~FL!.= 1-0.64 = 0.3~ !i~_e~.. ~~tu~! ~~8!!g~regate ?!
Volume ol total ag!i"~egiitei6~~ete is given t:1y :°.; \'.:\'i~~}· /:f_;i;\::t'·J.:}:.~_r;

~~ltif~!!!'.'.!?!!
~~-: ,.,: '.:,.-)! .':J:.C·/ ·!. ; ·.. ·:, .. : ,!•:.!;-:-;:=:::;.;;;!-,. ':t;::~ .. ~:~·_;
..\:-:-.-'.-?::\~,t·t[·~-+~]~: ir.;t-·:n·:r[.3si:32=,,~191:"~1s]
1
1 :1
: . ' .... ~.-. , . s ·'·· 1 . :1oocr= 1,. ""a15';+,..,.,.-,r x1000 "'0.678 m

Ttore;.e_,omj~~h~tii~~j;:;{'.'tll{\t)
;::J11~:::~tf97f~~7~-:
Size ;,,,..,.,.,. .1., ..~•[Link]:,_. ':· •. :•:·
andvolumeolline~~~•~•-: ' ,:,;'{\··'.';?a,;._:-,c::.':~'.c'_i:~·/.(;,:,.:)·
.,; ~ :· "·.'•Vi,; = 0.36 x 0.678 = 0,244 nf ... . .
Thus,massolcoa£~1~~J~iite, ;\t·=:-·- ,:·. \ . :· ·
'\:":.':;
(\·t.~i = 2.7 x0,244 x ~OQ0-~6~,8~.-~~,~~bl~-~lerofconcrete
Thus mix proportio;~ .ii-e· ~= "', · ·,..· ·· ·. ·. : · •:
Gilert '"" • 3'N1mm2 Cement = 394,32 kg/m3
Since quality eonlfOI iS as per theitftfuired slandard and lhus [Link] concre1e, standard deviation (" . .
. .. - ' . .
(.5}1J4N/nmZ · '• :' :: . : ••: : . ;' "i • ,'-•, ' ...:• ,' ....-'. ' .Coarse.aggtegat_e = ~256.6 kg/m3
Thus, target mean slrength Is : An~ i,;g';;gite .; 658,8 kg/m3
\. i.,:: : :: :•:;. ··:

Water cement ratiO

=-+
. . . -./~;o~+.1.65S
1.65x4= 26.6N/mm2
Water'= 197.161<g/m1
ll is also given that coarse aggregate absorb waler@ 0.35% and thus addili011al water is [Link] and
For AOC work in moderate expostjre oondmon, maximum waler cement ratio= 0.50 this addition
== 0.35 X 197.16 = 69 kg/m3
Waler content
For20mmmaximumnominalsizeotaggregatewilhCNshedparticlesforconcretewilhslump25-50mm, Thuscorrectedwfilercontenl = 197,16-1.97 + 69 = 264.19 kg/ml
water conlefll = 186 kgfm3 of CO/\C(ete. · , Correc1ed mass or coarse aggregate
Bui tho slump requiredi& 75-10!l'l'nm, Thus exlrawater C011ten1@3"k per additional 25 mm stump • = 1258,6- 69 = 1189,6 kg/m3
= 2 x3'1{, ,. 6'lr.
Corrected mass of fine aggregate
Thus, water content = 1.00 x 186 = 197. t6 kg/m,ol concre1e
= .658.6 + 1.97 = 660, 77 kg/m3
Cement concrete required
Thus actual masses of materials required al sae ore:
For selected water cement ratio cl 0.5 and water cornenl of 197.16 kg, cement reqL!llred . •
Cement = 394.32 kg/m 3
\97.16
"' O:S-"" 394.32kgtm3 of concrete Coarse aggregate = 1169.6 kgfm3
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70 Civil Engineering
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Fine aggregate "' 660.77 kg/m3 Waler content

Assuming 20 mm nominal size or aggregate, water content = 186 kg per cublc meter of concrete
Waler " 264.19 kg{m3
provided slump is 25-50 mm
Given bulk densities of line aggregate, coarse aggregate and cement as 1695 kg/rri', 1590 kg/m' and
Bui slump given is 75-100 mm and lhus increase water content@ 3% tor every 25 mm increase in
1450 kg/m3 and thus mix proportion by volume is given by slump .. 3 x 2 "'6%
394.32 660.77 11B9.6 Thuswa1ercontenl" 1.06 x 186 .. 197-16kgfm3 of concrete
Cement: FA: CA " 1~50 1695 1590 When super-plasticizers are used, waler content can be decreased by up to 20%.
Thus water content= 0.8 x 197.16 = 187-73kg per cubic meler of concrete
= 0.272 0.39 0.7~8
Cement content requlred
= 1 1.43 2.75
Water-cemen1 ralio = 0.45
264,19
and water cen'lf!nl ra1io = 394T2 =0,67 Thus cemenl content:
187.73
""o.45" = 350.51 kg/m 3 of concrete

For very severe exposure con_dition, minimum ca men I content for dura!1ililyconsldera1ion .. 340llg/m3
Design an M40 concrete mix as per Is _10262: 2009 ~slrig au per plasticizers. fly <350.51 kg/m~{OK) :
ash and air-entrainment !or the following data: ·
157.73 .
Type ol exposure Very severe Thus wa1er cement ~atlo = 350.51 -= 0.45
Slump 75-100 mm

Cernenl Coarse end fine aggregate In total aggregates

Cement 43gradeOPC in
Since fine aggregate is Zone II where percentage of coarse aggregat~ for 20 mm maximum nominal
Specific gra~i1Y c>f c·emeril _3.15 size of aggregaie is 0.62 at a .water cement ratio or 0.5. But actual water cement ratio is 0..115 which is
Bulk density of cement 1450 kg/rn3 0.05 less than 0.5 and thus coarse aggregate percentage is to be increased byO.O 1%,
Quarity control As per required standard Thus percentage ol coarse aggregates= 0.62 + [Link] = 0.72%
Air entrainment 3% Thus volume or coarse a·ggrega1e
VC4 " 0. 72 times of volume ol total aggregate
Super-plesllclwr So, volume of fine aggregate ·
Specific grevily 1.1 Vr,1 - 1 -0,72 = 0.281imes ol volumeoftolal aggregale
Dosage 1.1%
Dosageo1 super plasticizer= 1.1%
Sand Super plasticizer required ,. 1.1% of cement required =0.011 x 350.51 = 3.85 kgfm3
Fine aggregate (sand) grade Grade II Air entrainment (v) "' 3% = 0.03
Specific gra,,i1y 2.7 Volume of tctai aggregale in concrete is given by

Coarse aggregate v:,, -_ 1-[E+~+.E.+£.jx-

1
Size 20 mm crushed s. 1 ~ s, 1000--\•
Specific gravity 2.8
Water absorption 0.5%
Grading requlred 10 mm size 40% "' l - [350.5 l 157 ,73 O 3.86]
:LlS+-1-·• 1
+u x1000- O03
. "'o.1s1rn3
20 mm size 60%
Therefore volurne ol coa~sb tggregale,
Solution: Vc,1 = 0. 72 x 0.757 = 0.545 m3
tc., = 40 N/mm2 and volume of !ine aggregate
Fer M~O concrete, standard tlcvialion (s) = 5 N/rnm2 V;,1 .-. 0.28 x 0.757 = 0.212 m'
Target mean s1rcnglh (I°'') = fc,. + \.65 S "40 + 1.65 x 5 "'48.25 N/mm2 Thus, mass or coarse aggregate,
Mc.1 = 2.8 x 0.545 x 1000 = 1526 kgfmJ oi concrele
Water-cement ratio Mass or line aggregate. Mi,-,1-"' 2.7 x 0.212 x 1000= 572.4 kgfml or1.oncte1e
For very severe exposure condition. maximum water-cement mt, □ = Oll5

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ThusmlX propertiq are; } ·

Cement .. 350,51~ Estimate the quanliles of cement. fine aggregate and coarse aggregate per
~aggregate = 15akglm" c1.1blc metre ol ,~1,1'1crete Hthe void ratio In cement is 62% fine aggregate Is 11 % end coatsa aggregate
Fineaggregate • 57ifiulm3- Is 45%. The material properties are as follows:
Water = 157.1jkg/m3 Mix: 1 : 2 : 4 with a w/c of 0.55, ona bag or cement [Link] kg of cement and ils density is
Super plasticizer = 3.B6ki/m3 14.10 kg/m3. Th11 density ol fine aggregate is 1700 kg/rrfl and. coarse aggregele Is 1600 kg/m3
Alf enlfainmenl .. 3'll, respectively. One bag ol cement is equal 10 34.7 litres_
Water-<:emenUalio = 0..45 Sol41119n:
Comel\t: Sand: Coarseaggregat~ ~: • · il Vllhen the mi~ proportion is given lrne 1 : 2 : 4 and it is not mentioned whether it is by volume or by
= 350,51 : 572.4 : 1526"' 1 : 1.63 : 4.35 weight, we should always take it as by weight like 1 kg cemenl: 2 kg 1ine aggregate: 4 kg coarso agwegate
~ I
Also bulk density or simply density or cement means
Calcutale tho quantilles of cement. &end and .coarse aggregate required to Mass ol cerrent
produce one oublc meterol concreta for mltp,e,ierlies of 1 : 1◊; 2.B0(by volume} wilh water-cemanl Bu1k density or density of cement = Vol. of cement
ratio of 0.18 (by mass) 8ulk d1!Q9!11as or #,it,sand and coarse ~~r!lg~tes are 11.7, 16.66 and on Iha other hand, ab:solute density or mass density means:
18.88 kNJm3 respacti'lely. Percencaga of e ~ air 18 2.0. Spacilic gr&'lltl&a of cement, sand and Mlssofcemenl
coarse aggregate are 3.15, 2.G !11\P 2.S respectively. .
. ,, .
· · Absolute density or mass density .or cement = Vol. ·o1 cerrert
solld
Solut(on: w.
[Link] = !.:.t.v.
s

Bulk densily = Mas~ density

+e
•w••
where. e.....o: = 0.62, e,.,. 11®•0G1t.• =- 0.41, eco.,,..
Bulk density of cement = 1440 kg/ml
Bulk density of fine aggregate = 1700 kg/m3
Butkolcoarseaggregate = 1600kg/m3
Mass densi\y ol cemenl, p ,. (Sulk density of cemenl} x ( 1 + e,)
p = 1440 x 1.62 = 2332.8 kg/m3
p = 1700 x 1.40 = 2391 kg/m3
.-. Cement: FA: CA-(14.7,. kN): 11.+>< 16.66 x kN): (15.66 x 2:a.,>
p = 1600x l.'15=2320kg/m 3
Weighlofwarer,. 0.48xwergh1ofcement::: 0.48x t4.71<kN Lei lhe volume or air in I m3 ol concrete = 0.02 m3
Sum or vol. or all ingredients = Vol. of conc,ete
Volurneoh1ater = 0.4B-1C ;,t,7,: m3 VOi. cl air = 0.02 In" Lot it1e mass ol cement in 1 mJ or concrnte be:, kg
:t. . .r kg ol cement is lo be niixed with 2.r kg line aggregale and 4~ kg coarse aggregale and as W/C ralio
is 0.55, wt. ol walflr is 0.55 :r.
••• 14.7,c + ux16.66x + t5.68x2.8x + 0.48x14.7x +0.02ma
3.15-y., 2.6y.,. [Link].,. 1'., -~-+2:!...+ · 4.r + 0.55 +0.02 =
1
2332.a 2397 2320 1000
:r=0.251-~ 27.06 kg
., =
Now. Weighlof cemenl = 14.7t;;3.777kN -377.7kg (1 kN= (100kg)J WI. ol cen1enI for 1 m3 concrete= 277.06 kg
Wcighlol FA"' l.4 x 16.66., = 5.994 kN = 59.4 kg WL ol FA for 1 ml concrete = 554 .12 kg
WeighlolCA= 15.68x2.h= lt,283kN: 1128.3kg ~I. ol C.A. lor I m3conc,eIc = 1 108.24 kg
WeightoJwater = 0.41h, 143.7.r=0.48 'iC377.7 a 181.296 kg WI. cl water lor 1 m3 cone re le = 152.363 kg

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 I

74 I Clvit Engineering Postal Study Package f!!rn fflRDE ERS!:I mRDE EASY Postal Study Package ra:0 ComtlUCfion Mott!rlols I 75
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1. incream resistance to freezing anti thawing Theccrractsequence in increasing order of these
2. improvewon<abilily strength is
3. decteasestrenglh (a) 3, ◄ ,2. 1 (b) 3.4, 1, 2
Which ol these statements are correct? (c) 4,3,2. 1 (d) 4,3. 1, 2
Q.1 lhe aggregate crushing value of coarse ol lhe Oneness modulus ol combined aggrega1e (al 2 and 3 (bl I and3
aggregates which is 1,15ed for making concrote, is 6.4, then 1he proportion of line aggreoale is (c) 1a1one (d) 1,2and3
which in turn is used for purposas olhC!r than (a) 25% (b) 33,33% 1. (c} 2. (b) 3. (b} 4. (d) 5. (d)
Q, 13 Consider1he lollawlng strength ol concrete:
wearin9 surfaces. shoold not exceed (cl SO% (d) 66.67%
(a) 30% (b) 40%
1. Cubasfrength 6. (b) 7.(b) a. (c} 9.(b) 10. (b)
(c:) 45% (d) 50%
a.a Tensile strength of concrete is measured by 2. Cylinder strenglh
11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (a)
(a) direct tension test in lhe uni11ersai testing 3. SpliHensUesttenglh
Q,2 For a given environment, the most significant
lactor thal ln!Juences the total shrinkage ol
concrete is
(a) cement conlenl ot miK
(b) total amounl ol water added al Iha time of
machine!
(b) applying compressive load along tho
diameter of the cylinder
(c) applying third point loading on a prism
(d) applying tensile load along the [Link]
4. [Link]

. . ..
··-··
··-
mixing the cylinder
{c) sizeolthe member concreted
0.9 Asplilting tensile test is preformed on a cylinder
(d} maximum size ol the coarse aggregate ol diameter'[] and length 'L'. II the ultimate load
used is 'P', then ihe splill1ng tensile s1renglh ol
Q.3 Putty is made up ol concrete is given by
(a) while lead and turpentine p 2P ~. ..........
. .. ..
(b) powered chalk and raw linseed oil (a} itDL (b) 'lf0L
(c) red [Link] and linseed oil
(d) zinc oxide and bolled linseed oil (C)
4PL
1tfil (d)
2PO
r.t.:'
... ·. ,,
QA The compacting laclor tes\ of cement concrete 0.10 Consider the lollowing statements:
determines its Addition ol surfactants in the concrete mix
{al strength resulls in
(bl porosi ly 1. Increase in the water cement ra\lo
(c) degree of compaction under toads 2. decrease in the water cemenl ratio
(cf) workability 3. increase in the strenglh or concrete
Q,5 The limit at proponionality is applicable more in 4. decrease in the curing duration
lhecaseol 5. Increase in lhe density of concrelc
(a) concrete (b) 1•.wd or these slatements:
(d) mild steel (a) 1.3and4 (b} 2, 3 and 5
(c) cas\iron
(c) 3. 4 and 5 (d) 1, 4 and 5
Q.6 II p is 111e [Link] consistency or cement, lhe
amounl of water used in conducting lhe inilfat Q.11 To make one cubic meter ol 1 : 2 ; ~ by volume
selllng lime test on cement is concrete, the volume ol co8rse aggregates
(a) 0.65 p (b) 0.65 p required is
(c) 0.6 p (d) O.B p (a) 0.95mJ (bl [Link]=•
(c) 0,75ml (d) 0.65mJ
0.J If in a concrete mix the !irieness modulus ol
coarse aggregate is 7 6. the fineness modulus Q.12 Consider lhe lollowing [Link].
ortine aggregate is 2.B and the economical value The ellecl ot air en1rainmenl in concrete is to

fflRDE EA5!:1
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5. Magnesia
A small qu,inli(y of magnesia in brick earth imparts yellow Uni (colour) to bricks and decreases
... .
-•, ,, :,•,,.
)t 4,1,1
shrinkage. But excess or magnesia reads to the decay or bricks .

Harmful Ingredients in Brick Earth

':·' .''ii~ 1. Lime
It causes unsoundness in brick ii present in e):cess amounls.
2. Iron pyrites
Bdcks and i8rick Masonry 1 Uiron pyrites are presem in brick earth, bricks get crystallized and d1simegraled during burning,
3. Alkalies
• Theso are mainly in !he form ol soda and potash.
The alkalies set as a flux in the kiln during burning and they cause bricks to fuse, twist and
warp.
As a result, lhe bricks gel melted and they loose their shape,
4.1 Composition of Good Briel Earth, If the alkalies remain in bricks U1en bricks will absorbrnoislure lrorn the atmosphere when they
'.{
Foltowing are the cons1ituen1s o! brick earth: are used in masonry,
1, Alumina • Sue h rno islures, whc n g t!l evaporated. leaves behind grey or white deposits on the wall sur!ac e,
• ltisthechie[ conslituentol rkiiy
kind of clay.A good brick eanrishould contain about 20 to 30 the appearance al the building as a whole 1hen gsts seriously hampered.
peu cent o! alumina, 1 4. Pebbles
• This coflSlituenl imparts pla/llicily to earth so \ha!. it can be moulded, If alumina is preseri! in 1l)e presenceoJ peb~es0<grilsol any !<incl are undesirable inb1ickear!h because ll1ey~Alloolallowthe
excess, raw [Link] shrink 8fl9
warp during drying and burning. clay lo gel mixed uniformly and thoroughly which will result in weak end porous bricks.
2. Silica
5. Organic Mauer
• A good brick earth should clniain about 5010 60 per cent of silica. Presence ol1th1s constiluem
Presence of organic matter in brick eartl1 assists in burning. But ii such ma\ler is n01 cornplelely
p1evenls cracking, shrinkinfl and warping ol raw bricks. II thus imparts uniform shape to \!m
burnt. Ii ricks be coma porous.
bricl<S.
• Excess of silica destroys !h:e cohesion between parucres and bricks becorne bril!le, 4.1.2 Classification ofBrkkEarth
• Durabililv of brick dopenos on proper proportion of silica. Thi:! brick eartl1 is classified in the lollowing tl1ree categories:
3. Lime
1, Loamy, mild or sandy clay 2, Marls, chalky or calcareous clny 3. Plastic, slrong or pure clay
• lime nol ex-cceding 5% is desirnb\e in a good brick earth.
Alurntfl<t ,1% A1um"nri 10%: Alumlno 34%
•
•
It should b& presonl 111 a lil\ely powdered state and not in lump.
lime prevents shrinkage ol raw bricks, Sand alone 1s in!us,ble. !lul it slightly !uses al kiin
S1iica 66''.. sII;ca JS¾ $ilia> 5{11/i.
Limo and mann C!'Sia 1% limo and [Link]:;.i,ii. le% Lime ond magnesia f3%
temperature in presence o! ~me. O,ide al Iron 11/it [Link] of irofl J'',0 Oxldo of iron B¾
• Excess of lime causes lhe b;lck 10 melt and hence. its shape is lost. Lumps ol lime aro converted 2%
~ ' .
organic nianer 5~. [Link],,..
---~-•H __4•,;_ Org ;:mic o( m."IU..:r
into quick lime afler burrnng and this quicllliroe slakes and expands in presence o! mo,slurn. Towl 100% Total 100'/, To!~! 100%
Such an action results in sp°tilling at bricks into pieces.
4. Oxides of Iron
• About 5 to6percenl is desirable ;n good brick c;irlh. ll he!ps lime lo lusc sand. ll also irnpa1 ls 4.2 Manufacture of Bricks
rod colour \o bricks. Fuur dis,tincl cpscralIons are mvolv~d:
Excess oi oxide ol imn makr,s Uu, bricks dark blue or blackisi1. 1 Prep!traucn of clay 2. Mould,ng
• If quantity of iron oxide is tess !hen brick~ become yellowish.

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3. D1ying

w1<[Link]
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Theory wit'1 Solved Examples
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1. Preparaitlon of clay • Fine sand or ash may be sprinkled on the lnside sur1ace of mould instead of dipping mould in
water is known as sand-moulded bricks.
Cray or bricks is prepared in lhe lollowlng order:
(I) Unsoillng: The top layer er soil. ab<lul 20 cm in deplh, is laken oul and thrown away. {b) Table Moulded Bricks
(Ii) Digging: Clay is then dug out from the ground. 11 is spread on the levelled ground. Heigh! ol heaps • The process of moulding these bricks is Just similar as hand 1110Ulded bricks.
ol clay is about 60 cm lo 120 cm. • In lhls case the mlJllldor {personnel) stands near a table of size aboul2 m x I m.
{iii) Cleaning: Soil should be cleaned ol stones. pebbles, vegetable matter, etc, • The bricks are m0t1lded on !he table and sent for tho further process of drying.
(IV) Wealherlng: Clay is 1hon exposed to atmosphere for sortening or mellowing, The period of exposure • Efficiency ol moulder decreases graduany because of siand!ng at the same place for long
varies from few weeks lo run season. duration.
(v) Blending: Clay is made loose and any ingredient to be added to ii is spread cul a1 ils top. II is • The cost or moulding is more than lite hand mouldlng.
carried out by taking small portion of clay every lime and by tvr1oing it up and down in verlical
direction. 4.2.2 MaichineMoutding
(vi) Tempering : In the process cl tempering, clay is brought to a proper degree ol hardness and ii is • The moulding may also be achieved by machines.
made lit for the next operation o/ moulding. • This process is economical when bricks in huge quantity are lo be manufactured at the same spot
Waler in required quanlily is added lo clay and lhe whole mass is ·kneaded or pressed under !he in a short time.
Ieel or men or calUe. Tempering should be done e~haus1ive1y to [Link] 11omogeneous mass or clay • Moulding machines are broadly classified in two categr,riss m. Plastic clay machine and Ory day
on
of unilorm consistency. For manu!ac1uring good bricks a large scale, tempering is usually done ln machine.
a Pug mill. Diameler ol pug mill al bol!om is about 80 cm and that at top is about one melte.
(I) Plastic Clay Machine
Do you know7 The process ol grinding clay wilh _water and making ii plastic Is known as pugging. • , Such machines con1ain a rootangular opening ol size equal 10 lenglhand width of a brick.
The pugged clay Is praced in lhe machine and as ii comes ouUhrough the opening ills cut into
2. _Moulding strips by wires !ixed In frames.
The clay which is prepared as above is sent lot the next operation or moulding. Two types of moulding • As the bricks are cul by wire they are aiso known as Iha wire cut brici<s.
are hand m0<1lding and machine moulding.
(Ii) Or,y Clay Machines
4.2.1 Hand Moulding • In these machlnes, the strong clay ls first converted inlo powder form.
ln hand moulding, the bricks are moulded by hand i.e. manually. • A small quantity ol waler is !hen added 10 form a still plaslic paste.
nis adopted where manp0wer is cheap arid is readily available for the manufacturing process ol • Then paste is placed in mould and pressed by machine lo form hard and well shaped brickS.
bricks on a small scale. • , These bricks are known as the pressed bricks and lheyaonot practlcally,equil'e drying.
• There are two types al moulds (a) wooden mould (bl steel mould. • They can be sent dlrec\ly for the process ol burnlng.
Steel mould is better than wOOden mould.
Tt,e bricks shrink during drying and burning. Hence tho Hond,110U!dln9
The wire cut and pressed bricks have tegurar shape, sharp edges and cmners. They have
moulds ara lo be miidC? large; lhan lhe size ol lully bum! I smooth externa1 surfaces. Tttey arebeavler and stronger lh&n ordinary hand-mouldeclbriaks.
bricks. They carry dislinct f,ogs and exhlbil uniform dense texture.
The moulds are therelore made larger by about 8- l2o/o in
Ground """"d<id
bridl -
Tphlo """'ldo(I
bricks
all direction.

(a) Ground Moulded Bricks

3. Drying l 1i
• The ground is r1rs1 made level and line sand is sprinkled over ii. • Mristure coo lent is brought down JO 2% !or lhe burning opera!lon.
• it1e mould is dipped in water find placed over lhC?-ground. • The damp bricks, Ir burnt, are likely to get cracked and distorted.
The lump al tempered clay 1s takon ;incl ii is dashed in the moukl • For drying. bricks are laid longitudinally in stacks of width oqllill to two bricks.
• • T!ie clay is pressecl or forced io lhc mould in such a way lhal ii fills all the corners ol mould, • A stack consists or eight or ten tiers. 81icks are laid along and across !he stack in alternate layers. .
• me bricks proparecl by dipping moukl in water e~ery lime are known as lhe slope-moulded
All bricks are placed on edge.
.
• Tt'1e bricks are generally dried by natural process.
bricks.
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When bricks are lobe rapidlydrtd en ararg&scale 1~e11 artificial o,ying may be adopted. • Clamp is allowed to burn lor a period of about one to two months.
• rn suchacase. lhe mouk!ecl b re allowed lo p[Link] through spcval dryers which are in Iha form • II is then allowed la cool Im more or less tile same perjocl as burning .
of lunnd:-orhol channels or ff i
4.2.3 Advantages of Clamp Burning
• The lemperafllre is usually less ttiin 12C"C and the process ol dryin9 of bricl<s takos about 1-3 days
I. The burning and cooling ol bricks are gradual in clamps. Hence lhe bricks produced are:: tough and
depending upon Ihe lemperalut~main!ained in the dlier. .
suong.
4. Burning i 2. The burning ol bricr.s by clamp provas to be cheap and economical.
• Whenlhe lemperacureotdull red~t ot about 650'C is a\laioed, 1he organic matter coniainect in the 3, No skilled labour and supervision are requi,ed lor tho constmct,on and operation of clamps,
bricks ls oxidized and arso !he "4ite1 oN:rystallizalion ic, driveT f way. bu! heating ol bricks 1s done
~- The clamp is nol liable lo injury from high wind or rain.
beyond !his li'l'lit fonlle following f;arposes: . l
5, There is conside1abte sav:ng ol luel.
(i) If bficksare cooled afler auai(iihg fho temperature <,; aboul 650"C, the bricks formed will absorb
moisture from lhe air and get:rehydraled. ' 4.2.4 Disadvantage5 of Clamp Burning
(ii) The reai;lions between lhe Jneral.,constiluents ol clay are achieved at higher ternperature and • Bricks are no\ ol regulBr shape.
lhesereaclioosarenecessary"logi\ie new prQpenies such as s!reng!h, hardness and low rno;s\ure
• II is a very slow process.
absorp!iao. I
• It is not possible to regulate fire in a clamp.
• When !he temperature or about;1 rocrc
is reached. the particles ol two important cons1ftuent ol
bricks day, m.
alullliria and samffflse !liemsel'les together [Link] Jn the increase of strengll1 and • Quality ol bricks is not uniform.
clensily. • (b} KIin$; A kiln is a large oven which is used to burn bricks, The kilns which are used in the [Link]
I
• Healing is not desirable and if the temperature ls raised beyond 11oo•c, a great amount ol fusible of bricks are of the tallowing two types:
glassy mass is formed and 1he bricks are said to the vitrmed, (i) lnlermillenl kilns
The buming of bricks is done eilher in clamps or in kilns. (ii) Continuous kilns
The clamp isa temporary srructtire and is used lor small scale prods.!clion of bricks.
(i) lnterml1lent kllns: Theso may bo
• Kilns are peimanentslruc!ures c"r1d lhr:y are adopted lo manulacture bricks. on largo scale .
over ground or undergrouml and l~•
Burningirnpa11S hardnessandstr~riglh lo bricks and maxes them dense and durabfe. Bricks should be
are classilied in two types:
burntpi:ipel![Link] bridisareoverbtkm, lheyWillbebrilllear,dhence, break easily. If they are under burnl,
(a) lnlermitlenl up-drought kilns
lheywi!lbasoltandhence,cannotcarry toads.
{b) Intermittent down-drought 0ocr Door
(a) Clemps kilns
• A piece or ground is setected. lls shape in plan is ge!'lerally trapezoidal. Floor of ctarnp is
prepared In such away that iltmrt edt)e is slightly in the excavallon and wider edge is raised al (a) Intermittent up-drought kilns
an angle of abou! 15• from grbllnd ievel. • These kilns are in the lorm ol
• Fuel may consist of grass. cow dung, litter, husks of rice or ground nuls etc. Thickness or t11is roclangulai slmctures with thick
cm: Wood or coal dust
layer is about 70 C!Ji Io 80 outside walls
may also be usecl as lueL • Flues are prov,ded to c,,riy flames Fig. lnterm,rwnr k<ln

• Alayer. coosis!il'l9 or 4 or 5 coarscs of raw bricks. of hol gases tl)rougll !lie body ol kil:1.
Layers
is !hen put up. Brk:ks are fain an edges wilh small of,R,ilw • Top coLJrso is linisl1cd wilh Hal bricks. Other courses an, lormod by placing bricks on edge.
81irJl.s
spaces between !hem for 1he circuiation of air. • Strong lire is maintained for a period of 4B lo 60 hours.
• A second layer of fuel is !hen placed and over, it
Disadvantages:
another layer ol l,"'!w bricki;. is pul up
.. \ (1) Tl1e quality ol bumt bricks is not unilorm. The? bricks n;)nr the bol!om are ov~r burnt anc! lhoso
•
•
Total heigh! ol a clamµ is about 3 m to 4 m.
When clamp is completely conslructed, 11 is -· ·.: ~=~:~i~,Ju,. near Um top arc urid~r burnt.
(ii) Tile supply of bricks is not continuous.
plaslercd wdh mud on sidos and top and lilied
wilh earth lo prevent the escape ol heat Fig. A !ypical JJrick c!Hmp (,ii) Tnere is was1agA ol heat as kiln is to be cooled down eve,y tirne afler burning.

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(b) lntermillent down-drought kilns
• These kilns are rec1angular or circular in shape.
• They are provided with permanent walls and closed tight roof,
• The working ol 1his kiln is more or less similar lo Iha up-drought kiln.
• Bui it is so arranged in 1his kiln that hot gases are carried through venical flues upto the level o!
rool and 1hey are lhen released.
• These hol gases move downward by lhe chimney drought and in doing so. they burn the bricks.

Advantages:
• Bricks are evenly burnt
• Tl1c perlormance or 1his kiln is belier than 1t1at of up-drought kiln.
• There is ctoseconnol o! heal and hence such kilns are uselul for burning structural clayliles, terra
collaelc.

(Ii) Coritlnuous Kilns: These kilns are continuous in operation. This means lhal loading, firing,
cooling and unloading a,e carried oul simultaneously in'lhese, There are various types of the
conlinuous kilns.
(a) Bulls french kiln
(b) Hoffman's kiln
(c) Tunnel kiln

4.2.5 Bull's Trench Kiln

Chimooy
Sectkln 1 - Loading
Sec1ion 2- Empty L
Sec1ion 3 - Unloading
Section 4-Cooling
SocllononAa
SeclionS-Buming
Section 6 - Heating Fig. Hoffman's Krln
• This kiln may be of rectangular, circular
or oval shape in plan Since it is provided with a permanent rool, the kiln can even !unction during rainy season.
• It may be fully underground or parlly Figure shows plan and section ol lhe Hoffman's kiln with 12 chambers. Each chamber is providoowilh
projecting above ground. Outer bri&. waU Phm Ffuo Hoti;,:. the following:
This is Iha most widely used kiln in India I. Amain door for loading and unloading or bricks,
Fig. Bull's /rencll kiln
and it gives continuous supply or bricks. 2. Communicating doors1which would act as llucs in open condition.
• Bricks are arranged in sectlons. Tl1ey me arranged in suet, a way !hal flues are formed, Fuel is 3. A radial flue connqcted with a central chimney.
placed in flues and ii is ignited through flue hotes ilfter covering top surlacev1ilh earth and ashes lo 4. FuclholeswiU1coverklodropfuel. whichniaybeintheforinofpowdeiedcoal,inlobumingchambet.
prevent the esc11pe of hem. Five l1oles .ire provided in sull1cienl number on top to insert fuel when
burning is in progress.

4.2.6 Hoffman's Kiln

Tliis kiln is co;structed over ground and hence, il is sometimes known as flame kiln. Us sh11pe is circular
in pJan and it is divided in10 a number ol compartmenls or chambers.

m~~ry w~h Solved _Eiiamples_~ ____ . ~~~~~_1~.. www,m~d~~syP,u'.[Link]· J

84 I Civll Engineerlng iiti!iii!tfUAV$lJ2019I fflRDE ERS~
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Toe main doors ace closed by dry bric{(!; and covered with '''-Id, when required. 2. The bricks should be uniform in shape and should be cl standard si20.
3. The bricks should give a cleat melallic ringing sound when struck wilh each o1her.
1abla; Campmison b~en i!luO':i Trena/I Kiti: ;;ncJ Hollmmis Kiln
.. --·
4. Thi;' bricks when broken or fractured should show a bright homogeneous and uniform compac1
SMo. llom autr.s i,o11dl Id In tl<1ffma~•• kiln structure free from voids.
s. The brick should 1101 absorb water more than 20 per cent by weight for fi1s1 class bricks and 22 per
l. B\11Ti11gcap;,tily AlloUt :11:t 11 in <[Link]. Abo.; l , 0 [Link]<hs In DMO •cason.
cent by weigh\ for second class bricks, when soaked in waler at room temperature for a period of
2. ~of~!l II &OPSlu 'ihnij'!l lluring mon= le; ii II fvoct,ons 1111 !ha yonr wm, o 24 hours.
pr:![Link], I
1$ not p..,.idoil vAll1 o po=,nool tTXJI.
6. Tho bricks should be sullicienlly hard. No impression should be lell en brick surface. when il is
3. Cooldfv<>I Higll as ~'l'1)1ion ol luc! is n,oro.
.t"'"· scratched wilh linger or nail.

-
4, Df1'Vl9 spnco n roq"it,;s......., <poai. I ~~:f,i1rns Jti:ss :,,p,.,co.
7. The bricks should no\ break into pieces when dropped (lat on hard ground lrcm a h1=igh1 ol :iboul
s. fnlllalcau lcw,. •, 1-i;gt,.
onemeire.
Ii. It ls ~-mnta'nnu.s io f~o tense. l[lsCMUnu0«&lor>.1lum., !l, The bricks should have low ll)ermal conductivity .ind they ~hould be sound proof.
1. P,,p<,L,rily Moro~tlf:ar.,bcc1u!;O-oflassinilinl -c:r-">l Loss P,,P<J\arb<>c:;i,eucOfligh 9. Th,;i bricks, when soaked in water lor 24 hours, should not show deposits ol white sails when allowed
inl![Link]
' to dry in sllade.
&. Qu;all!y of bncks Porcoo!o<Jttol 11<"'.l qualfly bricks Is w.1U, Porw•ln!l<> o/ g:,<ldqlllll•l)'
[Link] h, JOO(O. 10. No brick should have the crushing slrenglh less !hen 5.50 N/mm2.
9, Sullabllily SUilllblo """" dllmnnd <ii !ricks fn rr""1"1<>11 [Link]<> who~ doirond oJ llrid<s Strength of Bricks
isnolsubl:tt111i!al. is l!ltl>U!)l>oUI tho )'lar. 4.3.1
Factors A!fecting the Strength of Bricks:

Table: Coo1patisoo ben,"8!lll Clamp Butning and Kiln Burning

1. Composition cf brick ear1h.
2. Preparation or clay and blending of ingredienlS.
[Link]. llo..ltem C~um!ng Klinbumlng 3. Nature o! moulding adopted.
1, Capacity Aboll! ~100000. Avg. 25000 4. Care t.1ken in dr;ing and slacking of raw or green br;cks.
5. Type of kiln usecl including type ar luel anci its feeding.
2. Ccstofluel La.v as1Jmss, ro.., dong, lillar High becausa coal dust is lo be
maybo'.uscd. used. 8. Burning and cooling processes.
3. lnilial cost Very Iowas oo slruclures are More us pi!miancn( structure; are 7. Care taken in unloading.
tobob!ii!L to be (;(lflslructcd.
·-------- -~ -·------ ~------·• -------------~-------·
-D; you l1now7 Tha average crvshing s\renglh and tensile strenglh of hand moulded bricks are 60000 kN/m 2
4. Oualily of bndls Thll pen:oolaJe Of good quality Percentage of good quality bricks
bricks is small abolit 60%. is high about 90%. and 2000 kN/rn2 respectively. The shearing slrenglh o! bricks is about one-1enth of the crusl1ing strength.
s. Regu!alion of f,re tl fs not possibio to coolrol or TM fit8 is under contrnl Uuoughout
re9ulat& (ire during !he proceS$ !ha Pfoces5 of oumlng.
olllumlng. 4.4 Tests for Bricks
6. Skilled supervision Nol nocossary lhlough oul IM The con\fnuous skilled supaNirJoo 1. Absorption
J>mces5 ol burning. is nccossary.
• A brick is taken and 1t 1s weighed dry. It is then immersed ir1 water for a period of 16 hours.
7. S!ruciure Temporary slructuro. Pom1anem sL'[Link]. • Then wcigt1 aga;n and ihe difference in weigl1ts sllOUl(I not. 1n any case, exceed
a. SuitabTtly For small =le. For large scale. (a} 20 per ccnl of:weigh1 of dry brick for l1rs1 class bricks.
(b) 22.5 pm cent for second class br1c~s.
9. T11m1 of bumipg II requires ab<:•,;I 2-6 n10nlhs. Actual burning lime is 2•1 hours ~nd
and cooling 12 days are rcquin:d for cooling of (c) 25 per ce11; lor tliird class bricks.
i brid!s.
2. Crushing Strength
M1nimumcrusl1ing s1rengt11 forli1sldass IJricl,s :,' !0/.//rnm' :md for sect111tJ class bricks-!. 7.5 Nl1nm·'.
4.3 Qualities of Good Bricks
3. Hardness
1. TI1c bricks should be table-mauli:Jed. wel[-!Jumt in kdns, (;Ofipcr-coloured. free from cracks and with In thistesL ascratcl1is111adco,1bricksurlacewill11he l1elp ol a linger or nail. :r no impression isl~!!
sharp anti square aclges. The colour SML1ld be uniform and brighl. or1 t11e swtace. tirick is treated lo tie sullic,er,lly 11s1rd

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4, Presence al Soluble Salts Second Class Bricks
Soluble salls, if present in bricks, wHI cause e!florescence on lhe surface or bricks. These bricks are ground moulded and !hey are bum\ In kilns.
• It is immorsed in wali;-1 lor 24 hours. It is lhcn laken oul and allowed lo dry in shade. Absence ol grey The surface of lhesc bricks is some what rough and shape is also sllgh!ly irregular.
or white deposits on its surlace indicates absence of soluble salts.. • Ttiese bricks are commonly used at placesvihere brick work ls 10 be provided with a coat of pl~1er,
II the while deposits cover about 10% surface, the elllorescence is said to bo slight
(Iii) Third Class Bricks
• Wnen white deposil cover about SO% ol surlace then ii is said to be moderate.
These are ground moulded and they are burnt in cramps.
II grey or while deposits are found on more than 50% or surface, lhe erlroroscence becomes hea11y • These bricks are not hard and they have rough surface with irregular and distorted edges.
and it is lreated as serious.
lihese bricks give dull sound when SlfUck together.
5. Shape end Size • They are used for unimporlanl and temporary structures.
• hs shape shoukl be lruly rectangular wilh sharp edgas,
(iv) Fourth Class Bricks
• 20brickS are randomly selected of standard sfze (19 x 9 x 9cm). For good qualilybricks, the results These are over burn1 bricks with irregular shape and darl<co1our. These bricks are used as aggregate
should bo within lhe following permissible limils: for concre1e in foundations, lloors, roads, e1c. [Link] ol lhe lac! Iha! lhe over burnt bricks have a
length 368 cm to 392 cm compact structure and hence they are sometimes found 10 bo stronger than even the first class
Width 174 cm to 186 cm bricks.
Height 174 to 186cm 4.4.4 Colours of Bricks
6. Soundness The colours of bricks, as obtained in its natural course of manulaclure, depend on the following factors:
• In lhis 1es1, two bricks are taken and they are Slruck wilh each other. 1. Degree ol dryness achieved before burning.
• Bricks should not break and a clear ringing sound sholJld be produced, 2. Naturalcolourofclayanditschemicalcompo&ition.
7, Structure 3. Nature of sand us~d in moulding operalion.
4. c;iualily of fuel used in burning operation.
II should be horoogeneous, compact and free lrom any defects such as holes, lumps. elc.
S, Quantlly of air admit!ed to the kiln during burning.
High duly tireclays can resist lemperature range ol 1482"C to 1648"C: medium duty lirec/ays can
6. Temperature at which bricks am burnt.
resist temperature range o11315"C lo 1482°C and low duty !Treclays can resist temperalure up to
870'Con1y. 4.45 [Link]
4A.1 Classification of Bricks In lndla:
• Standard si,e or bricks is 19 cm x 9 cm x 9 cm.
The bricks can broadly be divided into two catego1ies:
• Nomlnal size (with mortar) is 20cm x 10 x 10 cm,
4.4.2 Unburnt Bricks • The commonly adopted nominal si2c or traditional bricks is 23 cm x 1 l .4 cm x 7.6 cm.
• It is found lhal the weight of 1 ml of brick eanh is about 1800 kg, Hence Ille average weigh! of a
Yhe unburnt or sun dried bricks are dried w11h lhe help ol heal received from the sun after 1he process o!
brick is abolJt 3 to 3.50 kg.
moulding. These bricks can only be used in the construction or temporary and cheap srruclures, Such bricks
sl1ould not be used al places exposed 10 heavy rains, Shape or Bricks:
{ii Bullnose Brick

g
4.43 Burnt Bricks
A brick moultled (..,Jlh a rounded angle is termed as a bul!nose. ll is
Tt1ese are classilied imo four ca1e~1ories: used for a rouhctep quoin.
{!) Firs! Class Bricks • A connection which is formed when a wall takes a turn is known as
quoin.
These bricks .irn tabla-moulded a11d of sl<1ndar(l shape ana t'lcy are liurnt in kilns.
(ii} Channel Bricks
'The surlaces and edge:; of the brick, arc sharp, square, smr:x.1th ancJ s1r:1igt1t. Fig. Buflt!OS(! Blick
• TI1ese bricks are moulded to the shape of a gu1ter or a channel and
• Firsl class bricks nave all qualities ol good bricks,
they are very often glazed.
These bricks arc used for 5uperior work of permanent naturP, • These bricks are used lo lunclion as drnin.

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{II) COpingbrloks I 4,6 Fire-Clay
Chaml'arod
• These bricksaro made to suitlhe lhickneas ol wa,:s ~c:11 Constiluents of a good lire-clay a,e alumina and silica. n,e percentages of alumina varies from 25 to
•
on which coping is lo be PtoJd~d.
• Suc:h bdcks teke various lorms such as chamfered
I 35 and that ol silica lrom 75 10 65. In any case, ,rnpur1uus such as lfme, magnesia, iron oxide and
alkalies should no\ exceed 5 per cent.
hell-round or saddle-back. Depending upon 1he fire resisling capacity, 11:eclays are classified into the following Uuee categories:

{Iv) Cownose Bricks ;, 1, High duty lireclays

• A ~ moulded with a doJie buftnose on ru1d is 2. Medium duty lireclays
knownascawnose. 3, Low duly lireclays.

M Curved Sector Bricks 4.6, 1 fire Britks

• These bl'icksare lnlhe looncff;urved sector and they • These are made from fire clay. The process of manufacture is same as Iha! of ordinary clay bricks.
are used in the conslructton ot'c:ircu!:ar brick mason;y The burning ano cooling of lire bricks are done gradually.
Fig. Brtel! CQPittgs
pillars, brick chimnoyselc. , . Toese bricks are usually white or yellowish [Link] in col~:.ir.
• The peilaralicn may be circu!lt. square, rec1an9ula< or any olher regular shape in ~ross-section, The weight of a lire bricks is about 30-35 N.
• 1hewater absorption after ~ersion ror 24 hours lri water should not exceed 15% uy water. Tho fire bric;ks can resist high lemperature witllout sol/ening or melting.
• Compressllle strength of perflrated bricks shoutd not be less than 7 N/mm2on gross aroa. • These bricks are used for linings o1 interior surface of h,1maces. chimneys, kiln, evens. fire places
etc.·
(YI) Hollow Bricks • The compressive streroglh of these bricks varies from 200-220 N/mm2.
• These are also .known as Cl!ilfilar or cavity bricks. Such bricks The percentage of waler absorp\ion for these bricks varies from 5-10%.
have Willl lh1cknessof about ~nun to 25 mm. They areprepmed Followlrig are the three varialies of lire bricks:
rrom special homogeneous $y. Tuey are Dght in weight abOut
onelhirclthe weighlof lheOl'di!iary biickS of the samei;ize, These (i) A~ldlc Bricks
bricl<Scanbe laidalmosl abof lour limes as l;isl as 1heordinary • Those bricks are used for acidic lining.
bricks and lhus the use oft srn::ll ortcks leads to
speedy • Following are the types ol acidic bricks.
construction. They arso reeluce lh6 transmission of t1eat. sound (a) Ordinary firebricks: These bricks are prep.:.red from natural lire-clay and they pruvide a
and dampness. They are utied in lhll: conslructlo,1 ol brick Fig. Hollow Btick good material for acidic rnlraclOry lining.
partitioning. (b) Silica bricks: These bricks contain a very high percentage of silica lo tile ex1ent o! about 95
to 97%. A small quantity of lime. about 110 2% is added 1ov1ork as binding material. These
(vii} Paving bricks I/ bricks are moulded under pressure and l)urmathigh temperature. Silica bricks can [Link]
• These bricks are prepared"rrom clay con1ainln9 a higher a high temperature up to about 2000°G.
percentage of iron. Excess fron vi!rilies Ille bricks at a. low
(ii) Bas!c Bricks
temperature. Suell bricks resi$1 lleUer abrasive :ict,on of lraflic.
• These bricks are used for basic lining and basic rcflecloiy materials are useQ in \he manufacture
Paving bricks maybe plain [Link]. Rg, Clteque,eel Bfir:k
of such bricks,
(vlil)Perforated Bricks • Magnesia bric~s arc prepared frorn lime fJnd magnesia rocks. Dolomite may also be actopled lor

• Perforated brleks am used in !heconslructionol brrckpanels tor

the ma11ul,1cture ol these bricks.
{iii) Neutral Bricks

---- ------------ ---·--- ····----

ligh(\",'eigl\l slructures and mu!li-Sloreyed framed structures.
• These bricks are [Link] !or neutral lining.
Toe perloraled bricks are used in !he construe lion of brick • Followir19 are l11e types or neutral bric~s:
panels lor lighlwiaight Slluduresand mulli-sloroyed lram1;1d (a) Chromite Bricks: These t1ricks .:ire [Link] lrom a mixture o! cluonio, ,ron 01e. ferrous
structures. c~ide, b.:[Link] [Link]. Suell bricks are unalieclcd by [Link] basic act,ons.
The compresslvostrengllior perforated bricks should not (b) High Alumina Bricks: Tl1esc bricks con1a1n a 111911 pcrcenlago of alumina and 11,c)I arc
be less than 7 N/mm7 on g<oss area. Fig. 1>,[Link] 811ck lourld 10 be rnoro inert lo slags .
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Postal Study Package Elm Construction Moterials I 91
--------- 7. Queen-closer: 11 is a portion of a brick oblained by culling a brick lenglhwise inlo two portions .,
4,7 Brick Masonry Fig. (b ), Thus, a queen-closer is a brick which is half as viide as 1l1e lull brlck. This is also knOWll as
1. Stretcher: A stretcher is the longer 1ace of the queen-doser-half.
brick (i.e. 19 cm >< 9 cm) as seen in the elevation Wilen a queen-closer is broken into two pieces. it is known as queen-closer-quarter. Such a closer ls
ol lhe wall. A course o1 bricks in whlch all the thus a brick piece which isone-quaner of the brick size Fig, (c}.
bricks are laid as stretchors on lacing is known
8. King closer: I! is !he ponion of a brick which ls so cutthat the width of one ofilsend is half1hat of
as a sirotchercourse or stretching courso.
a lull brick, while the width al the other end is equal 10 the full width (Fig. d). It is thus obtained by
2. Header: A header is the shorter face ol lhe brick cutting u, e triangular piece between !he centre of ooe end and lhu centre ofthe other (adjacent) side.
(i.e. 9 cm x 9 cm) as seen in the elevation of the It has hall-header and hall-st1etcherlace.
wall. A course ol bricks in which all the bricks are
9. Beveled closer: It is a special form of a king closer in which the .whole length of the brick (i.e.
laid as headers on the lacing is known as header
~lre1cher tace) Is beveled in such a way !ha\ half width is maintained at one end and full width is
course or heading course,
maintained at the other end (Fig. e). ·
3. Lap: Lap is the horizorl!al distance between the
vertical joints of s~ccessive brick courses, 10. Mitred closer: It is a portion or a brick whose one end is CUI splayed or mitred for full width, The
angle ol splay may vary from 45Dto60". Thus, one longer lace oflhemitred closer is ol fulllengthef
4. Perpend: A ptirpend is an imaginal'{Vertica\ line Fig. Elevarion of a Brick Wall
lhe brick while the other longer lace is smaller in tenglh (fig. f).
which Tncludes the vertical jolnl separating lwo
11. Bet: ll is the portion o! the brick 'cul across the width. Thus. a bat is smaller in fengih than the full
adjoining bricks.
brick. 111he length ol the bat is equal to half the length of the original brick, ii is known as hail bal
5. Bed: Bed is the lower surface (19cm x 9 cm) ol 1he brick when laid tlal.
{Fig. g). A lhree-quaner-bat (Fig. h) is lhe one having its length equal to lhree-quartersof!he lenglh
6. Closer: It is a portion of a briek with the cul rnade longiludinally, and il used to close up bond al the
of a lull brick. !fa bal has ils wldth beveloo. lt is known is beveled bat {Fig. I).
end o! the course, Acloser helps in preventing the joints of successive courses (higher or lower) to
come in a vertical iirie. Closers may be ol various types as defined below. 12. :Arris: II is the edge o! a brlck.
13; Bull nose: His a special mouldedbrickwilhoneedgerounded(sing1ebu!lnose}orwi"ihtwoedges
rounded (double bull nose). These .ire used in copings or in such positions where rounded comers
are preferred lo sharp arises,
14. Splays: These are special moulded !>ricks which are often used to form plinth•. Splay [Link]
(plinth streicher) and splay header (plimhheader) are shown respcc11vely.
15. Dog1eg or angle: I! Is a1so a speciallormo!mouldedbricks111hichareused10ensuresatislactory
bend at quoins w11ich are at ar1 ~ngle other than right angle. The angle and lengths ol the [Link]
forming the dogleg vary according 10 requirernenls These are preferred to mitred closer.
16. Quoin: h is a corner or lhe external angle on .lhe lace side of a wall. GeneraUy, quoins are at righ1
angles. Bui in so:ne [Link], they may be at angles greater than 90• also.
17. Frog or kick: A lrog is an indentation in the lace of a brick to form a key ror Mlding the morlar. When
lrog is only on one lac~. 1ha! brick 1s laid with !hat face en the !OJ>. SomelirT!Os. frogs are provided on
both the faces. Howrver. no flogs are provided in wire-cut bricks. A pressed bricks has two frogs
(asa rule) and a !7and,made brick h □ s only one frog.
18. Racking back: It i~ i\10 termination of a wall in a stepped fashion.
19. Toothing: It is t11e termination or the wall in such a fashion that each alternate course at the end
projects. in on;for 10 provide adequme bond i! the wall is continued horizontally at a tater stage.
(h) Th«:o Oi.<0~or Bal

Fig, VJrious Focms of Brick PorliCW1s

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4.8 Bonds In Brick-Work 4, 10 Other Types of Bonds
4.8.1 English Bond , i • (I) Stretcher Bond: In this arrangv:•ent or bonding, all the bricks
This bond consists of altemale courses)! heaoers and stre,d ,,:;rs. In ~re laid as stretchers. The overlap, which is usually of half brick,
this arrangement, 11ertic,il joints in the [Link] ccvrses come o ,ar each 1s obtained by commencing each alternate course with a half
other and the vertical joints in lhe strefher courses are lllso in the brick bat Stretching bond is used for hall bricks wall only.
samtt vertical line, FOf breaking cf vetlcal ;o,ms in the su,:cessive (Ii) Header Bond; In this type o! bonding, all tho bricks are laid as
[Link] ii is [Link] to nlace
,, -Lser, ,;fter the first hi?Jder in
queen "fO I:!1 B<fd< wall h~aders on Ille faces. The Ol(crrap, which is usually of half the
each header C01Jrse. Thefo!lowlng additional points shourd tJc notedi 1 . ~11dth or the brick is oblained by introducing a th,ee-quarter bat
ioEng!fshbondconstruction: . Fig, Engt,sh Sane/ 1n each allemate course al quoins. This bond permits beller
iJ
1. A header course should never s1att witt, a queen closer as 11 liabie 10 gel displaced lrom this alignment and as such ic is used tor \'/alls curved on plan. This
position. · ' bond is c!iielly used for footings in roundalions ror bener 7
1ransverse dislribution of load. Pion
2. In the stretcher course. !he [Link] sr1ould have a minimum lap of l/4<h of !heir length over Iha
headefs. ; (Iii} Garden Wall Bond: This type or bond is suitably adopted ror Fig, Stre/c/wr Bond
one bnck thick wall which may acl as a garden wall or a boundary
3, !
In wans having 1hickness equal to~ odd number or half brick, i.e .• 1 brick thick walls or 2-½ brick wall,
i 2 '
1hick walis 8fld so on, the same course w'.it show stretchers on ona lace and headers on 1he other. (iv) Facing Bond: lhis a1rangemen1 of bricks is adopted ror !hick
walls, where the facing and backing are des;red to be const.-ucted
4.8.2 Flemish Bond
wit11 brlcks o! dillerent thickness. This bOnd cons,sts ot header
In !his arrangement ol bonding bri~wmi<, each course and stretcher courses so arranged that ooe header course comes
c:onsisls of alternate headers and s1rek:hers. The alternate alter several stretcher courses. ·
headers ol each course are centered ivar lhe stretchers in lsomotricviow
(v) Raking Bond; Th;s is another type of bond in brick l'\'Ork in which

-=arrrrrrr-J
the course bel!l'll. Every alternate courst stafls with ahei;ider
the bonding bricks are laid al any angle olher than wro or ninety
at 11,e corner. For breaking the vertical jofnts in the successive
courses, closers are insenea in alterna/l!l courses next to the degrees. This arrangement helps to increase the longitudinal
slability 01 lhick waits built in English bond.
quoin header. In walls ha111ng !hfckness1Jqual io odd number
(vi) Diagonal Bond: This boncl is best suited lor walls which are Elavalion
of halfbriclls. bats areessentialiyusedJo achieve tile bond.
Flemish bond Is further divided into tv.b dllierent types viz. 2 lo 4 brick thick. This bond is usually In\roduced al every fifth
Single Flemish bond and Double Flcm~h bond. or seventh cou1sa along lhe heighl of the wall, In this bond. \he
b1icks are placed end lo end in such a way Iha! exberne corners
Pl,1n
4.83 DoubleFlemishBond , Rg. Flemish Bopd ol th-, series remain in cornacl wilh the stretchers.
In this system of bonding brickwork, each course presents lre same appearance botl1in the Iron[ and (vii) Dutch bond: This bond is a modification ol lhe old Englfsh Fig. Ho,1der eond
back elevations, Ever!! course consists or he~ders and stretchers taid alternately. This type or bond is best cross bond and consisIs of a_llernate courses or hearJers and sI1ctchors.
suited from considerations of economy and api;>earar,ce. II enables the one brick wall to have !lush and uniform Slenderness Ratio ("-1
faces pn bolh !he s!dos.
Max().) or load bearing wall shall be
. '
4.9 Comparative Merits and Demerits of English and Flemish Bond No, OJ
Sloroyo
Ma:dn,um Sktndcrne:1"
Ratla {I.I

1. for waifs thicker tl;an 1i brick. EntJlish bond is. stronger man Flemish hand.
Uptoi
Comon1 Mooar
27
Lime?-Mortur
JO
2. Flemish bond renders !he appearance ol t11e lace wo•k more allractive and pleasing. >2 27 17

J, Flernish bend 1s slightly econornical as a number ol bats can be used. This renders the use o!
--- -
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S ,en d • /1 I
broken brtcks possible, but roqu1res more mortar for additional ioi111s. arrmss 1a1,o {S0 ) is lhe rninimu111 ol - - or :
" rxt_., 1
4. [Link] r:lem'.s.'1 bond requires good workmanship and careful si1pi;-ivision. Thuse;:lr.i attention
YA1cm kn = st1f/ening coeflicient. ii= oflectiYc lhickness
is necessary to keep lheverlicalJQints rn alternate [Link] above the other.
L = ellec1ive lenqtl1, r = [Link] thickness · Fig, Ecccmtrir:1/y ol 10,rd111g
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Tsbfe: Effecliv& Heighl of Wslf (National Bul!ding Cods of India. SP-1: 1910}
4.10.1 Eccentricity of Loading
Wtien a wall of lhickness ·t. cartying axial load ·w,·
and eccentric toad 'W2' al eccenlricity·e, perunil [Link]. Condition of SupJI01t EfaclhoHolghl (lfj
length of wall. The resullani toad Wwill have an eccenlricily e which can be found by taking momenls around lho 1. AdoqUlltolalmalsupponal'Jd~Rllalicnaln1slmlnllll![Link]{&.--
tM ffoor(orn,ol) has a dill)Cll~Of (jll)l)alrlghl angles lolho1"1111.:.otll!II llionoec:lioll lo1INI 0.75H
centroid ol the section. lO<ld al 11111 noar« roolisp-ovldad b)'Ulow:ills: «'Mll!Nllllo ~homl'!avaabemMgetl
waUslJTOspod.l>iaoflhadimdlondap;ffl.
W.e "' W1.0 + W2 x e RaUo or hulght to wldlh Factor 2, Adoquulo lalernl suppmt ond pMilll rot&1h:1nar tmlralril a1-"""' 1"11 or IKIIIOnl·and lalllftll
w,.e or blio, or block (11/b) n,slralnl 111 01h01' l!l1d. For emnp!O. fully 11,zed Q:11$11Vt1illl'I \\iJlcb JI il$elf ~ [Link]
e= w, .. w, 0.7S 1.0 suppolll!d Md IIICOl!Xlrales: (a) l!mbor 11-11 lhlmBilialoly bolow « :ibova a ~
canaolaflecr,nnd (b}flllll'lnissasabovaanilnlcm!d~ llaorarlbolilro.
e = equivalent eccenlricily 0,\ 1.2
3. MeqUIIIOlatcrnlJUppollnUapondOQIIOlnWheRIUlGDGDrS{«niofs)IID\'lla,lilecllanallll'all
1.5 1.6 paraKet "'"' Uiow.11~ IOI' and tot1om,11nd donol beatcni~ [Link]
e eccentricity ratio : 2.0-3,0 2.0 Noolf adnqooleltgq,potlod llffll\\tlll:!1incarporaloslOOllrus!:Osandlimbaruppnrslllqyfloon;.
1.00H

4. Adoqualo lnloral :;upwn and pmlial l'Gtalional mslialM al bQICGm and Ni la!Olal llqlpOlt «
n,loUCRD1m1111inlDl!hlllop(WherolhOWi!Ullmloolatetal5UpJlOctailopCCMWClioi\mtldlr UIIH
4.10.2 ShapeFactor uncho<edlll'l'IOI fu11yb!ocod}
I
• Tensite stress in Masonry: For mor1ar not weaker than a 1 : 1 : 6, cement : lime : sand mix or 5, FJOO slanding ll(r) [Link] membolS. [Link]
.equivalent, the permissible tensile stress in bemJing shall not exceed 1 kg/cm?.
• Parmlsslble shear stress: For a mortar not weaker lhan 1 : 1 : 6 mix, the permissible shear s1ress Table; Effec/ive L0t1gllld ~¾alls
snail be taken as 1.5 kg/cm2•
[Link]. Condition af SUpjlCff EffDdlveKelglillH)
Dispersion of concentrated load;
,. WharothnwolllsconlfnlllHls11nd$1lppc,ledbyC1<1SSWilhorbudmsseaandlheml&nc,_,i,,g
wilhln ..,o eighth [Link] 01H{Whlch1Mll'1$less)fr-ll1ofacooflllo ~
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w
wall orbu!loros..
2. IM!om tho waD is suppalled by • bultu""'s or""'" woll at '"'8 em - wllh UL
J.
OllJllliw,ous
bul!OIUSSQl'CIQIS Wllb11Ppc:!lls alllloeu..,..,d.
JOm•
I
, 1 h
a,
4,
Wherolhowalllssoppor1udoteadlondbjlllllullra,ura:mss\>al.
V.,,ero lhowatl islroo atono ondOlld suppxledbyll bU1ln1ssoraoew;R4tthoolharOlld.
1JIL
1.5l

nQ, D,spersion of Concon/rated load

As per is code. dispersal angle or 30' is more ;;ippropriale since brick strength or bricks in India is
[I; Objeciive Brain Teasers

rather low, resulling in less arching and greater load on lintels. 0.4 The percentage of alumina ina good brickearltl
0.1 A first class brick when immersed in cold water
Tab/o, /vii.>: propor1101I ar,d :;/rength /JI commonly used mortars for m/lSMly lor 2~ hours should 1101 absorb water more lhan lies between

I-
(a) 15% (bl 20% (a) 51010% (b) 201030%
,.lnlmum <omp,.nloff • • ~ M....t lyr,6 ]
(C) 22% {di 25% (C} 501060% (d} 70to80-,..
S. N"' ki,lom1 ,.,.,.,, I
1 f 100 - 10 ~--- I ◄, Q.2 Crushing strength of a first class brick should Q.5 Excessol alUminainluickearthmakes the brick
2{0J 15 l'.S J H,
nm bo less than ! (a)lmpc«neable
lib)

31•1
3(bl
.
""
JO
&

s
3
J M,
(al 3.5N/mm 2
(cl [Link]/rnm2
{~ f ,PN!mm3
(d) 14.0N!mm2
{b) brittle anti-weak
(cJ to lose cohesion
.,., 3/1
,,
'M,
Q.3 Tho main function of alvmlna ln brick earth is
(d) 1ocraclt and warp on drying

'I . lj
4(0) :/11
I 4(e) 1 10 (a) 10 ;mparl plas1ici1y 0.6 The process or mixing clay, water and 01her
!, ~1.,, l I (b) lo mal(e Iha brick durable ingredients lo make brick is known as
• 01 " (b) mould:l\g
' ~"'. 1 '· (c) to prevent st,riokagc (a} kneading
L.-. ~---•s___ L~ (d) 10 make the brick impe1meab10 (c) pugging (d) d,yil1g
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96 · I CMI Engineering IMJ!iltMHiffl!'trn fflRDE ERS!:I
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i
0.7 Number of bricks required for one cubic me!fe Q.15 Concder the folim•A:19 statements: 12. (c) length divided by the effective thickness.
of brick masonry is Maximum slend~rness ratio of [Link] n,ough ii is gtVen that 1.2 cm wide cemenlmortar whichever is less.
(a) 400 (b} 450 masc":,Y walls fer·a dwelling having more than. is provided all around the brick but considering
I ! . .
[Link]" --or-,wh,chever,sless. Incase
(c) 500 (d) 550 two sivreys shall nut exceed 1.2 cm total width of cement mortar on opposite
I xKh I
1. if lime mofl(\t is used. facas or brick. So numbe1 of bricks required for
a.a The frog of the brick in a brick masonry is
2. 1:>. ,I cemenl-time mortar 1: 2: 9 is used. 10 m2 area, of a toad bearing wall, slenderness ratio shall no\
genaallykeplon
3. ;. ,·., .! cement mortar 1 : 6 is used. exceed the values given m Table below.
(a) bollom lace {b} loplace 10x 1a4 .
(c) shoftet side (ti) longersrde Whic :, cl lhese staWments are correc!? N= (2 1. 2 l< 11. 2) = 421.16 bticks Table: M:ixi,m,m Standamcss ,ar,a
(a) 1 ~nd 2 o~ly (b} 2 and 3 only (or a lo.1d l>e,.ring w,1/1
Q_9 The most important purposeo!lrog in a bridkis 10 (c} 1 Jnd 3 orly l (d) 1, 2 ancl 3 Also ii Is given that 1% wastage is allowed, So
No. of Storlo.s [Link] um. Slandomestr [Link]:JQ
(a) emboss manufacturer's name I ., no. or bricks required
(b) reduce 1hewoigh! of brick Q.16 Bric~. mssonry wails and columns of a building U,ing Portlar>.l Cement us;no
M =Nx 1.01 0, PoJ'Ui.'lod Pollolan.1 limo
(c} form keyed join! between brick and mortar are 10 be prolecL,d from earthquake. The Cortrnl ln Mocl<lt 1110(\0,
"'421.16x1.01 (1) (2) (3)
(d) impro\16 insulation by providing 'hollows• earthquake proofing is done by providing c,,.125 bricks
(a) cross walls Not n>:i:clld iog 2 27 :io
Q.10 King closers are related to So option (c) is correct.
{b} less openings Exceeding 2 27 12
(a} doorsandwindows Bui as per question is should be
(c) u,•deNeamed piles
{b) king pest truss 16. (d)
(c} queen post truss
(d) a sleil! band at corners above windows below N' = 1.01>: iOx 1~ ~364 brici<S
22.4x 12.4 To resist earlhquake loads
(d) brfclunasonry ceiiir.g
(i) shear wall may be provided
0.11 The al)Pfaximato proportion of dry cement mortar 0.17 An arrangement lor temporarily supporting a 14. (d) (ii) a horizontal runner called band may be
struciure from beneath for safety, is known as Nominal size or modular bricks prO\lldad for bringing the walls logelhm. Thay
required for brickwork is
(a) jad<ing (bl underpinning =20Cm X 10cm X 1Qcm may be roof band, lintel band, gable band or
(a) 60% (b) 45o/o
(cl sqiporting . (d) hauling Actual size of modular brick plin:h band crepending upon !he lr=vc,I a1which
(c) 30% (d} 10%
= 19 cm x 9 cm x 9 cm il is used.
Q,12For flatly Jaid single brick soNng, what is 1he Mortar required lor 1 m3 brickwork 17. (bl
number of bricks requfred ol nominal size ?Ocm 1. {b) 2. (C) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (d) The placing of ne-N founda!,on below ;:incl existing
x10cmx l0cm.wilh1.2cmwidecement~tar 1
alt arou!'ld and wi!h allowing up lo 1% wastage
6. (a) 7. (c) a. (bl 9. (c) 10. (d) ,, 1-(
0.2.<0, t:,:Q,1
x 0. l9x0.09x0.09) foundation or lhc process oi strenglhcning the
11. (c) 12. (cl 13; (c) 14. (c\) 15. (d) existing roundalion is knowr. as 11,e L1rnJerpinr1ing
for 10 m 2 area?
= 1 -0.7695 = 0.2305 m3 of foundations. The sIruc1urc is held well
{a) 400 (bl 410, 16. (d) 17. (b) Vo,ume ol mortar lost between joints= 20% supported in a secured manner ai,d 1he footings
(c) 425 {d) 440
Hi~t~ &}ol~tlon ; )- ~ ,-. Volume of set mortar are reli1Jved from the load. Sometimes the
Q, 13 What ls thenuml>ero! lradiliona! bricks required . 20 structures are to be temporanly supported. This
for 10 rn3 ol brickwork with standard thickness of 11 · ( c) = 0.2305 + 0.2305 X lQQ ; 0.2766 m~ is achieved by an arrangement called st,oring. Ii
cl!ment morll:lr {l : 3 10 1 : 5, as In& case may For 1m3 vo!umeol brick work, the bncks required Is necossary to support tho super-sJrl•Clure wt1en
Actual volume of bricks= 1 - 0.2766
be)? are 500. Therefore mortar neEded large openings are required 10 be made in 1he
= 0.7234 rn~
(a) 4750 {b} 4850 = I - 500 X 0, \9 X 0:09 x 0.9"' 0.23 m3 _ :. Number ol modular brick& main walls. There are 1hree dilferent types or
tel 4900 {dj 5050 Add 15% extra for f,og filling. brick bonding and shores:
waslage. , 0.7234 "'470 (1) Raking shores
Q.14 Modular bricks are of nominal size 20 x !O x 0.19 X 0.09 X 0.09
Volum, or wet mortar= 0 23 x 1.15 "0.265 rw (ii) Flying st1ores
10cm and 20r.. or lhe volume is [Link] in mortar (iii) Oend s!loms
1 mJ cf wet mortar = 1.25 rn• or clry mortar 15. (d)
between jolnlS. Then what is !he number o!
_·, 0.265 m' wcl morl.:ir = 0.33 m~ of dry mor1ar For a •.vall, the sh:mde1r1ess ratio shall be the All these types of shores sur;port the structure
modular bricks roqufrc<J per cubic meter ol
Dry mortar as a pcrcm1tage or brick work olloc!ive height divided byths elleclivs tl1iclm0ss lromsidi,
brickwork?
{al 520 (b) 500 ~ O 33 x10Ch 33%
ant1 st1lloning co-ellicienl (K,,l or !he effective ••••
(c) 485 {d} 470 1

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Table: Comt,stison of Scfl Wood aild Hatd •ffllod

[Link]. 11am Soll Wood ltaldWood

. .·
.: . _:\? ·. ~./cJi~f~~;
'
.., 1• AnnuDldltllt Di$llnd llldislild
z. CGlaW ~hi Da,k
3. fim roslslanoo PCQ"
Madull!iry Q)'II
Good
4. lndi11!ilcl
5. Slranglll Di~nct
Slfm!J le< dmcl p,11 end
im,al(formsisting1hrustor Equally dral1g for resisting
&Ilea( lanSlon.-,imsslonlllldWIIII
o. Slnclun,

Timber 7. ·Wel!lhl
RosillOIS nod splilo c,.,.Jly
Light
Noq.n,slnods ood c!OSll1JIUll!d
Hoawy

2. Endogenous Trees: Thuse trees grow inv,ams and fibrous mass is seen in their longllud'mal sectians.
Timber lrom !hose trees has very limited englneoring applications. Examples or endogenous trees
are bamboo, cane, palm, etc.

the word limber is derived lro/n an old English word timber/an which means lo build. 5.2 Structure of a Tree
Throe 1erms are 10 be noted in connectior'I with lhe timber:
From Jhe visibilliy aspecl, Iha struclUre of a tree can be divlded into two categories:
1. Converted timber: This indicates timber whieh is sawn and cut into suitable commercial sizes.
(i) Macros1ruc:1ure
2. Rough timber: This indicates timber wh1ch is oblalnod alter felling a tree. {ii) Microslructure
3. Standing timber: This indicates limber contained in a living tree. (I) Mecrostructure: The str1.1c1ure or 'M>Odvisible to tho nal\ed eye or at a small magnf"icationiscaded
lhe macros1ruc1ure.
·• · A single tree can cool lhe sum~er heat lor an entire day and nlghtam:I is round belterthan 20
1. Pith: The innem,osl central ponionor coru of lhe I,ee is called the pith or medulla.
Do , air-conditioners running !or 20 hours.
* A hectare of 1rees will produc,; about 10 tonnes of oxygen whieh is enough for 45 persons to
2. Heart Wood: The Inner annual rings surrounding the pith is known as heart wood. It is usually
dalk ITT colour.
live fat one year.
11 does not take active part in the grOWlh of tree. But il imparts tigidily 10 tree and henca, ll
provides strong and dUrable timber lorvarious engineering purposes. ''
s. 1 Classification ofTrees Trees 3. Sap Wood: Tne outer annual rings between heattweod and cambium layer ia l<no\vn as sap
Trees arc classi11ed according lo their mode of growth. 1 __..,_____, wood. It Is usually light In colour and weight. It indicatestceent growth. and il cartlalns sap.
Following is 1he classilication ol 1rees: e:,og""°"" Endogo110us 11 takes active pan in the growth ol tree and sap moves in an upward dlreelion thtough iL Sap
1. Exogenous Treus: These trees increase in bulk by growing I I wood Is also known as tobumum.
outwards and dislinci consecutive rings are formed in \he Coi,il~ Dociduou• 4. Cambium Layer: The thin layer or sap·
[Link] section ol such a tree, These rings are known I I between sap wood and inner bark is known
as the annual rings because one such ring is added every Soll - Hard wood• , as cambium layer•. It intlicates sap which
year and 11,ese rings are useful in predicting the age of . has ye! not been co~vetted inlo [Link]. Pilh
tree. The timber which is mostly used for engineering purposes belOng lo lhIs ca1egory. 5. Inner Bark: II givel protection or cambium
E:<ogenous trees are further subdivided inlo two groups. .layer from any jl1iury,
(i) Con;ters: They show dislinc\ annual rings. 6. OulerBark: ltco~shitsofcellso!woodlibrc
(Ii) Deciduous: They do no\ show distincl annual ring&. : ' and is also known as cooex. Slip Weed
conifers are also known as evergreen 1rees and leaves ol lhese do nm fall till new ones are grown, As 7. Meo'ullary Rays: The lllin radial fibres
these rrees bear cone-shaped lrulls, they are given the name conifers These trees yield sol! wootts. eJ1lending rrom pith 10 cambium layer are
Deciduous trees are also known as llroadlea! [Link] anti ronves ol lhese trees lair in autumn and new ones known as msdullary rays. lhe func1io11 o!
appear in spnng season. Timbor lor engineering purposes ,s mostly defr,e<.I rrom deciduous !recs These trees these rays is lo hold together !he annual
rings or hear! wood and sap wood. Fig. C,ou-sec1iotl of an ~ tree
yieldhardwQOds, _ _ _ _ _ ·---·,
'11'!':1 . ··-------···-----·mRDE er:;isg .
..,_._.Theory with Solved Eicamples _______ . . . . .___ . .. ...... ·-· . . -~~_:.~e~syp
'd ubllcatl~nsorg I
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(_~[Link]~~~~-u~~~~~s·~- .. , -~J:lDE ERS"fi- ·. - ······~IIOljwlUI Solvecffnm,r;·p
100 I CMI EngiJ!eerlng Postal Study Paciage Erm fflRDE ERS!:!
---Publlc::,uon,
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--•-Fubl1c,tbon:-. iiZMi\iiittfUiH&ifi. tJ ~<119 I Canmuc1ion Moleria/1 I 101

01} Mlorostructura: The s\fucture er wocd apparenl ority at great magnifications is called lh<l Following defeels are caused in limber by lungi:
microstruclure. t (I) Blue Stain: Sap of wood is stained to bluish colour by lhe ac\ion of certain types of fungi.
• Wood consists of living and dead ceffs ol various sizes and shapes. (II) Brown Roi: The term rot is used to indicate decay or disease of timber. Conain types of fungi
• A living cell consisls or lour pdrts. namely (1} rnemb'rane. (fil prot,;?lasm (iii) sap (iv) core. Cell remove cellulose compounds from wood and hence. wood assumes ll1e brown colour due to removal
membrane consists mainly'Ol la, lissue and cellulose. Prolopkism is a granular, transparent, o! cellulose.
sed of carbon. h1•drogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur, Core (Ill) Dry Ao\: Dry rol occurs al places where 111ere is no free circula\ion ol air such as improp-01ly ventilated
eroly by !ho prese,·,co o1 phospM,us and ii is generally oval. basements, rooms. etc.
• Unseasoned soft woods and sap wood are easily atlack()d by dry 101.
S.2.1 Fellfng ofTree!i 1 I1 '
• Dry rot is also caused by charring, painting and tarring tlie unseasoned timber,
• To getlimber, lhe irees are knoc~d do•;,'1 or cul down er caused 1)1,:1, on the ground. This is knowri
I
as the felring ottrees. The impoita,il racts lo be remembered [Link] wilh!elling of trees areas
• The most favourable conditions /or the rapid growth of ilmgus responsible for df'/ rot are
lollows; ,, ·
Do , ·absence of sunlight, dampness, presence of sap, stagnant air and warmth.
• Method offell!ng: The lrees should be letred by experienced persons. The iree should ba cut from O • \Mien pall of timber is seriously affected by dry rot, /hr, damaged f)()rtion may be completely
a place a Ollie &boVe its roofs af!d, very near to lha gtc•jnd level.
romoveo';;nd the remaining unaffected portion should be painted with a solution of coppor
1. Age of trees for felling: The fg'e o! good trees ror failing varies !ram 50 lo 100 years. sulphale.
2. Season lor felling: In autum~[Link] spring, sap is i:i vigor,ous motion and hence. felting of trees
in lhese seasons should be ayctded. For hilly areas, mid•summor would be the proper season [iv) Heart rot: Tf1is is fo1mad when a branch has come out of a tree.
for foiling as there is heavy •ainlal! in winter. For plain areas, mid-winter would be the pmpur • The tree becomes weak and il gives out hollow sound when struck wilh a hammer,
season for felling as in summer. water contained in sap would be easily evaporated and ii will (v) Sap Stain: Cerlain types of fungi donol bring abouttho complete decayol [Link] they feed on
lead 10 the formation of cracl-:s. cell contents of sap wood. In doing so, sap wood loses it colour.
• It generally occurs when moisture content goos beyond 25 per cent or so.
5.3 Defects in Timber (vi) Wet Rot: Fungi cause chemical decomposilion ol wood or the timber and in doing so. they convert
Defects occurring In limber are grouped into the loflowing five categories: timber into a greyish brown powder.
1. Oe!ecis due lo conversion 2. Do!ecls due to fungi The irnpartant facts lo be remembered in connection with wet rot are:
3. De!ectsduetoinsects 4. Defectsduetona!uralforces • Allornale dry and wet conditions lavour the developmeni ol we\ rot.
5. Defeels due 10 seasoning • II unseasoned or improperly seasoned limbers are exposed !o rain and wirid, tr,ey become
easily liable /or the attack of wet rot.
1- Derects due to Conversion
(vll) White Ral:tri this cese. cer1aintypesof lungi attack tignin of wood and y.c,~r. a~sumes the 11ppearance
(I) Chip mark: Marks or signs placed by chips on the finished surface of timber.
of a white mass consisting of cellulose compounds.
(II) Diagonal grain: This defect is formed due to improper sawing of 11mber.
(iii} Torn grain: This delecl is caused when a small depression Is formed on lhe finished surlace of a. Defects due 10 Insects
Following are the insects which are usually 1esponsible lor the d~cay al limber:
timber by faning of a tool or so.
(i} Beetles
(Iv} Wane:This defect is denoted by !he p1esence of orig:nal rounded surface on tt,o;[Link]
piece of timber. • Tl1ey form p\n-holes of size about 2 mm diameter in wood. They a1lack the sap woocl ol a11
species of hard woods.
2. Defects due to Ftlngl • The limber is converted into line l!our-liko powder. They usually do not disturb tt,e outer shell or
Fungialtacit timber only when tho lollowing \WO conditions ara satisl1ect simultaneously: cover. Hence. timbor piece auacked by beetles may loak sound till it complelely fails,
lii The moistl)(e content ol timber is abo·,e 20 percent_ (ii) Marine Borers
(ill There is presoricc of air arid warrnH1 lor the growth o! fungi. • Tt1ese arc generally lound in sally water. Most ol \lie variet,os of marine bore1 s do not !eccl ori
II ;my of the above concutlon is abscrnt. decay of wood uue to fungi would not occur. Hence. di\' wood. Blt1 lhey rnakc holes or bore 1Urini11S in w~d for lak111g st,el1er.
wood ltaving moisture content less U1,m 20 par cent will remain sound for ce111uries. • The diameter ancl lengU1 ol these [Link] may go as hign as 25 rrn11 and 60 mm respecr.,voly.
• No timber is compleloly immune from the attack of mm111c borers.
.:1'!11·- ···------.. ·-·----·-- .. . -· .. - -- - - .... ... ··-·-··-·- - - - - - -
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.-Theory
.......
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with Solved Examples
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102 I Civil Engineering Postal Study Package Elm fflRDE ERS!:I
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Publlcollons
Postal Study Package 6!111] Construction Materials I 103

(!Ii) Termlles
• These are popularly known as while ants and \hay are round in abundance in lropical and sub-
tropical countries. These insects live in a colony and they are very last in eatlng away the wood ( e) Radial Shakes: These are similar 10 star shakes. But they are rine,
from core of the cross-section, They make tunnels inside 1he limber in different directions and irregular and numerous. Theytisually occur when tree is exposed to
usually do not disMb the outer shell or cover. sun for seasoning alter being felled down,
• Very tew good limbers such as teak, sat, etc. can resist the attack of white an!s.
4. Oafecls due lo Natural Forces
(i) Burls (ii) Callus (iii) Chemical stain Fig. Radial Shakes
(iv) Coarse grain (v) Deadwood (vi) Oruxiness
(vii) Foxiness (viii) Knots (ix) Rind galls (lll) Twisted Fibres: These a,e also known as wandering hearts
(X) Shakes (xi) Tl'lis\ed fibres (~ii) Upsets and they \ll'O caused by Wsling of young trees by fast blowing
wind. Timber with twisted fibres is unsuitable lor sawing.
(xiii) Wale/ stain (~iv) Wind cracks
(i) Burls; They rue particularly formed when a tree has received shock or injury in ils young age.
Fig. Ti\isled Fibres
(ii) Shakes: These are cracks which par11yorcompletely separate the libresor wood. Following are the
dilferenl vanc1ies or shakes:
(a} Cop Shakes: These are caused by the rupture of !issue (Iv) Upsets: These are also known as ruptures and lheyindicatc
in a circular direction es sliown in Fig. ll is a curved crack wood fibres which are injured by crushing or compression.
and i1 separates partly orm annual ring from the other. ll Upsets ere mainly due lo impr0per felling ot tree and
d~lops due to non-uniform growlh. It may no! prove lo exposure ol uee in its young age to fast blowing wind.
be harmi~I. ii it covers only a portion of ring. · Fig. Upsol

(b) Heart Shakes: These cracks

(v} Knots: These are base'ol branches or limbs
occur in lhe centre of cmss-
seclion of tree and they extend from pilh to sap wood Irr !he which are broken or cut off !rom the tree.
I
direction of medullary rays as shown in Fig. These cracks occur • The porlion from which lhe branch is
due to sl1rinkage of interior part ol tree which is approaching removed receives nourishment from 1he
matu1i1y. H!iart shakes divide the ires cross-section into lwo lo stem for a prelly long lime and it ullimarety
four parts. results ln !he formation of dark hard rings
whfc;h are known as lhe knots.
• These are caused by wood limb encased
by wood of tree trunk.
(c) Ring Shakes: When cup shakes cover the entire ring, they are known
• Caused when branch base embedded in timber by natural growth.
as ring shakes as sllown in Fig.

, Tsb/e: Classmcalion of Koois otl Size Basi~

Sh-
Siar / _S.No, lypoofknol Slzo
,, i.J Pinkno! lliamell!f uplo [Link] rnm
Fig. Ring Slm~cs
2. srnnn 1mo1 o;;imo1crbc™>er, 6.50 an,; 20 "'"'

,;,f
:l. M<>:Jiuml<nol O:iamelf:t 001\W.-eo 20 and 40 mm
(d) Star Shakes: Those are cracks which exlend lrorn bark mwarc!s 4. [Link] l<ncl [).amoll!fgromortl,an 40 rnrn
' \
\ .... the sap wood, They <1re usually confined tip lo the p\~n3 or sap
wood. They are usually formed due to extreme heat or fros!.
[Link] Shakes
 I

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)u4 I Chtll Engineering Postal Study-Package fHm fflRDE EJ:IS!::1
I@ MliffiU1@Ufi10191 Consrruaion Moumals I 1 ::iS

Table : Classification ~fKnms on Basis of Form and Qualily (Iv} Check: A check is a crack which separates hbres oJ wood. II does not extend from one end to the
&No. lypaefkMl
,. Oa!ldknol
.
%·.,. Rom•t1<J
The fil!lllsol kncta,,.~y ln!oo:omoclocl Wit~ lh0&0olsUJraJndiog"""'1 Hana,ft ,::aribo
other.
(v) Collapse; Due to uneven shrinkage, the wood sometimes !la!tens during drying. This is known as
oaslly ~ l o d (llll n,rnm body of WOOCI. 11;. ~«t &II!" 10 use 1•.iod will, sudl 01 kllOI lor t11e collapse.
""9"10l!ring p,irpasci;_
(vi) Honey combing: Due lo siresses developed during drying, the various radial and circular cracks
2. ~ k n o t ll lsalsol<n<W"'!L" an~ndknol and II is ro.......i t,,,,1ho odlonotf" •:gionv""-ld.
develop in the inle1ior portion ol timber. The timber thus assumes the honey-comb texture and the
3, ~i....it !tis als6kllOl\'!1aSa=m<>l ll lslreo lromdc<:.Jy [Link]<s. ll •L ~'IO<O<Jghlyfixed [Link]
and lleJlm ii cannot • ~r.:1!00 au! fn,m IM lx1'iy cl M>Od. r,•,i J>l)SQr,co of ~uch l<mls detect so developed is known as the honey-combing,
l'J
m;,'!as ~ ddllwlt plan<>. H.,.,..v,,r !ho wt,o.-J o>nltll!llng sue."- knots t.:ut ho u~ for
(vii) Radial shakes; These are radial cracks. They are explained ea1lier and are shown ill Fig.
$~p!llpas8S,; . I
4. laa,:oknal II llw~ pmlunlMry isltlgo d doad knot. Tl-,: Cbnlo of "1:Jlf-ru ool firmly hcJd in 1M (vili)Splil: When achack extends rrom orm end to the
svrroWldlng:waid. ">. , , other, ii is known as a split,
s. Rc<lrld- lllo=·•e<U~olthl$1;'l")"l,n,tlsellhorf01JM«ova~\11sobwinodby<OJ1!iogthokootnl (ix) Twist: When a piece or timber has spirally distorted
righ!l!ftglastoilslong8'!G. · i
along its length, it is known as a twisL H is shown
It Tlghtlu!ol I \ ] ~ profiminary s!ns!<>ol Ir,& )o,c)L Toe fibl"S ~l knol &o Jlrrnly hold In tho surrou:-"'"'9
woad. inligurc.
(x) Warp: When a piaca of timber has twisted out ol
(vi} RlooGells:TherindmeansbaikaridgMindicat~abnormalgrowth.
shane, it is said lo have warped.
• Peculiar curved swemngs lourid on lhe body of a lreo e, a kriown Fig. Tivis/
as the rind galls.
• They develop at points Iron, wh~re b1anches are improperly cul
5.4 Preservation of Timber
offorremaved. Preservatiori of limber is carried out lo achieve lhe following three objects:
• They are rarely found fn a tree and !he li~ber in lhls ,:,art is very (i) To increase the me of limber structures,
[Link] and nol du,able. (ii) To make the timber structures durable, and
5. Defects due to Seasoning (iii} To protecl lhe limber st1Uctures from lhe auack of destroying agencies such as fungi, insecls, etc.
Folfowingdetecls occur in seasoning pltocess o! wood: S.4.1 Requirements of a Good Preservative
(i) Bow (ii) Case-hardening
(iii) Cheek (r1) Collapsp (1) fl shoutd allow decorative treatment on limber afle1 being ,ipplied over timber surface.
(v) Cup (vi) Hone.,,-combing Fig. R;nd f/311 (ii) ll should be capable or covering a large area with small quantily.
{vii) Radial shakes (viii} Split {1ii) It should be cheap and easily available.
(ix:} Twist (x) Warp (iv) It should be free from unpleasanl smell.
(i) Bow: Thisdolect ls indica1ed by !he curvalure formed in lhe direc1ion or length 01 \ira:1ber. (v) Its penetrating power into wood fibres should be high. It is necessary for the prnsorvaIive 10 be
ellective lo peneIr:ite at feast for a depth ol 6 mm to 25 mm.
(vi) ll should ba durable and ~hould no! be affected by lighl, he11t. elc.
(vii) Ii should be non-inflammable.
(•,iii) It should be quite eflicil;!nl in killing fungi, insects. etc.
(ix) It should be safo and llarmlcss for humans and animals,
M ll should give pleiisant appearance to tho limber afler being applied over it.
(li) Cup: Thisdefecli~ indicated by the curvature termed mtre transverse / (xi) It should not affect Hie stmnglh characteristics ol 1imbcr.
direclionol limber. Unequal shrinkage in radial and !angential direction (xii) It shoutd not be e~sily washed away by water.
~~ed~ ' (xiii) Hshould nol corrode the metals wirh which it comes into coma ct.
(lil) Case Hardening: The exposed surface ol timber dr es veryl ,
,apidly. It !11eief01c shm11<sand is mder compression. The i, n e r i o r //, / 5.4.2 Types of Preservatives
surlacewhichhasnot comp!elely~ried isunder1ension. This ~ ~ . / Following preservatives mo c:ommo11ly used for Ille prr!5ervation ol Itmb0r:
delect is known as 1hecase • hardi!'iing and 1l usually occurs 1 AsCu lreatment ?.. Cl1emical salts 3. Co~I tar
in limbers which are placed a1 the bottom during seasoning. Flg, C!Jp ,1 Creosote oil 5 Oil paints 6. Solignurn paints
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Cansrruction Materials
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1. AsCu Treatment 5. Oi1Peln1s
AsCu is special preservative which was developed al the Forss! Research Institute. Dehrad(IO. lls The limber surface is coated with 2 or 3 coats ol oil painl.
composition is as lollows: The wood should be seasooed, otherwise sap will be confined and ii will lead tolhe decay of fimber.
1-Part by weight of hydrated arsenic penioxide. ( As 20 5 .2H20}. The oil paints preserve timber from moisture and makes ii durab.'e.
3-Parl by weight of blue vitriol or copper sulphate. ( CuS04 .5H20).
6. Solignum Paints
4-Part by weight of potassium dichrornale (K 2Cr p 7) or sodium dichrornale (Na 2Cr 20 7.2Hpl These paints preserve limber from white ants as they are llighfy toxic in nature.
This rnaierial is available in powder form. To prepare a solution of this material, six parts by weight
They can be mixed with colour pigment and applied in hot slato with the help or brush.
of AsCu are mixed in 100 par ls by weigh! of water.
The timber surlace may therefore be given the desired colour or appeaiance.

Do you know? As Cu preservalive gives limber protection against the attack of while ants. The surface S.4.3 Methods for Preservation
llealed with this preservative can be painled, polished, varnished or waxed. Following are the six methods adopted for preservalion of timber:
2. Chemical Salls 1. Brushing 2. Charring
These are waler-bOrne preservatives and they are mostly salts dissolved in water. The usual salts 3. Dipping and sleeping 4. HO! and cold open tank treatment
used are copper sulphate, mercury chloride, sodium fluoride and zinc chloride. 5. Injecting under pressure 6. Spra)•lllg
These preservalives are odourless and non-inflammable.
1. Brushing
3. Coal Tar • The soruIion prepared from preseivative ls applied on timber surface by good quality ol brushes.
Tile tlmber sur1ace is coaled with hot coal 1ar with the help of brush. The coal tar becomes workable This is 1he simplest method and ii is generally adopted lor seasoned Limber.
when heated. The process is known as lhe Jarring. The coal tar has unpleasant smell and appearance. The cracks should be filled up beforn the application of preseiva!ive.
umakes timber unsuitable for painting. It is cheap and tire resislanl. • Fqr beller penetration. the oll type preseivalive may be applied hot and ihe p1eservalive should bll
4. Creosole Oil liberally used on Iha surfaclJ.
In this case. timber surface is coated wilh creosote oiL The process is known as creosoting. Creosote oi, 2. Charring
ls ob\ained by lhe dislillal1on of tar. Creoso\ing is carried aul as follows: The method or chairing is rather very old and as such, 110 preserva:ive is used in this method.
(i} Timber is thoroughly seasoned and dried. T~e surface lo be charred is kept wet for about hall an hour and it is then burn1 up to a deplh of about
{ii) 11 is then placed in an air light chamber t 5 mm over a wood lire.
(iii I Air is pumped out from the chamber. The ctiarred porlion is then cooled wilhwater.
(iv) Creosote oil is then pumped under a high pressure ol about 7 10 IO kg/cm2 anci al temperalure or Due to burning. a IayeI of coal is formad on the surlace.
aboul50°C. ihis layer is not affected by moisture and ii is 001 a!tacked by white ants, fungi etc.
M Alter a period of about 1 10 2 hOurs, when timber has sullicienUy absorbed creosote oil, ii is laken The disadvantages of lhis method are:
out o! chamber.
(i)The charred surloce becomes black in appea<ance and hence ii cannot be used for exterior work.
• Creosote oil ls one of 1i1e bcsl antiseptic. It is a black or brown liquid, wea~ly affected by water,
(ii}There is some loss of strength of timber as the croi;s-section is reduced due lo charring, The
neither volalilo nor hy9roscopic, harmless lo wood or metal, inllammable, with an unpleasant
process of charring is generally adopted for lower endsol post for1encing, te1ephonee1c. 111hich2re
odour and having tow wood-penetrating ability lo tile eK(enl or I mm lo 2 mm only,
lO'be embedded in \hem round or to be inserted fn [Link] soil.
• Creosote oil should not l)e used for inleriorsur1aces ol dwelling houses. !oodslulf•s\orage prem,ses,
in underground installations and near inllamrr1able surfaces. 3. Dipping and Sleeping I I I
• In this method, the limber to be given preservative troa!ment is dippM or soaked for a short pcfiOd
The creoso!ing practically doubles tho life of timber and it '1s gencralty adopred for piles, in \he solulion of preservative.
railway sleepers. etc. Depending upor1 the net retention and lypeof timber. lhecreoso!e treated This motllod gives slighlly belier ponatralion o! preservai1ve than in case of brushing or spraying.
timber will normally increase in weight by 80010 3200 Neer mJ. Instead ol dippir\g, the s1dping or we11mg ol 1Jmberwith pmsmva1ivn may be earned out for a pcnod
varying from a few hours to days or week!..

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4. Hot and Cold Open Tank Trealment . ,. 5.6,1 Objects of Seasoning
• In lhlsmalhod, lhalimber lssu~ed ,11 a 1ankcon\ain11,g sotulion·pi proserva1ive which is healed (i) To allow timber lo burn readily, i1 used as fuel.
forarawhOIIIHllefflPeRi\Ureofs$"C •S5°C, . - (ii) To decrease the weight of timber and thereby to lower the cost or t,ansportation and handling.
• Tan1c is !hen allOWed to cool doMlf'8dually whRe [Link] is still ~utime,ged in the tank.
(iii) To make timber safe horn lhc attack of fungi and insects.
• This melllod isellecwe in giving !iJMeclion lo Iha sap wood. ;
.,,(\
(iv) To reduce the tendency of timber to crack, shrink and warp .
•~no Under Pressure .. . (v) To make timber fil for receiving lrea1111ent of painls, preservatives. varnishes etc.
• In this melhod. 1he preservative ~ e d under preswre into the ·1)inber. (Yi) To impan hardness. stillness, slrenglh and better electrical resistance lo timber.
• lJlls method is usually adopted in P'eosoling. . ·I •
• cf
This is tile most eileclive molllod treating timber wiu, tfJe pres~nlat;ve. 5.6.2 MeJhods of Seasoning
• II requires &pedal lreatment planf. ,. i . 1. Natural Seesonlnri
• Tbismelhodprovff to be essentidl ror 1realin9 non-duruble limber&\ln!Ch are lo be used el places In this method. the seasoning of limber is carried ou1 by natural air and hence it is also sometimes
where !here isa danger of ellack by f\.!ngi and insects. · ·· rerer,ed lo as air seasoning,
1' <

6. Spraying ( . . Advantages:
• Ill !his [Link] solullonol preservative Iii led in a spraying pistol ar,d II is then apptiedon limber (i) Depending on the climatic conditions. the moisture content of wood can be brought down 10 about
$1/rfa~ unclef prassur&. · ·~. t · 10-20%. ·
• This piston \VOl!ulunder c:ompresedeir. (n) It does no\ require skilled supervision.
• ThiS melhod is also qulle elleclivfl am.1 ii ls superior lt;.-,_n brushing,
{iii} This method of seasoning ~mber is cheap and simple.
(iv) It is uneconomical to pcovide artificial seasoning lo limber seclions thicker than 100 mm as such
5.5 Fire Resistance of Timber sections dry very slowly. Hence such thicker limber sections are [Link]!ly seasoned by tt,e process
With respecuo 1hefiie-ieslstanC8, the limbet is classified as refractory limber and non-refractory limber. of air seasoning.
lherelractorytimber isnon-1minous and ii COS llatcatchlireeas!ly. 1J1eexamples of relraclory timbers arual,
leak. etc. Ths non-rekactoly limber ls resinousiano it catches llreeanliy. The examples ol norwe!ractory limbe,s Disadvantages:
are Chir, de<:Oder, fir, etc. ' (0 As the process depends on the natural air. ii sometimes becomes dillicull to control it
To make limber 1%11Xe lire-resistant, thct1ollowing methods are adopted; .(ii) The drying of dilferenl surfaces may not be even and unilorm.
{iir) 11 ends al thick sectior15 ol limber are not projected by suimble moisture proof coating, there are
1. AppRcallonot Sgaclal Chemlcals
• ll Is found lhal two coats of solution cl [Link] or sodium .-;(senate with strenglh ol 2 per cent are quite chances lor end splilting because !he [Link] or such limber dry rapidly in comparison 10 !he centr<1I
effective in rendering !he timber lie-resistant. portion.
• WIien lhe temperature rises, thei;li!ther melt or give o/1 ga5:&s which hinder or forbid combustion. 2. Artiliclal Seasoning
When the wood is treated wilh ~rine, it does not inflame even at high 1emperature, but it merely
Following are the reasons lor adopting the artificial seasoning 10 the natural seasoning.
moulders. i.e.. burns slnw!V wilhl$ul flame. 11\e an!lpyrines containing salts or ammonium or boric
ano phosphoric acids are considb:red lo be the bes! in making the limber lire-resistant. (a} The defects such as shrinkage, cracking ancl warping are minimized.
(b) The drying is controlled and there are practically no chances lor the auack ol lungi and insects.
2. Sir Abel's Process
(c) The drying of dilferert surface is even and uniform.
• 111 this process. limbOf surface is cleaned 11nd ilis coaled with a dilute solution of sodium s~icate. A
Cf8allt-li1ce paslo of slaked fal limo is then applied and linally, a concen!rated solutlon ol silicate of (d) ll considerablYreduces the period al seasoning.
soda is applied on lhe limber &ulface. This process is quite satisfactory in making,the timber lire- (e) There is better control on circulalior. er air, humidity and temperature.
resistanL (fl The wood becomes more suftable for painting and gluing,

Various methods of artificial seasoning are as folfows:

5.6 Seasoning of Timber
(j) Bolling
By th& process ol seasoning. the excess water of limber is e:dracled in such a way IIUll lhc m01s1ur~
• In this method or artificial seasoning, limber is immersed in waler andwaler is then boiled. But
colllentol seasoned timber cOffl!SpOl\ds to the required moisture content in limber for lhc environmenls in wt1ich
it aflccts lhe elasticity and strength or wood
il is lO be usod.
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(II) Chem!cal seasoning The process by which Umber is cu! and sawn into suitable sections is l<oown as the conversion.
• This is also known as sail seasoning. In this melhod, timber is immersed in a solution of suilabJ~ Following impar1ant facts in connee!ion with the convefsion ol 1imber are to be cemembered:
salt. It is then taken out and seasoned in the ordinary way. The interior surface ol limber dries in (i) The allowance should be made for shrinkage, squaring and plannin9. l1 is about 3mm to 6 mm.
advance of exterior one and chances of formation ol exlernal cracks are reduced, (ii) The wooden beams should be sawn in such a way that !hey do not cootain pith in lheitacss-secliofl,
(ill) Electrlcal seasoning To achieve this, lhe limber is first sawn through pith into two halves.
• In this method, use is made ol high frequency alternating currenls, (iii) To obtain strong timber pieces, the saw cuts should be made tangential to the annual rings and
• This is the most rapid method or seasoning, practically parallel lo the direction ol medllllary rays.
• Initial and maintenance costs are so high that it becomes uneconomical to season limber on (iv) The conversion may be achieved either by ordinary sawing, quarter sawing, tangential sawing or
commercial basis by ll1is method radial sawing.
(!v) Kiln Seasonlng
Ordinary Sawing: Baslard sawing or Hal sawing or slab sawing:
• In this method, drying ol timber is carried out inside an airtight ctiamber or oven.
• The saw cuts are langenlial co the annual rings and right through the cross-section of timber piece.
• Air which is lully saturated with moisture and which is heated lo a temperature or about 35°0 to
Toe tog is moved forward and backward on the plat form of a sawing mill.
38°C is then !arced inside \he chamber by suitable arrangement.
This is a very easy and qulck method or sawing and it is widely adopted in our country.
(v) Water Seasoning
• Timber pieces are immersed Whl'llly in water, preferably in runnin:i water of a stream. Care 11 is also mos! economical method and wastage of useful limber is the minimum.
should be taken lo see that timber is not partly immersed. • However the planks obtained by this method are liable to warp and twist as a resull or unequal
• The thicker or larger end of timber iS kept pointing on lhe up sire am side. s~rinkage.
• Timber is taken out after a period o! about 2 lo •I week3. During this period, sap contained in Quarter Sawing:
limber gels washed away by waler. The saw culs are tangential to U1e annual rings and they meet each other at right angles.
Tllblo ; Compa,iso,, 1Jc/1ceen Nalural Seasoning and Kiln Seasoning II may produce fine figure wood when adop,ed in case of timber having no dfslinctmedu11a!y rays.
[Link]. ltf3m N1111lu~I Stnonlng KIin S<tuonlng
Tangential Sawing: Plain or llat gratned sawing:
,. Moi!itum- amcont 1t ts (f11°110Jlttotcduc.o th() rnol'[Link] Tho mo~tuio oont-on? c.,n be
• The saw cuts are langential lo !he annual rings and !hey meet each other at right angles.
eoruonlbi!low 15~18%. ,~ucud lonn)"de,9,ltodl4lwl
2. N.o1ll.J'l'"o ll l's ~mrJo and [Link]..'11. lll,,o,pon....,, Oodq\lilo lcd>n;o;,1. This method is adopled wl1en the annual rings are very distinct and the meoulta,y rays are not
3, Q,Jaily or timber n,c ,~, s.e.1~00 11mbor i!. moro n,o krln so1BOnod limbier b ki~:w clearly de1ir1ed.
ti.1blotolhci1l!.ndt.:l ofh·tSCGts nnd li:\bfa 1D tho :itmeks of 1n5Del1 and The plank obtafned by this sawing warp loo much because the section are weak as the medullary
fongi. ru.,,1,
[Link] which impart strength 10 the longiludina11ibres are cut
4. Spoco I{ ro(lolro~ maro spai:::o for tt rnqyltesloss 5p.100 for:5lac:[Link].
!;1.."'\df.-1g Radial Sawing or Rill Sawing:
5. Si>""d UlS ,, :; low [Link] ss. tu~ .. quldtprocns.s. The saw culs are made radially in a paraltel direction to the medu11aiyrays.
6, S!ron!f(h u ~':'a~ ~1roo~r11mtie,. lto"'·e~ n litllawcn~orl>fT'lhcr. Tlilis method is used !or con~ersion ol hard timber.
The 1lmber obtained by this method sl1rinks and warps to a less degree and 11 is dlstoned ,o the
S,6.3 Conversion ofTimber
minimum.
Saw • Strength of sawing in radial > quarter > ordinary> tangential. Plywoods are available in different
c,;>mmercial forms s(1ch as ballenboard. laminboard, metal laced plywood, multiply, three-ply,
veneered plywood. 1 1 I , ·

S. 7 Market forms ofTimber

1. B13tten: This is a Ii, nbcr piece whoso bread Ill and thickness do not exceed 50 mm.
2. Baulk: 11 is a roughly squared liml.)er piece and ll is ob1ained by removing bark and sapwaod, Oni!
Ordino,y S.ivM1.J
of !he cross-sectional dimenslon exceeds 50 mm, while the otller exocods 200mm.
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3. Board : It is a plank, I.e. a timtk p,ace with paraiil • sides. lls thickness ls loss than 50 mm and • The pressure applied on plywood varies lrom 7 lo 14 kg/cm2 •
Wid!hexc(l(lds 150mm. l ~ • Plywoods, however, are not suitable in situations subjected lo direct shoc:ks or impacts.
4. Deal: llisa piece of soft wood WlU\ parallel sides. Its ll'ltckness varies lrom50mm to 100 mm anii
Advantages of Plywoods:
11$wldlh does noi exceed 230fun. .. _
• As plies are ptaced al right angles 10 each other, e~pansion and shrinkage are comf>aratively very
5. Eni: This is a short pleat of batten. deal. scanlllng, etc:
low.
6, log: It 1$ lhe lrunk of tree oblairttltt alter removal of branches.
• They are elastic and hence lhey are not liable to spill, J
7. Plank: ltls alimberplecewilh~f!el sides. Its lllicMess ls less than 50 mm and its width exceeds
• They do no1 split in an axial direction.
50mm. '.
8. Pole: II is a sound long log ol ~ : its diameter does not Jxt:~a 200 mm. II ra,also known as a
• They possess uni!orm tenslle strength in all directions.

s, Fiberboards
9. spa,; ' limber, the leng1t1 of sideibeing 50 mm to 150 mm
Cuarterlng: It rs a square pi~of These are rigid boards and they are also known as pressed [Link] reconstrucled wood. The thickness
10. ScantUng: 1his Isa timber pleci4 whose breadth and thickness exceed 50 mm. but are less lhan varies rrom 3 mm to 12 mni,
200 mrnln lenglh.
lmpreg Timbers .
5.7.1 lndustrial11mber Timberw!lich is lullyor partly covered wilh resin is known as impreg timber. The usual resin employed is
phenol !Qfmalde'hyde whlc'1 is [Link] in water. Veneers Of thin slrlps ol woods aro taken and lhey are
. of. Industrial
Following are !he varieties . limber:
immersed In resin, Toe resin nus the space be1weenwood cells and by chemical reaclion. a conso!idaled
1. Veneers mass develops. It Is then cured at a IemperaIure ol [Link] 1so•c lo 160"C. lmpreg timber is avallable
Thueare thinsheetsorslicesof WDOQ ' of superior quality. 111e lh!ckhess ol veneers vanes ltom0.40 mm under trade names su~h &fl Formica; Sunglass, Sunmica; elc,
to 6 mm or mom. They are cbteined"fly ro!llting a fog o! .vood againsl a sharp knife ol rotary cutter.
Vefleersafter beingRIIIIOVed are dr&frrikllns to remove moisture. Advanteges ol lmpreg J1mber:
• ll is nol alrected by ~oislure and weather conditions.
FollowlngtactsBhoutdqe,mited: t
• ll is slfllilg and durable.
• It posses&es more electlicat insulalion.
l!mbor • II p1esen1s a descent appearance.
• It resists acidic errects.
., The con1rac1ion and e~parision of impreg timbers a_re about 25 to 40 per cenl less ll1an ordinary
timber.

5. Compreg Timbers
• The process of preparing compreg limbers is same as that of impreg limbers except that curing is
carried out under pressure.
• The strength and durability or compreg timbers ate more as compared lo tha irnprcg Umbers. Tha
Rg. Veneers spocilic gravi1y of compreg timbers is about 1.30 lo 1.35. 1

• Edges of veneers are foined and sheets of decorative designs are prepared. Batten board l
• lmf111n limbers which are suitable !or veneers are mahogany, oak. rosewood, sissoo, leak. etc. II is a solfd block with core of sawn thin wood.
• The processor preparing a sheet ol veneer is known as veneering. · • The thickness of core is about 20 mm 25 mm and to\al thicknes.s ol board is about 50 mm.
• Veneers are used loproduce~ds. battenboards and laminboards. • Tha direction of the grains ol core bal!ens is at 1igh.t angtes
2. . Plywoods to 1hal ol lhe adjacent outer ply sheets.
• Tl!reeormorevoneeJS inodd~ersme placed one above lheother with lhedirect1on of grains or • These boards are light and. strong.
successive layers at right anglas 10 each other. Tiley are held in position by applica11on of suitabte • They do nol crack or split easily.
adhesives. The placing of veneers nmmal 10 each other increases lhe longitudinal and transverse They are widely used 101 making partition walls, packing
Strenglhs of plyvJOOd. cash. st,allers or doors and windows.
114 I Civil Engineering Postal Study Package Eiill:J fflRDE ERS!::I mRDE ERSY Postal StitdyPackage mt1J Construction Materiols I 115
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7. LerninBoard 14. Slructure; lt should be unilorm, the !ibres should be firmly added.
II is simil;:ir lo the batten board except 1hal the core is made of multiple veneers. • The medu11iuy rays should be hard and compact.
n,e thickness of each veneer does nol exceed 6 mm and lolal thickness or bo11rd is about so mm. 15. To!.i"hness: A good 1imoer should be tough i.e. ii should be capable ol offering resis1ance lo the
The external plies are of !hick veneers and they are firmly shocks due lo vibra\ion.
glued with core to !arm a solid block. ~ ~ ;;, :;, ~ ~

'• This properly of timber would be essemlal when itis to be used !or tool handles, parts of motor
• These boards have !lie same uses as those oi
'E ~t cars and aeroplanes.
ballenooards, ~;;;;., ~
8;;"
E !J : 16. Water permeablllty: A good timber should tiave low waler permcahUily whieh is measured by Ille
"' quantity ol water filtered through a uni! surface area ol specimen of wood.
5.8 Qualities of Good Timber J
.., ~ ~ ~ _;;, :;> :,,

1. Appearance: A freshly cut surface ol timber should 17. Weight: The. limber wilh heavy weight is considered to be sound and slrong.
Fig. Laminooard
exhibit hard and shining .ippearance.
2. Colour: The colour of timber should preferably be dark, The light colour usually indicates lirnbervli\h 5.9 Important Indian limber Trees
low strength.
1. Babu I: It is used for bodies and wheels of bullock carts. agricultural inslrumenls, tool handles, well
3. Defects: A good timber should be 1ree from serious defecrs such as dead knots. !laws. shakos etc. kerbs, etc.
4. Durablllly: A good limber should be durable.
It is used !or making cabinets,
• II should be capable: of resisling lhe ai::iion of fungi insets, dunlscals, physical agencies and
2. Banyan: It is used for aerial roots for 1en1 poles, well curbs, etc.
mechanical agencies.
3. Banteak: It is used !or building construction, boat cons1ruc1ion, furniture, e1c.
• If wood is exposed lo lhe acUonof aids and alkali for a profonged period. ii is seriously damaged.
4. Deodar: It is used for making cheap furniture, railway carriages, railway sleepers, packing boxes.
5. Elasticity: This is !ha property by \'!Mich Umber rel urns lo its orjginal shape when load causing its
deformation is removed. slructurafY:ork, e1c.
5. Guava; II is used for making toys. handles of instruments, engraving work, em.
• This property of timber woulcl be essential when ii is to be used for bows, carriage shafts, spoa
goodelc. 6, Hopea: It ts used lor ordinary house construction. railway sleepers, piles. boat bullding. etc.
• Elasticity of limber is 1.0 >< 10'-1.5 x 10< N{mm2. 7. ka1hal: ll is not attacked by whlle ants.
6. Fibres: The limoer should have straight libres. ll is used !or piles. plaUorms ol wooden bridges, door and windOI", panels, etc.
7. Fire resistance: Th<c timber is a oad conductor o! heat. 8. Mulberry: 11 is strong. tough and elastic, II 1akes u1, a clean finish. It can be well seasoned. ll is
• II dense wood offers good resistance lo the !ire and ii requires suUicienl heat lo cause allow. turned and carved easily. Its weight alter seasoning is about 650 kgfm3. II is found in Punjab.
8. Hardness: A good timber should be hard i.e. it should oller resistance when il is being pene1ra1eci 0
Jt is used !or [Link] and sport goods like hockey slicks. tennis rackets. cricket bats, etc.
by anolher bod~ 9. Osk: It is used for preparing sport goods.
• Tho chemicals present in hard wood and density or wood impart hardness lo the limber. 10. Rosewood or Blackwood: II is used for furniture of S1Jperior quality. caolnet work ornamental
9. Meehan Teal wear: A good timucr should no1 deteriorate easily due lo [Link] wear or abrasion. carvings, elc.
• lhis properly of limber would be essenlial for places where timber would be subjecl to 1rafhc. 11. 'Sal: It is used for railway sleepers. ship building, bridges, slructural w01k. elc, Sal poles ara used as
10. Shape: A good timber sl1oulcl be capable of retaining ils shape during conversion or seasoning. foundation piles.
• II should not bow or warp or split. 12. Sissoo: 11 is used for' high class furniture. plywoods, bridge pries. sport goods. railway sleepers.
11. Smell: A good timber should l1ave sweot smell ,etc, I\ is a very qoodmalerial !or decorative W01ksandcarvings.
• An unplcasanl smell indicates decayed limber. 13. Toon: ll is used rot rLrniture. packing boxes. cablnet making. door panels, etc.
12. Sound; A gootl timber $l1oul(l give oul a clear ringing sound wl1cn struck.
• An <Jull l1oavy sounr!. wlien struck. indrcales decayed timber.
13. Strength: fl good \1111br:;r sl1ould be suong for working as slruclural 1nen11Jer such as 1nist tmam.
rafler •
• Ii should be capabl;-, of lakir.g loads slowly or suddenly.
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Q.1 Sapwoodc:onsislsol . Q.6 In wr'.ch of the ro:lowing directions, the strength

(a) innermost annolarrings around the ifflh o1 tirnber Is maxlr,,um?
{b) portion ol timber ootween heartwood and (a) parallel to grains
cambium layer (b) 43' to grains Structural Steel & Other
(c} lhin layers below lhe bark 'i (c) P,:!rpan~ic1ular le grains
(d) thin Hbre whidl e;dends from lhf pill; (d) sc1rne in an dh,ctioris
I
Construction Materials
outwards and holds the annular· rings
Q.7 P!yw:::iod has lhe advantage of
logelher
(a) greater lo englh in longer uireclion
Q.2 Which of lhe loltov,,ng trees yields hard wood?
(a} OeO<far
(c} Shishum
: .{bl Chir
(o} Pine
(bl
(c)
(d)
greater le
. ength in sh9rter direction
same·tensjlg sl!englh in all direclions
' "
none cl th~e.
6. 1 Introduction
Q.3 In which of 100 following pafrs•bolh treas yield 0.8 The age ol a tree can be known by examining
Metals are used extensively in structures.
softwood? {a) cambium layer (b) annular rings
(a) Oeodar and Sllisllum (c) _medullary rays (d) hearl Wood • Melals which are used lor engineering purposes are called as ferrous metals wilh iron as the main
(b) ChlrandSal . consliluenl. e.g. Wrought iron, cast irori. stainless steel etc.
0.9 Plywood is made by bonding together lhin layers • Other type ol metals include non-ferrous metals like copper, zinc, Un, lead etc. wherein iron is not the
(c) SalandTeak ., · ..
(d) Chil"MdOeodar.
ol ;.,,ood
in· suc.b a way that thB angle between mairi cons1ituen1. ·
gr;;ins of any layer to grains of adjacent layers is
0.4 Which or the following limber is suitable for (a} O' (b) 3Y ,
making SpoftS goods? {c) 45" (d} gy 6.2 Ferrous Metal
(a) Mulberry (b) Mahogan'/ Iron is an element with atomic number 26 and occurs in four dillercril allotiopic lorms viz. u. ~- ·r
Q_10 The praclical lirnit ol moisture content achieved
(c} Sal (d} Oeodar and 6.
in air drying or timber is
Q.5 Themoisturecontentinawellseasoned timber is (a) 5% {b) 15%
a iron is weak and duclile. possess magnetic proper1ies and is unable to dissolve carbon and forms
(a) 4% to 6% (b) 10o/~ ro 12%
bee (body centered cubic) structure.
(c) 25% (d) 35%
(c) 15% to 20% (d) 100% ~ i1on is hard. brittle, non.• magnetic and disso11•es carbon.
• yiron is very similar lo jl. iron and forms fee (!ace centered cubic} structure.
1. (b) 2. (c} 3. (d} 4. (e) 5. (b) Ii iron is non-magneUc and absorbs very little carbon.
6. (a} 7. (c} 6. (b) 9. (d) 10. (b) • yiron containing carbon is called as auslonilic and o. iron containing carbon is called as ferrillc.

6.2.1 Iron
•••• Iron is the most lipportanl and widely used structural material witll abundant availability bu! not in
pure form but ins1eadwith other minerals.
• The maior ores of iron with percentage iron in tl1em are as follows:
Hacmelile (Fep 3) 70%
Magnetite (Fep.)- 70 75%
Umonite (2Fe70a.3Hp) GO%
Iron pyrite (FeSJ) 47%
Siderite(FeCOJ) 40%

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• The principle of extracting iron rrom any type of iron ore is 1he same i.e. heating lheore in presence • 'Hollow easting: Here asclid core is placed whetelhe hollow is required .
cl a reducing agen1 resulling in the lormalion or CO and/or CO2 , liberalcd gasses and the pure iron. - Aller casting, 1he core and Iha mould ere 1akenout.
lrcn alloys freely wllh other eremenls and l\s prope/1ies can be altered by varying the composition ol - Casling material become11 hollow due to t'1e core.
conslituenls (mainly carbon). - This melhod is used for caSllngcolumns and piles.
6.2.2 Pig Iron • Vertical sand casting: Here lhamouldbolc and the sand COl'eare kept in lheverticalpasition. Upon
cooling, the core is taken out by crane. nils method is used in !he manufacture of pipes.
It is the iron [Link] is obtained from the blast furnace. The iron ore is crushed into smaller pieces and
• Centrifugal casting: In crdinary casting, many blow holes are left because cl little control over
lhe ore is lhen calcined lo remove 1he moisture.
temperature and sand mould. This is overcome by centrifugal ~rig.
This calcined ore is smelted in the blast furnace where iron gels redu~d.
- Here molten mela1 Is poured in a revolving metallic cylinder in a controlled manner at aboul
Limestone is added as llux lo remo~e sulphur, ash etc. This IJux combines wilh 1he luet ashes and 10,000rpm.
imputilies in rhe iron ore to form lusible produclS which separa1e ou~ lrom the metal as slag. - This meth?d gives dense <;asling with nne grained structure having uoilcrm physical properties.
Pig iton is lhe very 111st form ol iron which is then subjectod lo various metallurgical processes to - This malhod is used lorcasiing large diameter pipes. gun barrels etc.
add dillerenl percentages ol carbon and other ma1erials lo form dillerenl ferrous metals like cast
• Ole casting: This casting is done under pressure of about 140 x 10'5 N/mm2•
iron. wrought iron, steel etc.
, - The die ls cooled with lhe appllca1ion ol water and lhus Iha metal solidifies quickly thereby
Composition: Pig iron contllfns 3 - 4% carboli. 0.5 - 3.5% silicon, 0.5 • 2% manganese, 0.02 · 0.1 'lo facilllaling early removal or c~sling.
su1p11ur and 0.03 -1 % phosphorous. - This method is quite suitable !or commercial purposes slnceilischeapasmmpared toolher
• . Properties: methoos o! casting.
- 1t Is hard and btit11e and melts easily at 1200'C.
[Link] Properties of Cast Iron
- II cannol be magnetized but can be hardened.
II is hard and brillle wilh specilic gravio/.o! 7.5.
It has lligh compressive streng1h but is weak In 1ension and shear.
It can neither be riveted/bolled nor welded.
- Pig iron does nol rust and riveting/welding cannol be done,
It is strong in compression (600 N/mm1) bu1 is wea1dn tension (150 Nfmrn2) and shear.
• Uses; • , It has low melting paint (1200°C} and geu; affected by sea water.
- I\ is used lor making base pla1es, columns, door brackels etc,
• 11 canr.01 be magnetized and is not suitable tor forging.
6.2.3 Cast Iron • Casi Iron conlainlng large amount of chromium and manganese lshavingapermaoonllywhilecolOU(
Pig Iron obtained from the furnace is re-melted with limestone (as llux) and coke in a furnace (Cupola while 111at containing high silicon is grey in CO!our.
furnace). [Link] h11""ritles In Cast Iron
ll'le moll en motal obt11ined lrom furnace is poured inlo moulds ol desired size. This produc\ is called Carbon: It influences most the physical and mechanical properties or cast ilon.
as cast iron. - As percentage of carbon increases. the mellir.g temperat111eof cast iron reduces.
Cast iron con\ains 2. ~% carbon iri two forms viz. (i) in a stale ol chemical combination as combined - As carbon conlent in cas! iron increasos, shrinkage reducea.
carbon (known as cemen1ite} al'ld (ii) as free carbon (as graphite) in rhe mixture. • Silicon: Silicon when presen!ln minule amoums (0.5-3%) increases the [Link] molten cast iron,
Thus quallly al cast iron depends an the slate al carbon in which ii exists. decreases lhe blow ,holes anti increases the density of castings.
- It Iedm;es 1he so,lubilily o! ca1bon in iron.
Dilference betweeri sleet and cast iron;
Sreel is plastic: and !orgcable while cast iron is neilher plastic nor lorgeable. - It ,educes shtin~.age of cast iron.
- When silicori cpntem is increased up to 6% then iron becomes hard and has mirror like lfac111re.
6.23.1 Cut Iron: Methods of Casting Sulphur: 11 is 11igl1ly.lu11desirable in cast iron [Link] f1TT1ited IO 0.1%.
• Sand casting: Here u,e mollen rnelal is poured into a cavity in a mass of packed sand. - It cornbinos with manganese 10 f01m manganese sulr,ittlde (MnS). In case manganese 1s very
_ Wooden [Link] are used for making the moulds which are removed when sand gels dried UJJ low i11 quar1!iiy so that ii becomes def1cicnt for sulphur then sulphur combines with iroo to form
Ench mm1l<.I Is provided with a hole lor casting \hrougt1 whicl1 lhe molten iron is p_ournd iron sulphk!e (FeS). .
Anott1cr hole ,s also provided 101 the escape or air and other hot gases. lhese sulphides so!idi!yat very low temperatures than the casl 1ranand thus tend lo make tl;e
- Alter Ille iron gets cooled. 1l1e mould is broken up and cost iron is taken out. cast Iron briU!e and weak al highenemperatures.

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- Highsulphurconten! makes lhetron brittle and hard c"'O increases shrinkage. This is neutralized 6.3 Wrought Iron
by Ille additior, or silicon. 1
ll is obtained by removing impurities lrom the cast iron and is considered lo be lhe pure iron.
• Phosphorous: It has no considetl:lthi e!!ect on cast fron w1'\en present in amount which is less than
• The total impurities are limited 100.5% with maximum carbon content a! 0.15%, silicon 0, 15-0,2%,
o.5% but usually it is present in !he\ange o! 0, 1• 1.5%. '
phosphorous 0.12 - 0.16%, sulphur 0.02- 0.03%, manganese 0.03- 0.1 %.
- Phosphorous when present In amount mare than 2%, rnal<es the ca~l iron brillle arid reduces ils II is produced in a reve1beratory ( or puddling) furnace.
[Link]. , r The molten iron is firs! refined by blasting air in !he (urnac:e,
High phosphorous iron is muc~-more Huidand is su:,atile for ornamental casIit1gs, The melal is then cooled do':"n and poured into moulds. This metal becomes briUle.
• Manganese: Manganese when present in 1!1eJangeoro.<1- 1.2%, combines 1'1ithsulphvr followed by • This metal is melted in furnace where the metal melts due to burning ol gas,
carbontoformmanganesecarbide! II l • Aller melting, puddle balls are produced which are sent for shingling.
It increases the hardness and [Link] strength of sth•l, • The balls are seni !O groove rollers to form flat bars. This process is repealed several limes 10
~ Manganese increases the soru~mty o! carbon in iron nnd rel:Juces liberation o! graphile, remove the impurities.
- Excess ol manganese increases shrinkage o! iron. 6.3.1 Properties of Wrought Iron

Tebllt; Typ9; of C8SI fn;!(i It is ductile. malleable, tough and is moderately elastic (modulus q! elaslicily 1.86 x 106 t~/mm 2),
!ts ullimate compressive strength is abour 200 N/mm2 and tensile strength ol about ~ON/mm?..
[Link]. 'fypo Proport]Q$ Compoelmm (%) u, ...
Transverse to lhe direction o( rolling, (he tensile strength r1;1nges from 60 • BS% or its tensile slrength
J. G,ey Good moc:Nr.e- obllily; f..,. carbon 2.s.:us l"ipo,$, fi1Ungll. in longitudinal direction.
l!llJllifll) pc,lm. N!,1$ OMly Sitieon 1-2 ... Joo,mow,,
n air. ~ 1 e for-aeld Manganoso 0.4-1 whoo.I$ OtC.
Melting pain! of wrought iron is 1500"C and specific gravity 7.8.
alladt.1111ycd<>11tcd Sulphur 0.0-,.1.2 Unlike cast iron. it can be lorged and weld ad.
Fhosphcrous 0.1-1
' • It resists corrosion effectively.
2. \\Mo Hrud, brilllo. dil1irult 1"" Ce,t,on 1,7S-2.3 Fe,- manufadunng 11 is tough and can \'lilhstand shocks.
machining, silV<:JY "i'tlla s,11con 0,5-0.9 mallonhk> Iron,
cclca,rud Mungan<>50 0.15--D.5 '"'1><Jght !ton l>lC. ' • At a temperature of about 900'C, it becomes so soft thal ils two pieces can be joined by hammering.
Pl>oopho<tlus 02-0,1 Alloying elemenls Iha! [Link] used with wrought iron are nickel (Ni), copper (Cu) and rnotybdenum(Mo).
[Link] 0.15-025
Nickel in quanlilies ol about 1,5 • 3.5% subs1an1ially increases the elastic limit and tensile s1rengIh.
3. Molloalilo O<,lll!Md !Jcm c:isl lr1l!l by cartion [Link] A!JU>mot,;lo,
Nickel also helps In preventing the reduc1ion or impact slrenglh al sub-2ero temperatures.
plll\iattcmoYalolMn, C. SI, SHlcon 0,4-U narlrulturnl
Pl!MS, A'inlal!l<las""1~o Ph<l!tphorru• 0.1 _cquip.,..,ats, roll - r:,,,d Copper when added 10 wrought iron increases the corrosion resistance property.
oodblack bo<)l!h\/Orilltl<IS - er,glnoonn11
,~~rmnts olc.
6.3.2 Uses of Wrought Iron

4, Mallled Oblalmd by ho;iling -.,,;;1 . Smalea.s!ir.g, For making roof coverings, rive ls, chimneys, gales etc .
Iron wl!h powdfl'IOd
[Link]~glt!'M!,;s, 6.4 Steel
fracllned su,fam •hows I
greyond"1N!o p:,ldlcs it is the mosl suitable building material among all lhe metallic matarrals.
5. ct>illed Rollo, ono grindino mils. By suitably conlrolling the carbon coolenl and 011,er alloying elements and heat 1reatme111, a desired
[Link] by melllng cast 1,...,
~.ilh lfd'-¼cllts1"6gb! ptslon •• spokes ale. comb,nation o! sIrenglh and dL1c11liIy can be oblained.
of wmugh! i'Rln scmp, On the basis of carb9n content, s1eel is classifies as follows:
i. T""Qllem!d Moda by ~ .,.,,, iron Sli.<IS T8b[r,; Types of SIMI
tn;i<Jl.y wh!dt n.,kos u.,
outorourfaa>bonl [Link]. Typo ors1 ... 1 Corbon cootont (o/,)
I. Dead m,ld sloc1 ~0.15
6.23.4 -UsesofCilSt!ron
2. 114,ld Slool (11\S) 0.15-0,3
Due 10 low cost strength and case ol n,c:l!ing aru:1 casting into various sl1apcs. ease or machining . &••--
2, Mlldiurn c.,rban ~tc,cl 0.3-0.6
arulhaving high damping capacity, cast iion ,s wic!ely used in eng:[Link] consIruc1iorisand machines.
J, H,gh c.-ubcwl Slocl (or hard slool) o.a-1.5
---
• lt is usod for making ornamental castings like lamp posls, wall brackets, bathroom li!tings, chairs
etc. ("1¾ is. calksd il!", C:.15l !Jcol rs tool S'[C-Clj
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• 'The quenching medium is generally saft waler, water or oil depending on lhe desired cooling rate:
6.4.1 Properties and Ui;es of Various Types of Steel This heal ireatment is given in order 10 have a desired hardness up le a certain depth in sleet
6A,1.1 MIid Steel 2. Tempering
11 is also known as low carbon steel or soft steel. • Hardened plain carbon steel is in lts melaslable condition or at equilibrium.
It is malleable, duc1ile, tough and more elastic than wrm1gh! iron. • 'This hardened steel is re-healed at temperature below the critical temperature range which gives
II can be fo1ged and welded, steel in stable condition.
II rusts quickly and can be [Link] permanently. Tempering is used to relieve !he surface strains that develop when a thick piece or steel is cooled
lls specme gra•1I1y is 7.3. ultimate compressive s11e11gtl1 is aoo • 1200 N/mm2 and ullimale tensile rapidly.
strength is 600 • 800 N/mm 2• • ,The 1emperi11g temperature varies from 100 le 700•c.
It is used for manufacturing rolled sections, reinforcing bars, rool coverings, sheet plies and rails. Higher the temperature of tempering, softer is lhe resulling steel.

[Link] High Carbon S1ee1 Annealing

Carbon content varies 1rom0.55-1.5¾. It is a general term applied for heaiing and stow coofing ol metal or any Olher materiafwhich has
• II is also called as hard steel. ,develol'Jed strarn due to rap1d cooling.
II is tougher ;;ind more elastic than mild steel. Herc steel is heated below a critical iemperatura such Iha! strain re-ciyslallization occurs and then
11 is diilicult to forge and weld. cooled dawn,
lls ultimate compressive strength is 1350 N/mm2 and ultimate tensile strength is about Normally the healfng temperature ranges lrom 500 to600°C.
1400·2000 N/mmZ and specilic gravity 7.9, ,Anneafing Imparts one or more or lhe following properties in steel:
It is used in pre-slressed concrete members and in RCC. - Ii removes strain Introduced due to rapid cooling.
Due to its ability lo take shocks and thus il is used for making tools and machine parls. - It imparts softness, ductifily and malleability.
- It removes gases.
6.4.13 High Ten,lle Slee!
- It modifies eleclrica(, magnotlc and other physical properlit!S ol sleel.
Here the carbon content is about 0.6 • 0,8%, manganese 0.6%, Silicon 0.2%, sulphur 0,05% and
phosphorous 0.05%, 4. Normalizing
his a medium carbon swel. Here s1eel is heated above critical range and cooling down rapidly in air but at a rate slower than
Its ult:mate tensile strength is about 2000 M/mm 2 .:md minimum etongi:!liOn of 10%. critical cooling rate,
It is used in pre-stressed concrete construction. This heat 1reatmen1 refines the gra1n slructure resulting from ,otnng, lorglng a,ld other manufacturing
processes.
6.5 Heat Treatment of Steel
Heal lreatment is given 10 steel in order to develop the desired properties in slcol.
6.6 Rolled Steel Sections
1·he properties of steel can be controllod and changed by the various heal lreatmenl proccs5es. S1eel sections can be rolled into various shapes and sizes in the rolling mills.
Two steel samples wit11 same composition can be given dirlerent properties b\1 dilferef1\ he □ ! treatment Sections ate rofled in such a way Iha! it gives large section modulus wi!h minimum cross seclional
process. area.
Meat irealrnenl is given to remove 11,e gases. rehne grain si?.e, and relie•10 inlcrnal stresses and IS Handboo1". No. I gives various rolled steel sections such as l section. Tee section, channel
I
strains and to enhance the strength, ductility etc. section etc.
i II
6.5.1 Types of Heat Treatment
6.7 Reinforcing Steel Bars
1. Hardening • Concrele beTng weak in tension requires steel as reinforcement lo ta1m up the tensile stresses,
ln tliis heilt Ircalmer.t, steel is heated above lhe upper crilical temperature. holdi11g •l al Iha!
• Reinforcing bars are availabro in various diame1ers and steel grades.
temporature for some 1Imc ancl \hen quenching il r;ipidly to produce a maricnsilc structure. •
Ef!ect1veness of minlorcing bar steel can be incieased by the use of low alloy steel or by mechanical
Mazrtensite is the main consliIucm of hardened steel and 1s having fibrous and needle hko sln1cture.
sirengthening or by heal 1rea1msnt
Hardened steel is ve1y brillle and cannot be used lor practical applications.
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• ljy
Ml!Chanlaal strengthening Is done stretching, drawing, t'NiStiog etc.
• These bars have high percentage ol unilorm elongalion.
• Heallrealrnentincteasesatrengtttind Improves mecttan:\?al properties ol steet
They are highly recommended for high rise buildings due to saving involved in steel because ol high
f.7.1 TypesofReinfen:ing Steel Bars strength.
Now a da~. we have thermo mechanlcallylreated high strength corrosion resistanr (TMT•HCR} bars.
1. Mlkf Stea\ i . . .
·• TMT-HCR bars are concrete embedded bars thereby giving superior resistance against aggressive
is
·. Plain mild $lee! (dealgnatecl as Fe 250) mote ductile than HV:SC> bars and absorbs shocks belier.
weather conditions.
• It fs supplled as plain. round bars. ~
TMT-HCA bars have high ttwmal resistance even al temperature oJ 600"C.
• IS432 (Pilll -1): 1982 lays downs~!ica!ions for mild ~:e:el barr,
• These bars are usually available intliameklrs ranging from 6 mm io ~ mm. 6.8 Alloy Steel
2. High Yield Strenglh Omonnad {HYSoJ Bars i All lhe desired properties in steel those are required for structures are not [Link].e in any single
These bars have ribs i.e. deformalionll on ils surlace 111hict1 checlts the longitudinal movemenl ol type or steel.
bar in conctete. t In order to develop certain specilic properly (ies), a combination of metals or metallic substances is
• These bars form better bond wilh cdncr,i&. . done which is called as an alloy.
• These do not tiave a definite yield ilomt. An [Link] a type or mi~lure of two or more rrelals.
• HYSDbarsresullin tiighefrenstre +nsth. bond strength and yiefg when twiste<.teilher hot or cold. Table : Differen/ typos Df alloy SIIHIIS
• Cold !Wisted bars are more suitabl;fcr iwildfng purpos'3$. ·
S,l'lo. lypa ol Alloy Sle•I Compo•lllon Propartlos Usn
• Cold twisleddefonnedbars are r • ~ to as TOO steei 1'ars.
I. Slaooss stool Ch""'11um16% Hard. IOu!lh, Gl.>s6C. lid~
• TOR steel is high strength defo~ bars with h!gh yietd pO!nt and bond stmngih. resis!MI lllldrusl proof
UICnslb, bull boortnps,
di,:,selc.
2. Nic,cc<ola<!I Nlcl«ll3.5% Mao ola511c, high lonsJJo
lhermo-mecbanlcally lte~ tTMT)~~ Aulomob,lo llnd
alnl,,glh. moro hardnoss oirplana ll<l!l5
Theseareextrastrengthreinforcing bars. , ar,,;j moroduaUity
3. lnWt!IO<!I Nickel 30.401', Law c:ocllidenl 0/lhermal
• Here steel bars receive a short interislve cool'mg es they pass through \'later cooling system alter the l'rocislon lnstn.m0n1s.
o_,,1an moa&IRl(llap,s ate.
last rolling mill stand. , ,4. ~lumoI""I Vunlldium 0.1·2% High 1""5/lo 011d yluld High ,pooc:I 1oals 1
• The lowenernperature makes Ille outer surface hard. •II0"9lh, 111$101.0nco IO 1ocomolivo [Link].,
sol1onln9 DI high dios:sl,, outemoll1los
• The PfOC8SSol intensive cooling isfp!lowe(I by cooling in a!fflOSphare so that lemp,eratureo! core is LOrnpam11,u1 Ole.
sliR hot. s. Tungolon sli>ol Tungslcn 14•20% H,gh 1>.1llir,g hordnoss. Orllling m.'ldllnos, high
abnlsJcn roolslor,I lf>Gedloo!solc.
• Thi$ !he surface gelS tempered by lhe heat coming from the core, &. M"'1!!0DOSO steel M.:li'lgilnesa 12,15% Hard, lau~h. s110n11 • R~ilway points ond
Due lo improved propertif$ot high's!reng\ha!Ongwith toughness an~ duclilily, TMT bars are be11er drtlicu~ 10 mac:hlno, high crossings, mUllng
ol<!clric:al rn,islonca cqulpmanls, erushor
lhan mild sleel bars. Jaws roAo, etc.
TMTbiirs can resist lemperature up IO 6007CwilhoU! any loss or strength. 7. Mdybde111111 stool Maylldcnum 0.2,0.3% High IGMle slrenglh 81 Gears. ~los, ,halts
higl, 1Qmpo<ai11ro ote.
• TMTbars are more ductilelhan coii:I !wisted deformed bars.
• TMTbars have excellent bending ~ropl!!IY due to uniform etongation. ·
These bars have very good \'le!di1bifi1y. 6.9 Other Construc~ion Materials
• They do not surfer the loss of slreriglll at the weltferl ioin1s•
Stone
Thcoo bars can easily be welded with cold twisted bars.
Slone is a natural. hard subsmnce formed fror:n [Link] ;;md. earih material which are prei;enl ir, rocks.
• For lhose bars. no pre-heating or f)O$l•hcating is required during !he welding process .
Slone can be classilled as:
Because of high strenglh of surface layer, these bars res1sl latigue loading and dynamic loading
more e!ficienlly. 1
• Igneous rock
Metamo,phic rock
• Since lhese bals arc lhcfmally hardened and lhus are suitable al localions that are lire-prone because
of 1normal slability of U1e heat treall!d suilace slruclUre. Sedimentary rock

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Igneous rock is formed by lhe crystallizalion of mollen magma for example granite, They are also • Travertine! It is sedimentary rook. pleasing texture wilh small natutal pockets on a cui surface.
knOYm as primary, unslra1ilied or eruptive rocks. They are used for interior decorative stone.
• Melamorphlc rocks has undergone a change in struc1ure, lex1ure, or composition due to the natural
agencies, as hea1 and pressure, especially when the rock becomes harder and more cryslalline, as
marble and sla!e.
Sedimentary rock is rormed by lhe deposition of sediment byglacialacticn, as limestone, sands\011e
and share. They are also known as aqueous or stratmed rocks.
Slone is used in coostruclion in the following lorms:
(a) Rubble (b) Dimension stone
(c) Flagstone (d) Crushed stone
(a) Rubble consists ol rough lragmen\s ol broken stone that have al le~sl one good lace for exposure Marble: ltis me1amorphic rock, a re crystal6zed limestone forming into canara, panan. onyx and
in awalL vermonr types of marble. They are used for flooring_ wall & column facing.
(b) Oimens!on stone is quarried and squared stone 2· or more in Jenglh and width and or specilicd
thickness, used GOll1monly for wall panels, cornices, copings. lintels and llooring.
(c) Flagstone refers lo Ital stone $labs used lo, nooring and horizon!a! surfacing.
(d) CJUshed slone is used os aggregate in concrete products,
A. Types of Bulldlng Stones
Argillite: It is lormed .from clay, dark blue with lain! shades ol green, It ·is used for lloor Ille, stair
threads, coping slones, lnterior wan base. interior window, stools ol exterior and window sills,
• Granite: nis igneous [Link], hard. slrong. durable and capable of taking high pressure polish. Red,
pink, yellow, green, blue. while and brown. It is used for flooring, wall paneling, column, mullion • · Serpentine: It is lgneous with mineral setpentine. T~ically, olive green togreenisb black but impurities
facing, stair threads and tlagstone. may color the rock.. It is used only for interiors du!!tO wealhering,

• Limestone: It is sedimentary rock like dolomite which have no cleavage llnes, low in absorplion,
smooth, unilorm in structure & composition. TMy have high compressive & tensile strtmgtl1. It is
Sands1one: It is class ol ,ock of cemented silica grains wiih texwre ranging from very line lo ve,y
used rorwa11 & lloor surfaces.
coarse. Colors vary 11~1 bull, red and ~ghl bfown. Porous vmere as 30% cf volume composed of
pores. 1

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• Slale Rock: II Is metamorphosis:b! c/,iys and shale': ,1~positedf1.1 !oyers. May be separated Imo Random Ashlar: Ashlar masonry laid without regular courses but wilh an overall effect of horizontal
lhin, tough sheets called states. Ootors ;ire black, giu;n (ed, gR;1~<;01 µurple. II is used for ftooring, orientation.
window sms. stools,. stair !reads lf facing

IJ. Stone Construction

Largely used as facingfarbuilc!fng materia, wirh steel anl'J c'•)ncrete lrmr,.,s.
Application Categories:
(al Paneling (bl Ashlars
{c) Rubblevrork i (dl Trim
(a) Paneling: Thin s!absot stone cu1.t,i_ aimons1011 and tti'ckness lo cover back up walls and provide (c) Rubb/ework: Random and no allempt is made to produce M orderlv course e1lher horizontal or
finished exterior. It can be done irofo!lowing ways, , vertical. Small spaces are lilied with smaller stones. ·
Running Bond is a. masonry bondlorrned wh0fl atl unit!; are laid in stre,cher position. wilh a haH-unil Coursed Allbble: Fieldstone or roughly d1essed ~lone, with or without mortar, assembled to give a
overlap. effect ol courses,

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Stack 801\d is a masonry bond l0tmed when lhere is no overlapping of all units and all horizontal &
veiticai joinls are aligned.
(b) ·Ashlars: Ifs work requires the use ol cul stone !hat includes broken ashlars and are regularly or
irregularly coursed. ; Fields[one: Slone lound on the ground (i.e . nol quarried) th111 is a suilcJble size ancJ shape for use
Coursed Ashlar: Ashlar masonry¥ald o;.ii in courses o! equal height; blocks o! various si2es may as drywall or rubb!e masonry
be combined to [Link] up the heiglit: o: ,tic comse.

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(d} Trim: stones cut lor specific purposes like; • Thermo-setting plastics can not be reused .ThisvarleLyrequires a great pressure andmomernaiy
i tieal during mouldiogwhlch hardens on cooling.
~ I jambs, sills, copings. cornices, lintels, steps ano arch stone (W}ussoirs)
A. Thermo-plastics
• The thermo-plastic or heat non-convertlblo group is the general term applied to lhe plastics which
becomes soil when heated and hard When coaled.
• Thermoplastic materials can be cooled and heated several lines.
• When lhermoplastics are healed, they melt to a liquid. They also freeze to a glassy slate when
cooled enough.
ThermopTaslic can be moulded into an,ishape.

a. Thenno-setll!1'1 plastics
• Thelherrno-selling orhoai con11em'blegroupis lhe9eneraltennapplied10theplastics Which_beCOme
rigid when moulded 8l$1Jllable pre$$111eand temperature.
This type of p1as1ic passes originally through lhermo•plaslie stage. When !hey eie healed !n
temperature range of 121•c to 177°C. they se1 peimanently and further applicBlion of heal does na1
6.9.2 Glass altertheir form ,or soflen them. ~ . ·
A. Introduction But al lhc temperature of about 343•C. lhecharflng occurs. This charring is a peculiar Characteristic
Glass is a transparent or vanslucent non-crystalline substance made from silica (sand), soda (N8:zCO3J ol 1he organic substances.
and lime (CaO or CaCO3 ), .
When healed glass does nlll melt a1 a specific temperature but becomes plas1ic so that when hot C. Based 011 Physh:al and Chemkal Properties
Clln lle moulded by blowing. caslmg. rolling or extrusion. Rigid Plastics: Toes~ilastics have a high morJUlus of elasticity and they
relain lheirshape under
When cooled does nol cryslallize or solidity al a fi~ed 1emperature. Glass is a super cooled mould exterior slresse-s applied at normal or modera\elyincreased temperatures.
wilh a very high viscosity. . • Semi-rigid Plasllos: These plastics h,wea medlummodulusof e!astlcl!y andtheelongallon under
Glass is amorphous; crys1alline substances are opaque as light is reflected ftom grain boundary. pressure completely disappears. whenpressureis removed.
Molten glass shall be cooled rapidly 10 ensure amorphous character but not loo rapidly lo induce • Soft Plastlcs:lhese plastics have a low modulus of elaslicfly and the elongation under pressure
thermal stress. disappears slowly, when pressure is removed. Soft plastics are
avallable in a large range ol' colours.
Pure silica melts a11700'C, NaiCO3 and CaC03 are added to provide 0l<ides those bring down the sizes and parlicularl!,' shapes, They are used 1n making chlldren'll toys e.g: !aides etc•• lishing
melting IemperaIure and thus energy m1ensive. baits.
Fe, Mn. Cu, Cr, Co, Ni oxides arc added lorcolcur conlrol ol glass.
• Elastomers: These plasucs are soft and elastic maleriats wlth a low modulus ol elasticity. They
'B. Thermal & Optlcal Properties derorm considerably under load at room temperature anct return to their original shape, when Ille
Poor conductor, thickness being low lherrnal resistance usually is also low and low coeUicienl of load is released. The extensions c:an range up\o teniimes their o(iglnal cf11119nsians.
expansion 3.6 " to-6 per •c..
D. Adkntages of Plastic
Sy coating or treatmonl, solar gain !actor ol glass can be modified.
• Solar gain factor is 11,e ratio or heat admitted to heal inc1den1. • corrosion resislance
Idea is 10 allow as much as vis1b:e hghl possible whilo filtering lhe direct sunlight and heat. • Low electrical and thermal conductivily.
• E1niily formed iolo C<?rnplex shapes, can be rormad, cas,ed and jolned.
c. Strengthened Glass
Wired glass: w,re is sandwiched belween [Link] glass. . • , Wide choice ol i!fPE!.arance. cOlors and transparencies
• Tougt,ened glass: air glass interlace is placed into pre•compression so that inherent flow does not E. Disadvantages of PlasiiJ ,
enhance the stress Tl1ey are produced by lhermal (heated lo 600-670°C) or chemical process.
• Low strenglh
6.9.!I Pla5tics • low uselul temperature range (11ptoGOO"F)
• , Less dimensional slabilily
Plas11cs arc Classillcd ,Is:
lhermo-plastlcs vanely solteris by heal nnd 11arc!cru. when cooled down. I'. can be used by remolding • Ageing ellect. hardens and become bri!lle overtime
as many limos as required. • Sensi1ive lo environmen1. moisture and chemicals
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F. UsuofPlasuc • Where machinery wm 'c011sume· the reinforced member i.e.. mining and tunneling
' ~
• There are more Dian 10000 d!'lferfintkinc!s ol plastics available !ifihe market and Uielr performance • Applications 1equiring Thermal non=duclivlty
abililieupan !hose ol every olhefliilown material from solt rub~ lo steer.
6.9.S Ceramics
The tYPical tJSe$ of plastics in bt.!iid,ng are summari2ect as fottciy;s:
• Bath and sink units · ·, • Ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic solid prepared b\l tt,e action or heat and subsequent cooling.
• Ceramic materials ma\' have a crystalline or partly crystalline slruclure, or may be amorphous (e.g.,
• Decorative laminates and ll'IO(lldings
a g!ass).
Electrical conduits
Ceramics now include do~oslic, industrial and building products and a wide range of ceramic art
- Elect1icaf Insulators : ' I(
A, ,Properties
Films ror water proofing. ~P [Link] nnd conc,ete 9urirlg
FIOOl'liles • They are hard and brittle
• Foams lor thermal insulatlori • Strong in compression
• Jolnlless lloorlng ·• Weak in shearing and tension
• Lighting lildures Withstands chemical erosion due lo acipic or cav~ic: erwironmr;m1s
• Pipes to carry cold water • Withstands high temperatilres
Waler resisraiice adhesives· B. Types of Cerar,dc Products

6.9.4 FRP (Fibre Reinforced Polymer) Structural:

These type ol ceramics demonstrate enhanced mechanical properties under demanding conditions
A. llltnnl1:1ctlun i. Because they serve as structural members, ollen being subjected lo mechanical loading, llley are
Basictllly FRP is composed of fibres~ malrix. given Iha name s1ruc1ural ce1amics
Fibers Provide slrenglhand stiflnessl!.g. Carbon, glass. aiamid. This type of ceramics include bricks. pipes, lloor and roof tiles.
MalrixPro!eclsand lransfers load beiNeen fibers e.g., Pofyoster, f:pol('y. Vinyl Ester, Urethane. Relractories:
8. Properties of FRP A refractory material is one lhal can retain its slrenglh at high temperatures
They are used in linings lor lutnaces, kilns. incinerators and 1eac1ors,
FRP Is Anisotropic: '/
• HighsnengUJ in !he direction of ll)e fibers ·• The oxides ol aluminium, silicon and magnesium are the most rmportant materials used in !tie
manufacluring of refractories.
• [Link] strenglh, dol'lel action, and bond performance
While wares:
FAP does not exhibit yielding (Iha mat};oat is linear elastic ur.!U failure):
This is a cl:iss or products that includes porcelain, china, pollery. stonev,are and vilreous tile.
• Design should ar-:count tor lackofducll1ity
• They are white lo off-white in appearance and .:>Hen con!ain a significant glos,.y or vitreous component
• Member doeshave subslanlial dJtormability
• Imperviousness to lluids, low conductivily to electricity, chomical inertness and an ability to be
C. Computes Features formed into complex shapes are its properties.
• Impervious lochloride ion and chemical attack Technical:
• Tensile5118ngih is greater lhat steel II is also known ~s engineering, advanced or speci;il ceramics.
• 1/41h of Ille weight ol steel II includes tiles used in space shutnes, missile nose cones. ceramic disk brakes etc.
• Transpatenl 10 magnetic fields and raclar frequencies
C. ~pes of Ceramic Prod111:ts
• Electrically and 1hermally non-coriduclive
Crystalline ceramics:
11 FRPftellar These are not amenable to a great range or processir1g,
Thesea,elibrereinforcedba,s cnat can be used al: Mclhods for dealing with them tend lo rail into one of two categories:
• Any concrete member suscepbble 10 corrosion by chloride,ons or cttemicafs Eilher make Ille desued st1ape by reaction in situ, or by forming powders into tho desired shape,
• N'Pf conctelemember requirillgnon-lerrous remlorcoment due 10 E1ec11o•magnelic considerations and then sintering 10 form a solid body.
• As an Sllernalive lo epoxy, galvaftized. or s1ain1ess steel moor's • Ceramic forming techniques include shaping by h~nd. slip casting. tape casting etc

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Non-crystalline ceramics:
Non•crysta[line ceramics, being glass tend 10 be lormed from melts. The glass is shaped when in a
slata of 1ollee like viscosi\y.
Melhods like blowing into a mould is used.
later heat 1reatments [Link] glMs to become partly crys1alline and this material is know as
glass ceramic which is widely used for cooktops.

D. Ceramic Produru Employed In Bulldl11g Industry

Terracotta
Eirnhenware '.
A lype cl earthenware, is a clay-based ungla.:ed or glazed ceramicr where the fired bOdy is porous.
r1s uses Include vessels (notably tlo~ter pols), water and waste w~ter pipe$, bricks, and surface • II is lhe term r~r pollery that has not been fired to the point of vilrilioation and is thus porous •
embellishment in building construclion. along win\ sculpture such as the Terracotta Almy and Greek Porcelaln
terracotta ligurines.
• Porcelain (also known as china or fine china) is a ceramic ma1erial made by heating materials,
Sloneware generally including clay in the form of kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between 1200 and 1400"C.
Stoneware is avitreous or semi-vitreous ceramic made primarily lrom stoneware clay or non-rolractmy 6.9.6 Aluminium
lire clay.
Aluminium is the 3rd most plentiful element in the earth's crust
TIies It ts present in 8% or the planet's soil and rocks:
A tile is a manufactured piece or hard-wearing material such as ceramic, sllme., or even glass. In nature. aluminum is lound only in chemical compounds with othel elements such as sulphur.
Tiles are generally used ror co~ering roo!s, floors, walls, showers, or 01her objects such as tabletops. silicon, and oxygen.
• . Pure, meta me aluminum can be economically produced onlyf!Qm aluminum oxide ore.
There are many types or files used for residential and commercial applications.
• , II occurs In all types of clay
Roof tiles; Floor Illes:
A. Raw Ma1erlals
• Most useful ore for producing pure aluminum is BAUXITE forms whoo cer'lain aluminium bearing
rocks decompose. 11 consists of 45·60% aluf!linum oxide along wilh various [mpurilies such as
, sand, iron, and other metals.
Some deposits are hard rock, most consist of relatively soh <lirl !hat is easily dug lrom ope,,-prt
mines.
Major producers include Australia, Brai:11 and Jamaica. Australia produces m01e [Link]-third of
lhe world's supply.
• ' Caustic soda (sodium hydro•ide) Is used to dissolve the al~minum compounds round in lhe baUl<ile,
Pebble tiles: Ceiling Illes: separating ttiem 110111 Ille impur11les
The largest and most. lucratiVc bauxite deposits are localed around lhe Equator:
B, Manuf~uring
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Due to recent mandateol using pollulion conlro1 equipments. these are now collected using eleetrostatic
C. Propertfu
proolpijalors and other p~nicle litters.
Chemlcal Composition: It is a heterogeneous malmial containing SiO2 , Al2 O~ and Fe20 3 as maior
.~. Durable
constiluents with CaO occasionally being tho minnr constiluent.

A. T11pes of Fl11 ash

"'-/
· t«>nr~ • Class F: Fly ash n01mal1y produced by burning antl11 acite or bituminous coal, u~ually has less than
5% CaO. Class F lly ash has pozzolan1c properties only.
Class C: Fly ash [Link] produced by burning lignite or sub-bituminous coal. Some class C lly ash
may have Cao content in excess of 10%. In addition [Link] properties, class C fly ash al~o
possesses cemenlitious properlies.
Uses of lly a:1h are es follows:
(i) Admixture for Portland Cement:
• · Fly ash. being prfmarily poz.,otani,:, car, actua 1Iy r~place a percent~ge ol !he Portland.
ccmen1, lo produce an even stronger, rr.o«:: durable and more erwirc,nmor1I friendly concrete.
• The initial compressive strength is low but as days pa~s, flyash concrete qains more slrength
and eventually has a lot more strcny!h as cornµared to normal Por11and cement
• Signilicanlly reduces the release or CO2 in10 the aln1ospl,ere.
• Can be used for conshuclion of st1uctures on/under \\ ater.
D. Uses as Building Ma~rlal (ii) Soil Slablli;i:ation and modification:
Air tightness: • Soil stabilization is the alleralion of soil properties to improve IIH? engineering performance
• Sealed for dust tainwater etc. when closed of. soils.
• High tunClionaladvanlageln air-condiliooed buildings • S1abiliza1[011 can increase the she~r streng111 of a soil and/or control the sl1rInk-swell properties
Appearal'ICe: ol a soil, thus improving the loacl-bearing capacity of a sub-grade lo support pavements :md
• Smoolh bright finish loumlalians.
Strength: {Iii) [Link] Bricks :
• Tensile strenglhsof Aluminium allriys ls around 70- 700fi.1Pa. , • F!y ash possesses both ce,amic as well as po~zolanic prope1ties and therefore can llo utililed
• ndoes not become brillle at kl\yltemperatures infact it$ strcngu, increases. b a unique way :or manurac1uring bricks.
• Al high temperatures, alumin~~ienglh decreases. At temperatures conlinuously above 100"C, • This proves to be very usclul !or building consli u.:\ion.
strength is affected to lheextenflhat the weakenif'lg must be lakel!)_into account 1 • These bricks produced by the new process are superior in quality a~ llley offer 1·,igher cold
Weight Aluminium is light wilh a d~y one t11ird that ol stee~ 2.700;kg/m3. c,ushing strenglh and smoolh. unform size.
Linear expansion: Compared with Q!llor me!als, aluminium has a rBlat_ively large coe!!icicnt ol linear
eicpansion
Non-magnellc material: A!umini11m is a non-magnetic (actuauy pa1am_agnetic) malBli'll. To avoid
interference of 1nagnelic fields aluminium is olten used in magnet X-ray devices,
rr
6!>3 FlyA!lh
• Fly ashisfinelydMdedresklue resulting lrom lhe combustion ol powdered coal and transporlecl by
lhe nue gases and collected by Eleciroslatic Prcc1pi1a1or. '
• Fly asll is Ille most widely ysed p07,1,olanic malenal alt over the world.
• Comprises of line parlic!es which rise with Illa l!ue gases.
• Oooof \he ma,or pollulanls which originate Imm ccmbuW:r\
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(c} Other bene!ils of using flyash;
(iv) Asphalt Concrete:
• Reduces soit erosion by replacing lop soil as ingredients for most conslruc!lon mixes.
• ~phall concrete is a composite material consisting or anasphall binder and mineral aggregate,
• Reduces pollution measure by ce-use of wastes.
• The hydrophobic nature or fly ash gives pavements belier resistance to deterioration caused by
• Reduces rile amounl ol greenhouse gases being added lo the atmosphere.
waler.
• Fly ash has also been shown to increase 1he siilfness of tho asphalt matrix, improving rutting
• Hydrophobic nature helps ln proper draining oll of water from roads and s1tuctures.
• Production of crude oil from polyethylene.
resistance and increasing mix durability.
• Also used in sewage treatment and 9eneralioo of blo!uel as an allcmill8 source of energy
(v} Embankments:
resource.
• Fly ash can be used for conslruction of road and embankment.
• Saves lop soil whicl1 olherwiso is corwemional1y used. C. Disadvantages
Avoids creation of row lying areas (by excavation or soil to be used lor construction or Groundwater contamination due to runollscanying m-ireated flyash.
embankments], Cannot be used for structures requiring shorter setting time, a demand which is el{(Jecled by most
(vi) Geopolymera; of Iha engineers and builders,
• Fly ash has been used as a componenl in Geopolymers, where the reactivity or the fly ash • , Air content conlrol plays a vital role and can prove crucial for the quality of llyash concrete. Too
glasses generates a binder comparable lo a hydrated Portland Cement in appearance and much reduction in air content can be disastrous.
properties. bul wilh possibly reduced CO2 emissions. It is very diUicuit to use in winier season due to further increase in already tonger [Link] time.
(vii) As a catalyst: Dillie ult to control colour or cemenl containing [Link]. a bit problemalictousewherecosme\ic
• Fly ash. mainly class C, may be used in the stabilizaliol"l/solidification process or t1azardous quati1y plays a significant rore.
wastes and contaminated soils. ForexampTe. the Rhenipa1 process uses fly ash as an admix lure
D. Conclusion
lo srabilize sewage sludge and other toxic sludge.
Flvash can be procrairnod as one of !he most advantageous waste material.
(vili) Waste rrealment: Using ii as a cons!ruclion material will not only help in its disposal bu1 w!II also add sliength and
• Fly ash, in view of itsalkaliniiy and waler absorption capaci!y, may be used in combination wiit1 durabili\y of s1ruc1ures.
olher alkaline materials to 1ranslorrn sewage sludge into organic lerlilizoror biofuel.
.' Since. Ille current usage of Hyash in Indra is still around 25% and below 45%even in lhe developed
counlries like Uni led Slates, There is a huge scope 1or flyash in upcoming )<ears.
B. Advantages
As seen above. there arc a large number of sectors wt1ero llyash can be pur into uso. Thero are many Other Admixtures
6.9.8
reasons lor the same like:
The major r;;iasons !or using admixtures are:
(a} In lerms of usability in Concrete and Cement
Tc reduce lhe cost al concrete conslruclion.
• Higher Ult:male Slronglh
To achieve certain properties in concrete more el![Link] 1han byolher means.
• Increased Ourabm1y
To maintain the quality ol concrete during !he s1ages ol mixing, 1ra:nsµor1ing, placing. and curing in
• lmpro11ed Wo,~ability adverse woather cond1t1ons. .
• Reduced Bleeding To overcome certain emergencies during concreting opera!ions.
• Increased Resistance 10 Sulfate Attack
A. [Link] Chemical Admf11tures
• Reduced Shrinl<age
Plasticizers (water re~cers): Tt,e organic substances or combina1ions ol organic and inorganic
• Almost zero emission ol greenhouse gases,
substances, which allow a repuc!ion in waler contenl for tl1e given workability. or give a highorworllllb~ily at the
(b) In terms o! usage as flyash bricks:
same wat~r content. .ire termed~~ plasticizing admil,Mes.
• Reduces excavation of da1•.
Tho basic products conslitoting plas\icizers are as follows:
• Low cost ol brier: as compared to cla1• brick or same qlialiiy.
Anionic sur!actarnr. such as lignosulpllo•1a!es and Jheir modillcations and derivatives, salts of
• Number ol bric~s rcquirnd per unit volume ol conslrucuon is less c1s dimensional ilCCur acy
sulpllonmcs liydrocarbons.
is maintained.
Non·im1ir, surfactants. such as polyglycol estera. acid of hy<!roxylnlcd carboxy!ic acids and their
• Lessor consump1,on of mortar.
modifications and deri\fatives.

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• Beller resistance lo waler [Link]. ·-·· .. ··•· -·-·--····•-·· -· . . ..... -------.
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• Otherproducls. such as carbohydrate's etc, Al normal lemperatures addilion of sugar 0.05 lo 0.10 per cenl have lil\le ellecl on lhe rate ol
• Amount used: Plaslicizets are ufa in the amount ot 0.1~ to0A% by weight of cement. hydration, bul ir the quantily is increased to 0.2 percent, hydration can be retarded lo such an exlenl
that final set may not lake place !or 72 hours or more.
• Llmilalions: A goad plasllcizeris[one which does not C;.l!;Se ail•en1rainment in c0ncre1e more than
1orn. : ·- ·· . Used at:
[,
• At constent workabllily: There<Juclion in rni~mg wa1er is expected tobe oflho order of 5% to 15%. • Casting and consolidating large number ol pot1rs without lhc formation ol cold join1s.
'l}f • Grouting oil wells, where 1emperature is about 2oo•c, at a depth ol 6000 meters.

N01E High degree or workablrityls~ired on: Accelerators: Accelerating admixtures are added lo concrete 10 increase the rale of early strength
• Thin walls of 1\lalet retaininb $ffUC1Ures with high pe1c~ageol steel reinlorc~manl development

~
• Deep beams. cofumn and beam junciions ! , Why accaloralors?
" Tremie concreting
• Pumpmgorconaete
• ?ermll earlier removal ol lormwoik
Reduce lhe [Link] period of curing
• Hal wealhercoricreling
• Concrete to be conveyed ler ccnslderabledislanae and in ready mixed concrete industries. Advance lhe lime that fl slruc\ure can be pf;iccd in service
'I,• Paniallycompensa1e !or 1i1e 1etari:sing elrecl of low temperature during cold wealhe1 concreting
Superplaa'licllin (High range water i'ed~cers); Superplasticizers cons\itute a relatively f!OIV category In lhe emergency repair work,
and impJoved vefsion of plasliciZer. Commonly used rnalerials as an accelarotor:
Clanlfic:aliono1Superpl$sllc~rs;, . • Calcium Ohlorido(nol used now)
• Sulphonated malanlne--formalcl11¥e (SI-AF} • Sllrcates lluorosilicates (expensive)
• Sulpltonated naphlhalene-formal$llyde (SNf-) Benefits ol Accelerators:
• Modified lignosulphonates-(MLS}'. • Accelerators are so powerful that it is possible to make the cement set into s\one hard in a mailer al
All'lounl U'Jed: il. . live minutes are less.
• Based on various types of supetp!as\ici1..e1s dl!fem111 amount is used. With the availability of .such powerrul ;:,ccelerator. the under water ccm;reling has become easy.
• lignosulphanates - not lllOl"e than 0;2s,r. Similarly, the repair work that ~maid be carried out to lhe waterfront strucluies 1n lhe regio:i or tida I
• Garboxylic acids -0.1 % variations has become easy.
• Su!phonatedmalanirte-lor1T1c1ldehyae {SMF)-0,5 to3% ' The use of such [Link] accolera\or, hn,10 [Link]. the basement walerprooling opera,lio:is.

• Sulphona1ednaphlhllfene-formal{lehyae (SlliF)- 05 to 3~ Alr~entralnlng Admixture:

One of the important advancement~ macle in concrete leclmology was the discovery or air entrained
Aesu!ls•benellls:
concrete.
• Permits reduction of waler contem abaul 30% without reducing the workability • Minute spherical bubbles al size ranging lrom 5 microns 10 80 microns distribu1ed evenly in the;
II is possible lousew/cralio as~as
0.25'orcven lower and ye11omake !rowing concrete tootJtain
enlire m;:iss ol concrete.
slA!ngth of oroor 120 Mf>a ormoii.
• These incorporatod millions of non-coalescing air bubbles, which will act as flexible ball bearings
Retarders: Arelaider isanadmlxltlm that slows clown Ille chcm'cal processol hydration so that concrete and will modify the properlios of plaslic concrele regarding workability, segregation, bleecling amf
· remains plas~c andWOfkable tor a longer umJ_llfan concretewlIhou1 the retarder. finishing quality of concrete.
• Retarders are useoloovercome tlteaccelera1ing effect of high [Link] on saning properties al It also modifies !he proper1ies of hardened [Link] roaarding its resistance 10 lros1 aclion and
COl"IGt8te in holweathor concreting. ' permeability.
• Very useful when C0J1Cre!e has. to be plE!Cf!d in Yery dilftcu!! condflions and delay may occur 1n 1lle fallowing types or air em,ainmg ngents arc used for making air ent,ained [Link]
ttansportiog and placing. Natural wood resins
• Gypsum and CalCiumSulpha16 aro well known retardors. Animal and vogelahle la1s and oils. such as 1alrow. oli~e oil anti their lal!y acids sucl.1 as steam:: .in(I
• Other l!lk,mpfcs .ire starches. cellulose products, sugars. acids or sails or c.::1ds. oleic acids.
Limilalions: • Various welling agents such as alkali sails or SlJ!pflated ancl [Link] ofganic compouncls.
• Retarde1s should be used in proper amount. llcce:.s am~•unt will cauw indc!mitc sc\t1ng lime.

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Water soluble soaps of resin ac,tls, Md [Link] vegol.:iblc lal\y acids.

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Theory with Solved Examples
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• Miscellaneous materials such as the sodium salls or petroleum sulphonic acids. hydrogen peroKlde Silica fume: It is a product resulting from reduction of high purity quartz with coal in an electric ar~
and aluminium powder, etc. lumace in the manufacture of SIiicon or lerrosilicon alloy.
Vinsol resin and OareK are the most mportanl air-entraining agents. Micro silica is initially produced as an ultraline undensified powder
The Effect or Air Entrainment on Iha Properties of Concrete: • Al leas1 85% SiO2 content

• Increased resistance to freezing and thawing . • ,Mean particle size between 0.1 and 0.2micron
lmprovi?ment in workability. • Minimum specific sllllace area is 15,000 m2/kg

• Reduction in strength, Spherical particle Shape 'i~--

• Reduces lhe tendencies or segrega1ior1. Efrect on fresh concrete: .;,.:;:.f-.'lilf.':.\:-;,!:!-

• Reduces the bleeding and laitance . • The increase in )Naler demand of concrete containing n>,c,os-lics will be abllUI 1% tor every 1,:. cf
'cement substituled.
• Decreases the permeabili!y.
Increases the resistance to chemical altack: lead to lower slump bu! more cohesive mix.
Permils reduction in sand conlen!. me,ka the rresh concrete sticky in nature and hard to tiand!e.
~~
~-~ . lmpro>1es place abinly. and early flnishin!].
Reduces the cement content, cost, and heal o1 hydralion•
• large reduction In bleeding and cone<eie with m!crpsilicacould be handled and lransportedvnlhou!
1segregation.

Reduces lhe unil weight. • to plasiic shrinkage Cfac1<1119 and;lhercfore, sheet or mat euting s!lould be considered.
~t Permits reduction in water content. produces more heat ol hydratlon at the lrillial siage or hydration.
Reduces the alkali-aggregate maction. the total generation of heal will be less lhan that of reference concrete.
• Reduces the modulus or elasticity. Effecl on hardened concrete:
Damp-proofing & Waterproofing Admlxlure: In praclice one o! the mosl_lmportanl requirements of Modulus ol elasticity of mrcrosi!ica concrelt> is less.
concreie is that 11 mus I be impervious to water under two condilions; • Jmprovement in durabllily or concrete.
Fi1s1ty. wh'en subjected 10 pressure of waler on one side. Resistance against lrost damage.
• Secondl~. 10 the absorption 01 surlace 'i1ater by capillary action. • , Add!lion ol silica fume in small quantities actually increaseslhe expansion.
Wa1erpr00Hng admixtures are available in powder. paste or liquid form and may consist ol pore ILlling or Used for:
water repellent rmite1ials. Conserve cemelll
• Chemically active pore filling materials: silicate of soda, aluminium/:i!inc sulphates arid aluminium/ Produce ullra high slrenglh concrete of tho ord1lr !JI 70 lo 120 MPa.
calcium chloride.
• , Increase early stiength ol fly concrete.
Chcmical,y inactive fillin{J material: cl1alk. lullers earth and talc.
• Control alkali-aggregateteaction,
Pouolanic Materials:
Reduce sullate attack &ch1otideassoclated corrosion.·
Siliceous or siliceous-aruminous malerials.
Rice husk ash: Aice huSk ash is obtained by:
Lillle or no cementi1ious value.
• , Burning rice husk in a controlled manner \'nthO'.il causing
In finely divided form and in the orcsence ol maislure.
environmental pollutl011.
Chemically react wilh calcium hydfo~ide hberatecl on hydration, at ordinary temperature, lo form
compounds. possessing cemenlilious properties. Material ol lu1ure as .,;u,eral addilives.
Natural f>ozzoTanas: Amount used: l ·
• Clay and Shales • Opaline Chmls • 10% byweighl of cklhimt
' .

Diaiornaceous Earth • Volcanic lulls anct Pum,cites. It greatly ent,ances the workability and impermeability o1 concrete.
Artificial Ponolanas: Contains:
Fl)' nsh • Silica Furne Amorp11ous_silica (00% SiO 2Jin very high proportion when burnt in commllccl manner.
Rice Husk .:ish • Blasl Furnace Slag • 5%carbon.
MetakaoJine • Srnkl:, 2'li. K~O.
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. . . . Theory wlth so:ved Examples [Link] :
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Effects: , .
• Reduces susceptible lo acid~,·. ane improvos resi~lance to chloride penelration.
• Reduces largepGteS and po · · resu:llng very low permeability.
[I; .DliJeoi~~:-~rain Teasers ·,
• Reduces t,e riee lime presenl i '.. he eeme£1t paste, 0.1 Which of Iha lollowing is the crudest form of iron? Q, 1o In plane parts are generally manulacIured lrom
• Decreases lhapermeabirtl)' of t"1ays1trm.·. (a) Wrought iron (bl Cas1 [ron (a} Nickel steel (b) Manyanese steel
• Improves Ollllfall reslslance to d,2 aUack, (c) Pig iron (d) Sleet (c) Vanadium steel (di Tungsten steel
• Enhancesreslstanceloc · stet,li£1 concrete. Q. 11 The process of heating tho metal followed by
0.2 TI1e ultimate tensile strengU1 (in MPa)ol mild steel
• Reducing micro crackirig and ii ving lrcoo,-tha.w [Link]. is about gradual cooling to relievo stresses 1hal get ~
• lmptoVWJ capillary suction ~ndlcceterated chloride dilfusivily.1 ! Ca) ro:i (b)800 developed due to rapid cooling 1s refarred lo as
Biast fumaoe stag • i (c) 1200 (d) 1600
• atast..furnace slag is a nonmel~ic product cQllSiSling esst'inlially ol silicates and aluminntes ol (a) Normalizing {b) Tcmp0ring
0.3 The _ _ _is used in !he manufacture of rails.
calcium and other bases. (c) Annealing (d) Hardening
(a) Vanadium steel
• The molten slag is rapidly chilled by quenching in waler to lorm a glassy sand like granulated
(b) Manganese steel Q,12 Re-heating or hardened [Link] belo_w cnllcal
material. , ·
(c) Tungsten steel Iemperalure to huve stable condition ;n steel is
• Tho granulated rnaterial when ~nher ground IO less ltian 45 micron will have specific surface al (d} lnvar steel called as ____,
aboul 400 to 600cm'l/ kg (Siami). (a) Ann~!ing {I>) [Link]
QA Melting point of cast i1on is about _ _ _ •c.
erects on fresh concrete: 1: {c) Hardening (ell Tempering
. Reduces lhe unit walor content iiocessacy to obtain 1he same slump,
(a} 1500
(c) 1Pi00
(b) :.,XX)
(d} 1200 0.13 The 101a1 impu,ities in w10ugl1t irorl are limited to
• water used for mixing is not immediately lost, as the sL:[Link]'1yl.1r._;;on or i,lag issligh\ly s!owar then _ _ _ %.
lhat of cement. Q,5 The most pure form ol iron is (a) 0.5 (bl [Link]
• Reduction of bleeding. (a) Cast iron (b) Steel (c) 1.5 (Cl) 2
errects on hardened GOncret&: (cl Pig iron (d) Wrought iron
Q.14 High tensile steel is · - - ca,1>011 steel.
• Reduc:ecf heat of hy(frallon a.a Nuts and bolts arc made o f - - - - ~ (a) l:YI (b) Medium
• Refinemenl of pore slnfclUres , (a} Wrought iron (bl Cast iron (c) High (d) Very i1igfl
• Redueed permeabilillfilOlhe tdternalagencies (c) Vanadiun, l!leel (dl lnvar steel
Q.15 Stainless steel contains _ _ _.
• Increased resiSlanc:e ta chemicdl ffltack 0.7 lncJia11 Standard rolled steel secti,on~ ar!l made (a) Ni (b) Cr
Melakaolfn: ; . ol (c) Mn {d) Mo
• Highly reactive metakaolin ls .-,+m by water (a} Pigiron
processing lo removeunreactivd;impurilies 10 (b} Manganese steel Q.16 Maleh List-I (Admixtures) wiih List-II (Chemicals)
mal(e 100% reaelive ponolan. ;, (c} Molybdenum steel and select lhe correct answer usrng the codes
• SUch a product. white or crealn in colour, (d) Mild steel given below lhe lists:
punfied, thermally activated is called Hrgh list-I
O.& Which of lhe following reinforcing bar 1s mosl A, Water-reducing admixl!Jre
ReacliveMelakaolin(HRM). •
suitableir, aggressivJ environment? B, Air-entraining agent
EffeclS of Metakaolin:
(a) MS llar (I)) HYSD bar C. Superplasliciser
• High reactive melakaolln shows high pozzo1a£1ic
(c) TMT bar (d) TMT-HCR bur D. Accelerator
teaot1vity and reduction in Ca(OH)2 even as enrly
asonoday. 0.9 , TOR steel bar is anoliler name given lo List-II
• Th.i cement pasle und'ergoes distinct de11sllicalion. (a) MSbar 1. Sulphonated melanin forrnakJ~hytle
(b) Cold twisted delorrnacl bar 2. Calcium clllondc
• Densiltcalion includes ~n im:ronso 1n slreng!l\ancl decreose in [Link].
{C) TMTbar .3. L1gol)Sulphon,lle
Use ol Melakaolin:
(d) TMT•KCR llar 4. Netilfalised vlnsol re:;111
• Tile higll reaclivo melakaolin is having the po1on1ral to compete w,111 silica lume.

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Codas: Which of these statements ls/are correct? Ust-,ll Use of right quality of fly ash results in [Link]!lon
A B C D (a) 1 only (bl 1 and 2 1. Water taps of water demand for desired slump. Thus lt
(a) 2 4 1 3 (c) 2and3 (d) 3 and4 2. Oool'Frames increases workability.. With reduction In water
(b) 1 3 4 2 3. Reinforcement in concrete content. bleeding and diying [Link] also
Q.21 Match list-I (Name or stone) with List-II (Use or
(c) 3 4 2 4. Corrugated roof sheet bereduced. ·
stone) and select !he correct answer using the
(d) 3 4 2
codes given below the lists: Codes:
19. {a)
List-I LISI-II A B C D
Q, 17 Consider the following stalerne111s: Superplasticizers, owing to !he reducllon inw/c
(a) 3 4 2
The effect or an air en11ainment in concrete is to A, Granite 1. Ornamental work ratio. reduce the penetration or clbides and
(b) 3 2 4 1
1. increase resistance 10 lreezing and lhawlng B. Marble 2. Ballast sulpllale inlolhe c;011C1ele and, lherefore. Improve
(e) 1 3 4 2
2, Improve workability C. Chalk 3. Rough stone work i , their resistance to the deciding ellcet of sail or
o, Lalerile i 4, Manulacwreofcement
(d} 3 4 2
3. decreasesirength seawater.
Which ol these statements is/are correci? Codes: Q.26The coelliden10f finear expansion of granite is in
A B C D therango or that of 20. (d}
(a) 2and3 (b) 1 and3
(a) 3 1 2 4 (a) glass (b) mild steel Admixtures are essentially classified as water-
(c) t atooe (d) 1. 2 and 3
(b) 2 3 1 4 le) high carb,;m steel {di bamboo reducers {plasticizers). set-retarders and
Q.18 Assertion (A): The useolllyashas an admixture (c) 2 4 3 acceleiators. The purpose of water-reducers is 10
in concrete reduces segregation and bleeding. Q.27 Polyvlnyt chloride (PVC) is a aa1'.cve ahlgtirnlreng\tlbydecreasingthe waler/
(d) 1 4 2 3
Reason (R): lhe useol lly ash as a replacement (a) lhermosetting material cemint ia!io. Set-retarders are admixtures which
Q,22 The 1e~1ure.o! sandstone is (b) thermoplastic material delay ,he selling' of eoncrela Accelerators
ol sand in a lean-mix increases the workability
(a) porphyritic (bl conglomerate {c) elaslo-plas!icmateriel accelerate:118 hardening or1hedavelopment of
and has M significant ellect on drying shrinkage
(c) vesicular (d} granular crystalline (d) rigid plastic material earlystranglh ofconcrete. Hcroever, reducing the
ol concrete.
(a) both A and R are true and R is lhe correct 0.23 The crusl1ing strength of a good building stone
heat ol hydralion ls not the main purpose ol
explanation al A 1. (c) 2. {a) 3. (b} 4. {d) 5. (d) admilC!ures.
should be at leas!
(b) both A and A are true but R is not a correcl (al 50MPa {b) 100MPa 6. (a) 7. (d) a. (d) 9. (b) 10. (a)
21. {c)
e~planation ol A (c) 150MPa (d) 200MPa 11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (e.) 14. (b} 15. (b)
Chalk is used as a colouring material in lhe
(c) A is true but A is la1se 16. {c) 17. {d) 18. (C) 19. (a) 20. {d} manufactufeol POllland cement.
0,24 Asserllon (A}: Fly ash bricks are vsed in
(d) A Is false but R is true
construction as allemalivcs 10 burnt clay bricks.
21. (c) 22- (d) 23. (b) 24. (a) 25. (d} as
Lateriteis used a rOadmetal,fn rough masonry
0.19 Why is super plastic~er added lo contre1e? 26. (a) 27. (b) WOlke!c.
Reason (R): Fly ash bricks are lighter in weight
1. To reduce the quanliry ol rnixing water. and are slronget than burnt clay bricks, ".:': ._" . ;- _.. Hl~ts' ~ soiu,tton' 26. (a)
2. To increase the consistency. (a) Soth A and A are true and R is the correct The linearthe1ma1 coefficient range is 6 x 1~ lo
3. To reduce the quantity of cement. 18. {C) 10 x 1~ for bom glass anti granite.
explanalion of.A
The Uy ash is the retidue from the combuslion or
4. To increase resistance lo freezing and (b) Both A and Rare true but A is nol Rcorrect 27. (b)
pulverised coal collected by lhe mechanical dust
lhawing. explanation or A fhermoplastic er heat non-convertible grOllp
coiedlors err electrostnlic precipitalors from 1hc
Select the correct answer using lhe codos given (c} A is true but R is lalse means that lf1e plastics becOme soft When healed
fuel gases oflhermal power.p1anls. Toe principal
below: (d) A is lalse bul R is 1,ue and hard when cooled.
constituenm of fly as!, are: ,
(a} 1. 2and 4 (b) I, 3and 4 Thermosetting or heat convellible group means
Q.25 Match Ust:l (Metals or alloys) wilt, Ust-11 (Their Si02 J0.60,:,
(c) 2 and 4 (d) 4 only lhal J>la$1ics become rigid when moulded al
common use}and sefcct the COfrecrnnswcr using A1 20 0 llj-30"J.
Q,20 Consider lhe following stalemonls: the codes given below the lists: Ca'rbon upt6 I~?% suitable pressure and lemperature.
CaO Small Rigid plastics have a high modulus or elasticity
Adrnixlures are added to concrete to l.!isl-1
L increase its strength. A. Steel bars MgO Small and !heyt01ain1he1r stiapeunderelttemlllstresses
B. Zinc 803 30% appffca1ion at llQffllal or modera\ely increased
2. reduce heat ol hydration.
C. Aluminium The !ly ash may be used in COllcrete either as an !Cmpetalures.
3. delay the selling of ceinon1.
4. reduc<?waler-ccmcnlralio. O. Brass cas!ings admi~1uro or in part rep1acememol cemool orlme
aggregate.
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