Rheology

Anisha Shakya

1
 Introduction
• The term “Rheology” derived from Greek word, Rheo
meaning “to flow” and logos meaning ‘science”
• First suggested by Bingham and Crawford to describe
the flow of liquids and deformation of solids.
• Rheology may be defined as the science concerned
with the deformation of matter under the influence of
stress, which may be applied perpendicularly to the
surface of the body (tensile stress) or tangentially to
the surface of the body (Shearing stress).
• Viscosity :
- is an expression of resistance of fluid to flow.
- Higher the viscosity, greater the resistance to flow.

2
 Importance of rheology in pharmacy
• Rheology is involved in the mixing and flow of
materials, their packaging into containers and
their removal prior to use (pouring from a bottle,
extrusion from a tube or passage through a
syringe needle.)
• Rheology of product can affect its patient
acceptability and even biologic availability.
• Rheological properties of a pharmaceutical
system can influence the choice of processing
equipment to be used in its manufacture.

3
 Newtonian and non Newtonian flow
• Liquids which follow Newton’s law of flow are
known as Newtonian liquids and those which do
not follow it are known as Non-Newtonian fluids.
• The viscosity of Newtonian fluid remains constant
but that of Non-Newtonian fluids changes with
application of Shear force
– Examples of Newtonian fluids are water, true
solutions and dilute suspensions.
– Examples of Non-Newtonian liquids are Colloidal
dispersions, Emulsions, Ointments and gels.

4
Newton's Law of Flow
• Consider a block of liquid consisting of parallel plates of molecules
as shown in fig.
• The bottom layer is considered to be fixed in place. If the top plane
of liquid is moved at constant velocity, each lower layer will move
with a velocity directly proportional to its distance from the
stationary bottom layer.

Fig 1: Representation of the shearing force required to produce a

definite velocity gradient between the parallel planes of a block of
material.
5
• Rate of shear/ velocity gradient(G): The difference in
velocity, dv between two plane of liquid separated by an
infinitesimal distance dr is the rate of shear, dv/dr.
• Shearing stress(F): It is the force per unit area F’/A
required to initiate flow between two layers of liquid.
• Higher the viscosity of the liquid, greater the shearing
stress required to produce a certain rate of shear.
• Hence, rate of shear is directly proportional to shearing
stress
• F’/A α dv/dr
• F’/A = η dv/dr
• Where, η is known as coefficient of viscosity
• η = F’/A = F/G
dv/dr
• F= ηG is the Newton’s equation for the flow of liquid. 6
• When a graph is plotted with F on x axis and G
on y axis, a flow curve is obtained.
• The rheogram passes through the origin and
the slope gives the coefficient of viscosity.
• Systems that follow this linear relationship are
called as Newtonian fluids.

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NEWTONIAN AND NON-NEWTONIAN FLOW

Fig:2 Rheograms/ consistency curve 8

Concept of viscosity
Kinematic viscosity: It is the absolute viscosity
divided by the density of liquid at a definite
temperature.
• Kinematic viscosity = η/ρ
• The cgs unit for Kinematic viscosity is Stokes (S)
or Centistokes (cS).
• S.I unit is m2/sec
• 1 stoke = 100 centistoke = 1 cm2/sec

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• Relative viscosity: It is also known as viscosity ratio,
which is the ratio of the viscosity of the solution (η)
to the viscosity of the solvent used (ηs)
Relative viscosity, ηr = η/ηs

• Specific viscosity: It is defined as the relative

increase in viscosity of the dispersion over the
solvent alone.
Specific viscosity, ηsp = η-ηs
ηs
• Reduced viscosity (of a polymer): It is also known as
viscosity number which is defined as the ratio of
specific viscosity to the mass concentration of the
polymer (c ).
• Reduced viscosity = ηsp / c
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• Ex 1: An Ostwald viscometer was used to
measure acetone which was found to have
viscosity of 0.313 cp at 25oC. Its density at 25oC
is 0.788g/c.c. What is the kinematic viscosity of
acetone at 25oC?

• Ex 2: Water is ordinarily used as a standard for

viscosity of liquids. Its viscosity at 25oC is 0.8904
cp. What is the viscosity of acetone relative to
that of water?
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 Temperature Dependence and the Theory of
Viscosity
• The viscosity of a gas increases with temperature, and that of a
liquid decreases as temperature is raised.
• The dependence of the viscosity of a liquid on temperature is
expressed approximately for many substances by an equation
analogous to the Arrhenius equation of chemical kinetics.

• where A is a constant depending on the molecular weight and

molar volume of the liquid and Ev is an “activation energy”
required to initiate flow between molecules.
• The energy of vaporization of a liquid is the energy required to
remove a molecule from the liquid, leaving a “hole” behind
equal in size to that of the molecule that has departed.

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• The activation energy for flow has been found to be
about one-third that of the energy of vaporization, and
it can be concluded that the free space needed for flow
is about one-third the volume of a molecule.
• This is presumably because a molecule in flow can back,
turn, and maneuver in a space smaller than its actual
size, like a car in a crowded parking lot.
• More energy is required to break bonds and permit
flow in liquids composed of molecules that are
associated through H-bonds and these bonds are
broken at higher temperature by thermal movements

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Non Newtonian systems
Flow characteristics of Non-Newtonian fluids
• The majority of fluid pharmaceutical products
are not simple liquids and do not follow
Newton’s law of flow.
• These systems are referred to as Non
Newtonian.
• They represent three types of flow:
1. Plastic
2. Pseudoplastic
3. Dilatant

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 NON-NEWTONIAN FLOW
1. Plastic Flow
• The curve represents a body that
exhibits plastic flow; such materials
are known as Bingham bodies in
honor of the pioneer of modern
rheology and the first investigator to
study plastic substances in a
systematic manner.
• The curve is linear over most of its
length corresponding to that of a
Newtonian fluid.
• The curve does not pass through the
origin, but extrapolations of the Fig 3: Rheogram for a plastic
linear plot gives ‘x’ intersect which is material
called yield value or Bingham yield
value, Fa
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• The bingham bodies initially behaves like an elastic body and fails to
flow when less amount of stress is applied.
• Further increase in the stress leads to a nonlinear increase in the
shear rate which then turns to linearity.
• As the curve above yield value, Fa tends to be straight, the plastic
flow is similar to the Newtonian flow above yield value.
• The Slope of rheogram is termed the mobility and its reciprocal is
known as Plastic viscosity, U. the equation describing plastic flow is :
U = F –Fa
G
• Where, Fa is the yield value and F (shearing stress) and G (rate of
shear)

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• Plastic viscosity may be defined as the shearing force in excess
of the yield value required to induce a unit rate of shear.
• Examples of plastic flow: Suspension of ZnO in mineral oil,
paints, printing inks, etc.

Explanation of plasticity
• Plastic flow is associated with the presence of flocculated
particles in concentrated suspension.
• A continuous structure is set up through out the system and a
yield value exists because of contacts between adjacent
particles (brought about by Vander Waals forces) which must be
broken down before flow can occur.

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• So, yield value is an indication of force of flocculation.
• The more flocculated the suspension, higher will be the
yield value.
• Frictional forces between moving particles can also
contribute to the yield value.
• Once the yield value has exceeded, any further
increase in shearing stress brings about a directly
proportional increase in the rate of shear.
• A plastic system resembles a Newtonian system at
shear stresses above the yield value.

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2. Pseudoplastic flow
• The consistency curve for Pseudoplastic
material begins at the origin. Hence, there is
no yield value
• The trend of curve is not linear so the
viscosity cannot be expressed by a single
value.
• Many pharmaceutical products, including
liquid dispersions of natural and synthetic
gums (e.g., tragacanth, sodium alginate,
methylcellulose, and sodium carboxymethyl
cellulose) exhibit pseudoplastic flow. Fig 4: Rheogram for a pseudo
• Pseudoplastic flow is typically exhibited by plastic material
polymers in solution, in contrast to plastic
systems, which are composed of flocculated
particles in suspensions.

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• The viscosity of pseudoplastic substance decreases with increasing
rate of shear and the curved rheogram of pseudoplastic materials
results from a shearing action on long-chain molecules of materials
such as linear polymers.
• The shear stress F does not increase linearly with the shear rate G
and therefore the viscosity does not remain constant at different
rates of shear. Hence, these systems are also known as Shear
thinning systems.
• It can be expressed by the exponential formula:
FN = η’G
• When N=1, the flow is Newtonian
• The value of N rises as the flow becomes increasingly non-
Newtonian.
• Greater the value of N above unity, greater the pseudoplastic
behaviour of the material.
• In Log form,
Log G = N Log F – Log η’
• Plotting Log G as a function of Log F yields a straight line.
• Many pseudoplastic systems fit this equation.
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Explanation of Psedoplasticity

Fig 5: Explanation for a pseudo plastic flow behaviour

• Most of the pseudoplastic materials consist of long chain
molecules or other complex structures which are disarranged
and matted together at rest.
• As shearing stress is increased, normally disarranged molecules
begin to align their long axes in the direction of flow.

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• This orientation reduces internal resistance of the
material and allows a greater rate of shear at each
successive shearing stress.
• In addition, some of the solvent associated with the
molecules may be released resulting in effective
lowering of both the concentration and size of dispersed
molecules. Thus, the material becomes less viscous as
the shear rate is increased.

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3. Dilatant flow
• Dilatancy is a
phenomenon in which
the material exhibits an
increase in resistance to
flow with increasing rates
of shear
• The material returns to a
state of fluidity when the
shear is removed or the
agitation is stopped. This
phenomenon is referred Fig. 6: Rheogram for a dialatant
to as Shear rate material
thickening
23
• FN = η’ G can be used to describe dilatancy in quantitative
terms.
• In this case, N is always less than 1 and decreases as degree of
dilatancy increases.
• As N approaches unity, the material approaches Newtonian
behaviour.
Explanation of dilatancy
• Dilatant flow is exhibited by suspensions containing high
concentrations (50% or greater) of very fine, deflocculated
particles.
• Certain suspensions with high percentage of dispersed solids
exhibit an increase in resistance to flow with increasing rates of
shear. Such systems actually increase in volume when sheared
and hence termed dilatant.

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• When at rest, the molecules are closely packed.
• A minimum void volume is available and the amount of vehicle
is sufficient to fill void spaces.
• This permits particle to move relative to one another.
• Thus the system at rest exhibits relatively low consistency.
• As shear stress is increased, the bulk of the system expands or
dilates (hence termed dilatant).
• The particle is in an attempt to move quickly past each other
takes an open form of packing.

Fig 7: Explanation of thixotrophy in bentonite gel

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• Such an arrangement leads to a significant increase in
interparticle volume.
• The amount of vehicle remains constant and at some
point become insufficient to fill the increased voids
between particles.
• Thus, resistance to flow increases because particles are
no longer completely wetted or lubricated by the vehicle.
Eventually the suspension will set up as a firm paste.

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 THIXOTROPY
• It is defined as” An isothermal and comparatively slow recovery,
on standing of a material, whose consistency is lost through
shearing.”
• Thixotropy can be applied only to shear thinning systems.
• Thixotropic system usually contains asymmetric particles that
through numerous points of contact set up a loose three
dimensional network throughout the sample.

Fig 8: Explanation of thixotrophy in bentonite gel

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• At rest, this structure confers some degree of rigidity
to the system and it resembles a gel. As shear is
applied and flow starts, this structure begins to
break down as points of contacts are disrupted and
particles become aligned.
• As shear is applied the material undergoes gel-to-sol
transformation and exhibits shear thinning.
• On removal of stress, the structure starts to reform.
• This process is not instantaneous and asymmetric
particles come into contact with one another by
undergoing random Brownian movement

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 THIXOTROPY
Thixotropy in plastic and pseudoplastic system
• With shear thinning systems (pseudoplastic) the downcurve is frequently
displaced to the left of upcurve, showing that the material has a lower
consistency at any rate of shear on the downcurve than it had on the up curve.
• This indicates a breakdown of structure that does not reform immediately
when the stress is removed or reduced. This phenomenon is known as
thixotropy.
• Rheograms obtained with thixotropic
materials are highly dependent on
the rate at which shear is increased or
decreased and the length of time the sample
is subjected to any rate of shear.
• Examples of plastic system showing
thixotropy include bentonite gel and petrolatum.

Fig 9: Thixotropy in plastic and

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pseudoplastic flow systems.
 THIXOTROPY
• Let us suppose the shear rate of a
thixotropic material is increased in
a constant manner from point a to
point b and is then decreased at
the same rate back to e.
• Typically, this would result in the
so-called hysteresis loop abe. If,
however, the sample was taken to
point b and the shear rate held
constant for a certain period of
time (say, t1 seconds), shearing
stress, and hence consistency,
would decrease to an extent Fig 10: Structural breakdown with
depending on time of shear, rate of time of a plastic system possessing
thixotropy when subjected to a
shear, and degree of structure in constant rate of shear
the sample. for t1 and t2seconds. 30
 THIXOTROPY
• Decreasing the shear rate would
then result in the hysteresis loop
abce. If the sample had been held
at the same rate of shear
for t2seconds, the
loop abcde would have been
observed.
• Therefore, the rheogram of a
thixotropic material is not unique
but will depend on rheologic
history of the sample and approach
used in obtaining the rheogram.

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 Measurement of Thixotropy
• The most apparent characteristic of a thixotropic system is the
hysteresis loop formed by the upcurves and downcurves of the
rheogram.
• With plastic (Bingham) bodies, two approaches are frequently used to
estimate degree of thixotropy.
• The first is to determine structural breakdown with time at
a constant rate of shear.
• The type of rheogram needed for this estimation is shown in Figure 10;
• Based on such a rheogram, a thixotropic coefficient, B, the rate of
breakdown with time at constant shear rate, is calculated as follows:
• Thixotropic coefficient B = U1- U2
Ln t2/t1
where U1 and U2 are the plastic viscosities of the two downcurves
after shearing at a constant rate fort1 and t2 seconds,
respectively.
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• The second approach is to determine
the structural breakdown due
to increasing shear rate.
• The principle involved in this approach
is shown in Figure 11, in which two
hysteresis loops are obtained having
different maximum rates of
shear, v1 and v2.
• In this case, a thixotropic
coefficient, M, the loss in shearing
stress per unit increase in shear rate,
is obtained from
Fig 11: Structural breakdown of a
plastic system possessing thixotropy
when subjected to increasing shear
rates 33
• where M is in dynes
sec/cm2 and U1 and U2 are the plastic
viscosities for two separate
downcurves having maximum
shearing rates of v1 and v2,
respectively

Fig 11: Structural breakdown of a

plastic system possessing thixotropy
when subjected to increasing shear
rates 34
 Bulges and Spurs
• Dispersions employed in pharmacy may yield
complex hysteresis loops when sheared in a
viscometer in which shear rate (rather than
shear stress) is increased to a point, then
decreased, and the shear stress is read at
each shear rate value to yield appropriate
rheograms.
• A concentrated aqueous bentonite gel, 10% to
15% by weight, produces a hysteresis loop
with a characteristic bulge in the upcurve.
• It is presumed that the crystalline plates of
bentonite form a “house-of-cards structure”
that causes the swelling of bentonite magmas.
• This three-dimensional structure results in a
bulged hysteresis loop as observed in Figure
12. Fig 12: Rheogram of a thixotropic
material showing a bulge in the
hysteresis loop.

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 Bulges and Spurs
• In still more highly structured systems,
such as a procaine penicillin gel
formulated by Ober et al. for
intramuscular injection
• The bulged curve may actually
develop into a spur like protrusion
(Fig. 13).
• The structure demonstrates a high
yield or spur value, Υ, that traces out a
bowed upcurve when the three-
dimensional structure breaks in the
viscometer.

Fig 13: Rheogram of a thixotropic

material showing a spur value γ in the
hysteresis loop.

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Negative thixotropy
• Negative thixotropy or anti-thixotropy
represents an increase rather than a decrease
in consistency on the down curve.
• This phenomenon was observed in Magnesia
magma at shear rates greater than 30 sec-1;
below 30 sec-1, the magma showed normal
thixotropy.

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Mechanism:
Following types of molecular interactions are possible:
• In the resting state, the system consists of a large number of
individual particles and small floccules.
• When the product is sheared, the dispersed particles or polymer
molecular collision are increased resulting in increased
interparticle bonding with increasing stress.
• This changes an original state consisting of a large number of
individual particles and small floccules to an eventual equilibrium
state consisting of a small number of relatively large floccules.
• However the system exhibits sol form at equilibrium.
• When the product is allowed to rest, the large floccules break up
and gradually return to the original state of small floccules and
individual particles.

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• Example : magnesia magma
• It was observed that when
magnesia magma was
alternately sheared at increasing
and then at decreasing rates of
shear, the magma continuously
thickened (an increase in
shearing stress per unit shear
rate) but at a decreasing rate.
• As the cycle continues, the
extent of increase in thickening
reduces gradually and finally
reaches an equilibrium state in
which further cycles of
increasing–decreasing shear
rates no longer increased the Fig 14: Rheogram of magnesia magma
showing antithixotropic behavior.
consistency of the material.
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• Antithixotropy or negative thixotropy should not be
confused with dilatancy or rheopexy.
• Dilatant systems are deflocculated and ordinarily contain
greater than 50% by volume of solid dispersed phase,
whereas antithixotropic systems have low solids content
(1%–10%) and are flocculated.
• Rheopecty or rheopexy is the rare property of
some non-Newtonian fluids to show a time-dependent
increase in viscosity.
• It is a phenomenon where a sol forms a gel more readily
when gently shaken or otherwise sheared than when
allowed to form the gel while the material is kept at rest.

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 Thixotropy in Formulation
• Thixotropy is a desirable property in liquid pharmaceutical
systems that ideally should have a high consistency in the
container, yet pour or spread easily.
• For example, a well-formulated thixotropic suspension will
not settle out readily in the container, will become fluid
on shaking, and will remain long enough for a dose to be
dispensed.
• Finally, it will regain consistency rapidly enough so as to
maintain the particles in a suspended state.
• A similar pattern of behavior is desirable with emulsions,
lotions, creams, ointments, and parenteral suspensions to
be used for intramuscular depot therapy.

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• With regard to suspension stability, there is a relationship
between degree of thixotropy and rate of sedimentation;
• The greater the thixotropy, the lower the rate of settling.
• Concentrated parenteral suspensions containing from 40% to
70% w/v of procaine penicillin G in water were found to have a
high inherent thixotropy and were shear thinning.
• Consequently, breakdown of the structure occurred when the
suspension was caused to pass through the hypodermic
needle.
• Consistency was then recovered as rheologic structure
reformed.
• This led to formation of a depot of drug at the site of
intramuscular injection where drug was slowly removed and
made available to the body.
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 Determination of Rheologic Properties
• For a Newtonian system, the rate of shear is directly
proportional to shearing stress.
• Hence, the instruments that operate at a single rate of
shear such as capillary viscometers can be used.
• However, this one point determination is not useful in
Non-Newtonian systems where the viscosity varies
significantly with the change in rate of shear.
• For such systems multi-point instruments that can
operate at different rates of shear are required to
characterize the rheological properties.

43
• Types of viscometers used to determine the
viscosity of different systems
Viscometer

Single Multi
point point
cup-and-bob
Capillary viscometer
viscometer (Rotational
Viscometer)

cone-and-plate
falling-sphere viscometer
viscometer (Rotational
Viscometer)

Used for both

Used for only
Newtonian and
Newtonian
non Newtonian
system
system
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 Determination of Rheologic Properties
Single point viscometer
1. Capillary Viscometer
• Capillary instruments are very accurate for measurement of viscosity of
Newtonian fluids having a low viscosity
• The viscosity of a Newtonian liquid can be determined by measuring the time
required for liquid to pass between two marks as it flows by gravity through a
vertical capillary tube.
• The time of flow of liquid under test is compared with the time required for a
liquid of known viscosity (usually water) to pass between the two marks.
• If η1 and η2 are the viscosities of unknown and reference liquids respectively and
ρ1 and ρ2 are the respective densities and t1 and t2 are respective time flow in
seconds, the absolute viscosity of the unknown liquid η1 is determined using the
following equation:

The value η1/η2 is known is relative viscosity

45
The Ostwald’s U-tube viscometer
• The apparatus consist of a U-tube, the left
arm of which has a bulb at its lower end and
a mark A above the bulb
• The right arm of the tube also has a bulb at
the upper part and just below this bulb is a
capillary tube. There are two markings above
and below the bulb of the right arm.
• Liquid is introduced into the viscometer
through the left arm until the level reaches
the mark (A)
Fig 15: Ostwald’s- U tube viscometer

• The viscometer is fixed vertically in a

thermostated bath and allowed to attain
required temperature
46
• The sample volume is adjusted and the liquid is blown into the
right arm until the meniscus is just above the next mark. (mark B)
• The pressure is released and the time taken for the liquid to flow
from mark B to C is noted.
• The relative viscosity is calculated using the formula stated above
(for capillary viscometers)
• The absolute viscosity of a liquid may be calculated by multiplying
the value of relative viscosity with the absolute viscosity of water.
Experimental precaution
• Streamline flow should occur in the capillary
• Viscometer must be cleaned before use and air bubbles must be
avoided in the inside liquid
• Adequate temperature control be provided
• Care should be taken to fix the viscometer vertically.
47
2. Falling sphere viscometer
• The principle involved is based on the
Hoeppler viscometer (fig. 16)
• The apparatus consists of a glass or steel
ball that rolls down the vertical glass
tube containing the test liquid at a
known constant temperature.
• The rate at which a ball of a particular
density and diameter falls is an inverse
function of the viscosity of the sample.
• The sample and ball are placed in the
inner glass tube and allowed to reach
equilibrium temperature with the water
in the surrounding constant-
temperature jacket.
• The tube and jacket are then inverted, Fig 16: Falling sphere viscometer
which effectively places the ball at the
top of the inner glass tube.

48
• The time for the ball to fall between two marks is
accurately measured and repeated several times.
• The viscosity of a Newtonian liquid is then calculated
from

• where t is the time interval in seconds for the ball to fall

between the two points and Sb and Sf are the specific
gravities of the ball and fluid, respectively, at the
temperature being used.
• B is a constant for a particular ball and is supplied by
the manufacturer.
• Because a variety of glass and steel balls of different
diameters are available, this instrument can be used
over the range 0.5 to 200,000 poise.
• For best results, a ball should be used such that t is not
less than 30 sec.
49
Multi point viscometer
1. Cup-and-Bob Viscometer (Rotational Viscometer)
• In cup-and-bob viscometers, the sample is sheared in the space
between the outer wall of a bob and the inner wall of a cup into
which the bob fits.
• The various commercially available instruments differ mainly
whether the torque set up in the bob is due to rotation of the
outer cup or due to rotation of the bob itself.
• The torque set up in the bob is measured in terms of angular
deflection (Q) of a pointer that moves on a scale.

• Couette type: revolving cup type eg. Mac Michael viscometer

• Searle type: revolving Bob type eg. Stormer viscometer

50
Couette type viscometer:
• In the Couette type of viscometer, the
cup is rotated.
• The viscous drag on the bob due to the
sample causes it to turn.
• The resultant torque is proportional to
the viscosity of the sample.
• E.g: Mac Michael viscometer
Searle type viscometer:
• The bob is rotated while the cup is held
stationary. E.g: stormer viscometer and
Brookfield viscometer

Fig 17: Cup and bob viscometer

51
• The instrument can be used to
obtain rheological properties such
as yield value, plastic viscosity and
thixotropic index.
Procedure of operation
• The test system is placed in the space
between the cup and bob and
allowed to reach temperature
equilibrium.
• A weight is placed on the hanger and
the time for the bob to rotate a
specific number of time is noted
• The data is then converted to rpm
• The weights are increased gradually
and the whole process is repeated
Fig 18: Stromer viscometer
• A rheogram is obtained by plotting
rpm Vs. weight added
 Determination of Rheologic Properties
• Viscosity of the material can then be calculated using the
following equation:
η = Kv . w/v
• Where, w is the weight in grams
• v is the rpm generated due to w
• Kv is the instrument constant which can be calculated using oil of
known viscosity
Plastic viscosity can be calculated using the equation:
U = Kv (w-wf)/ v

• Where, U is the plastic viscosity and wf is the yield value

intercept.
Disadvantages of cup and bob viscometer
• If the gap between the cup and bob is large, shearing of
the sample will not be uniform
• Frictional heat may develop at high rates of shear and a
constant temperature bath is often required to offset
the effect of temperature on viscosity
• Filling and cleaning of instrument is sometimes difficult
• Plug flow:
- One of the major drawback of cup and bob viscometer.
- In plastic system, the apparent viscosity below yield
value is regarded as infinite.
- Above the yield value the system possesses a finite
plastic viscosity.
- When the bob Is made to rotate at lower
rates of shear, the stress closer to the
rotating bob may be higher than yield value.
- But at the inner wall of the cup, the stress
may be below the yield value.
- So, the material in this zone therefore
remains as a solid plug and the measured
viscosity would be in error.

55
 2. Cone and plate viscometer (Rotational
viscometer)
• The instrument consists of a flat
circular plate with a wide angle cone
placed centrally above it.
Process of operation
• Sample is placed at the centre of the
plate, which is then raised into position
under the cone. The cone is driven by a
variable speed motor and the sample
is sheared in the narrow gap between
stationary plate and rotating cone.
• The rate of shear in rpm is increased
and decreased and torque produced
on cone is measured
• A plot of rpm Vs shearing stress or A digital-type cone and plate
scale reading may be constructed. viscometer, Brookfield
56
• Viscosity is calculated using the equation:
η = C. T/v
Where,
• C is the instrumental constant
• T is the torque reading
• V Is the speed of cone in rpm
Plastic viscosity is given by:
U = T – Tf / v
Yield value is given by
f = Cf * Tf
• where Tf is the torque at the shearing stress axis
(extrapolated from the linear portion of the curve) and Cf is
an instrumental constant.
 Advantages of Cone and plate viscometer over Cup
and Bob viscometer
• Rate of shear in cone and plate viscometer is constant
throughout the entire sample being sheared and
therefore any chance of plug flow is avoided.
• Cleaning and filling is relatively easy and requires less
time
• There is a temperature stabilization of the sample
during operation
• Very small quantities of sample are required for
analysis.