1

CHAPTER
Thermodynamics

1 Lecture Notes:
Dr. ALI WADI ABBAS AL FATLAWI
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
University of Kufa / Iraq
Fundamental
Concepts
For second year students only
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What is Thermodynamics?

 The science of energy, that

concerned with the ways in
which energy is stored within a
body.
 Energy transformations – mostly
involve heat and work movements.

 The Fundamental law

is the
conservation of energy principle:
energy cannot be created or
destroyed, but can only be
transformed from one form to
another.

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System, surroundings and boundary

 System: A quantity of matter or a

region in space chosen for study.
 Surroundings: The mass or region
outside the system
 Boundary: The real or imaginary
surface that separates the system
from its surroundings.
BOUNDARY :
Fixed / Movable

Shared by both,
SYSTEM and SURROUNDINGS

No Thickness
No Mass / Volume 3
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Type of system
(isolated system)

 Isolated system – neither

mass nor energy can cross
the selected boundary

 Example (approximate): coffee in

a closed, well-insulated thermos
bottle

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Type of system
(Closed system)

 Closed system – only energy

can cross the selected
boundary

GAS
GAS 2 kg
2 kg 3 m3
1 m3

CLOSED System
with Moving Boundary
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Type of system
(Open system)

 Open system – both mass and

energy can cross the selected
boundary

BOUNDARY of OPEN System is known as

CONTROL SURFACE

Real Boundary
Also known as CONTROL VOLUME

In Out
e.g. Water Heater, Car Radiator, Turbine, Compressor

Imaginary Boundary
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Properties of a system
Any characteristic of a System is known as its PROPERTY.
Properties may be intensive or extensive.

 Intensive – Are independent of the amount of mass:

e.g: Velocity (v), Elevation (h), Temperature, Pressure, and
Density,
 Extensive – varies directly with the mass
e.g: mass, volume, energy, enthalpy

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Properties of a system
Specific properties – The ratio of any extensive property of a system to that
of the mass of the system is called an average specific value of that property
(also known as intensives property)

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State, Equilibrium and Process

 State – a set of properties that describes the conditions of a

system. Eg. Mass m, Temperature T, volume V

 Thermodynamic equilibrium -
system that maintains thermal,
mechanical, phase and chemical
equilibriums.

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State, Equilibrium and Process

 Process – change from one
equilibrium state to another.

Process Property held

constant
isobaric pressure
isothermal temperature
isochoric volume
isentropic entropy

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State, Equilibrium and Process

The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for which a particular property
remains constant.

Isobaric process: A process during which the pressure P remains constant.

Pressure is Constant (ΔP = 0)

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State, Equilibrium and Process

Isochoric (or isometric) process: A process during which the specific volume v
remains constant

Isothermal process: A process during

which the temperature T remains
constant.
.
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Process Property held constant

isobaric Pressure (P)

isothermal Temperature (T)

isochoric Volume (V)

Isentropic Entropy (s)

Isenthalpic Enthalpy (h)

h=Const s=Const
Isenthalpic Isentropic
V=Const

Temperature (T)
Isochoric
Pressure (P)

T=Const
P=Const Isothermal
Isobaric

Volume (V) Enthalpy (h)/ Entropy (s)

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Types of Thermodynamics Processes

 Cyclic process - when a system in a
given initial state goes through various
processes and finally return to its initial
state, the system has undergone a cyclic
process or cycle.

 Reversible process - it is defined as a process that, once having take place

it can be reversed. In doing so, it leaves no change in the system or
boundary. This is only possible when net Heat and net Work Exchange
between the system and the surroundings is ZERO for the Process.

 Irreversible process - a process that cannot return both the system and
surrounding to their original conditions
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Types of Thermodynamics Processes

 Adiabatic process - a process that has no heat transfer
into or out of the system. It can be considered to be
perfectly insulated.
 Isentropic process - a process where the entropy of the
fluid remains constant.

 Polytropic process - when a gas undergoes a reversible

process in which there is heat transfer, it is represented
with a straight line, PVn = constant.
 Throttling process - a process in which there is no
change in enthalpy, no work is done and the process is
adiabatic.

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h=Const s=Const
Isenthalpic Isentropic
V=Const
Isochoric

Temperature (T)
Pressure (P)

T=Const
P=Const Isothermal
Isobaric

Volume (V) Enthalpy (h)/ Entropy (s)

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Temperature

TEMPERATURE :

- No EXACT Definition.

- Broad Definition : “Degree of Hotness / Cold”

- This definition is based on our physiological sensation.

- Hence, may be misleading.

- e.g. Metallic chair may feel cold than Wooden chair; even at SAME temperature.

- Properties of materials change with temperature.

- We can make use of this phenomenon to deduce EXACT level of temperature.

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Temperature
1. Celsius Scale ( ºC ) – SI System
2. Fahrenheit Scale ( ºF ) – English System
3. Kelvin Scale ( K ) – SI System
4. Rankine Scale ( R ) – English System

Celsius Scale and Fahrenheit Scale – Based on 2 easily reproducible fixed states,
viz. Freezing and Boiling points of water.
i.e. Ice Point and Steam Point

Thermodynamic Temperature Scale – Independent of properties of any substance.

- In conjunction with Second Law of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic Temperature Scale – Kelvin Scale and Rankine Scale.

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Temperature
Conversion Factors :

Hot End

Pulse Tube
Regenerator

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Pressure
Definition : Normal Force exerted by a fluid per unit Area.

SI Units :
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
1 kPa = 103 Pa
1 MPa = 106 Pa = 103 kPa
1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa
1 atm = 101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar
1 kgf/cm2 = 9.81 N/m2 = 9.81 X 104 N/m2 = 0.981 bar = 0.9679 atm

English Units :
psi = Pound per square inch ( lbf/in2)
1 atm = 14.696 psi
1 kgf/cm2 = 14.223 psi

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Pressure

Absolute Pressure : Actual Pressure at a given position.

Measured relative to absolute vacuum i.e. absolute zero pressure.

Pressure Gauges are generally designed to indicate ZERO at local atmospheric pressure.

Hence, the difference is known as Gauge Pressure.

i.e. P (gauge) = P (abs) – P (atm)

Pressure less than local atmospheric pressure is known

as Vacuum Pressure.

i.e. P (vacuum) = P (atm) – P (abs)

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Pressure

P (gauge) = P (abs) – P (atm)

P (vacuum) = P (atm) – P (abs)

P (gauge)
P (atm) Local Atmospheric Pressure
( 1.01325 bar @ Sea Level )
P (vacuum)
P (abs)

P (abs)
Absolute Zero Pressure

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Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

“ If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third

body, there are also in thermal equilibrium with each
other.”

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After Equilibrium TA = TC = TB

Diathermic Wall
(Allow energy
Exchange)

Adiabatic Wall
(Not allow energy
Exchange)

Temperature of a system or body is a physical quantity, which determines whether

the system is in thermal equilibrium with another system in its contact or not

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Application Areas of Thermodynamics

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