Engineering Thermo-fluid Exit Exam Module:

Thermodynamics I & II, Fluid Mechanics, Heat Transfer, &

Refrigeration and Ac
Prepared by
Tsegaye G. (Fluid Mechanics, Heat Transfer, & RAC)
Mohammed Seid (Thermodynamics I & II)

Edited by: Fluid Mechanics-Kamil Nuredin

Heat Transfer- Dr. David Santosh
Thermodynamics I & II-Tsegaye Getachew
Reviewed by: Hailemariam G., Temesgen H/G. & Mulugeta T.

Dep’t of Mechanical Engineering, CoE,

Wolaita Sodo University, March 1, 2023

Edited by: Fluid Mechanics-Kamil NuredinH

Tsegaye G. (Fluid Mechanics, Heat Transfer, Thermal
& Turbomachinery)
Exit Exam Mohammed
Module: Thermodynamics
Seid (Thermodynamics
1I /&2 II, Fluid
I & II)
Mechanics, Heat Transfer, & T
The First Course Eng'g Thermodynamics Prepared
by Mohammed Seid
 Engineering Thermodynamics-I /Course Code: MEng 2111 by Mohammed Seid

Contact Hours per Semester

Lecture Tutorial Practice or Home study ECTS Credits Remark
Laboratory
32 48 0 55 5
Course break down
Course Chapters Topic
Chapter 1 Fundamental Concepts and Definitions
Chapter 2 Properties of Pure Substances
Chapter 3 Work and Heat
Chapter 4 First Law of Thermodynamics
Chapter 5 Second Law of Thermodynamics
Chapter 6 Entropy
Chapter 7 Availability and Irreversibility
Main Course Objectives/Learning outcomes

 Provide students to understand the basic concepts under

thermodynamics Familiarize students to understand relationship
between internal energy, heat and work as expressed by the First Law
of Thermodynamics.
 Apply the conservation of energy to thermodynamic systems
 State and explain the Second Law of Thermodynamics
 Explain how the Carnot cycle applies to heat engines and refrigeration
cycles
 To prepare the student to effectively use thermodynamics in the
practice of engineering
 To provide a comprehensive study of gas and vapor power cycles and
systems.

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 CHAPTER ONE
1. Fundamental Concepts and Definitions
1.1 Introduction
Thermodynamics may be defined as follows:
• Thermodynamics is an axiomatic science which deals with the relations among heat, work
and properties of system which are in equilibrium. It describes state and changes in state of
physical systems.
• Thermodynamics is the science of the regularities governing processes of energy conversion.
• Thermodynamics is the science that deals with the interaction between energy and material
systems.
Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy. Although everybody has a feeling of what
energy is, it is difficult to give a precise definition for it. Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause
changes. The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis
(power), which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power. Today the same
name is broadly interpreted to include all aspects of energy and energy transformations, including
power generation, refrigeration, and relationships among the properties of matter.
Some Energy Conversion application

 Steam Power Plant Nuclear Power Plant

 Internal Combustion Engines
 Gas Turbines Refrigeration Systems

Area of Application Selected Areas of Application of Engineering Thermodynamics

 Aircraft and rocket propulsion

 Alternative energy systems
 Automobile engines
 Bioengineering applications
 Biomedical applications
 Combustion systems
 Compressors, pumps
 Cooling of electronic equipment
 Cryogenic systems, gas separation, and liquefaction
 Fossil and nuclear-fueled power stations
 Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning systems
 Steam and gas turbines
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1.2 Closed, Open, and Isolated System
A thermodynamic system, or simply system, is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space
chosen for study (A system is a finite quantity of matter or a prescribed region of space). The region
outside the system is called the surroundings. The real or imaginary surface that separates the system
from its surroundings is called the boundary. The boundary of a system may be fixed or movable.
Surroundings are physical space outside the system boundary.

Fig.1) Schematic representing a thermodynamic system

It is not difficult to visualize a real boundary but an example of imaginary boundary would be one
drawn around a system consisting of the fresh mixture about to enter the cylinder of an I.C. engine
together with the remnants of the last cylinder charge after the exhaust process.

Fig.2) Real and imaginary boundaries

Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a fixed mass or a fixed
volume in space is chosen for study.

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Closed system
A closed system consists of a fixed amount of mass and no mass may cross the system boundary. The
closed system boundary may move. Examples of closed systems are sealed tanks and piston cylinder
devices note the volume does not have to be fixed). However, energy in the form of heat and work
may cross the boundaries of a closed system.

Fig.3a) Closed system Fig.3b) Closed system with movable boundary

Open system
An open system, or control volume, has mass as well as energy crossing the boundary, called a
control surface. Examples of open systems are pumps, compressors, turbines, valves, and heat
exchangers.

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Fig.4) Open system

Isolated system
An isolated system is a general system of fixed mass where no heat or work may cross the boundaries.
An isolated system is a closed system with no energy crossing the boundaries and is normally a
collection of a main system and its surroundings that are exchanging mass and energy among
themselves and no other system.

Fig.5) Isolated system

Since some of the thermodynamic relations that are applicable to closed and open systems are
different, it is extremely important that we recognize the type of system we have before we start
analyzing it.

1.3 State, Equilibrium, Process and Properties

A) State
Consider a system that is not undergoing any change. The properties can be measured or calculated
throughout the entire system. This gives us a set of properties that completely describe the condition
or state of the system. At a given state all of the properties are known; changing one property changes
the state.

B) Equilibrium

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A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if it maintains thermal (uniform temperature),
mechanical (uniform pressure), phase (the mass of two phases, e.g., ice and liquid water, in
equilibrium) and chemical equilibrium.

Fig.6) Thermal Equilibrium

C) Process
Any change from one state to another is called a process. During a quasi-equilibrium or quasi-static
process the system remains practically in equilibrium at all times. We study quasi-equilibrium
processes because they are easy to analyze (equations of state apply) and work-producing devices
deliver the most work when they operate on the quasi-equilibrium process.

Fig.7) A process between states 1&2 and the process path

In most of the processes that we will study, one thermodynamic property is held constant. Some of
these processes are:

Process Property held constant

Isobaric Pressure
Isothermal Temperature
Isochoric Volume
Isentropic Entropy

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 Table 1: Process type and the associated property to be held constant

Process diagrams plotted by employing thermodynamic properties as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes. Some common properties that are used as coordinates are temperature T,
pressure P, and volume V (or specific volume v).

Fig.8) The P-V diagram of a compression process.

D) Cycle
A process (or a series of connected processes) with identical end states is called a cycle. Below is a
cycle composed of two processes, A and B. Along process A, the pressure and volume change from
state 1 to state 2. Then to complete the cycle, the pressure and volume change from state 2 back to the
initial state 1 along process B. Keep in mind that all other thermodynamic properties must also change
so that the pressure is a function of volume as described by these two processes.

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 Fig.9) Cyclic Process

Property
Any characteristic of a system is called a property. Some familiar properties are pressure P,
temperature T, volume V, and mass m. The list can be extended to include less familiar ones such as
viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, electric
resistivity, and even velocity and elevation.

Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive. Intensive properties are those that are
independent of the mass of a system, such as temperature, pressure, and density. Extensive properties
are those whose values depend on the size—or extent—of the system. Total mass, total volume and
total momentum are some examples of extensive properties. An easy way to determine whether a
property is intensive or extensive is to divide the system into two equal parts with an imaginary
partition, as shown in the figure below.

Fig.9) Intensive and Extensive Properties

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Steady-Flow Process
Consider a fluid flowing through an open system or control volume such as a water heater. The flow
is often defined by the terms steady and uniform. The term steady implies that there are no changes
with time. The term uniform implies no change with location over a specified region. Engineering
flow devices that operate for long periods of time under the same conditions are classified as steady-
flow devices. The processes for these devices are called the steady-flow process. The fluid properties
can change from point to point with in the control volume, but at any fixed point the properties remain
the same during the entire process.

State Postulate
As noted earlier, the state of a system is described by its properties. But by experience not all
properties must be known before the state is specified. Once a sufficient number of properties are
known, the state is specified and all other properties are known. The number of properties required to
fix the state of a simple, homogeneous system is given by the state postulate: The thermodynamic
state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive
properties.

1.4 Dimension and Units

Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions. The magnitudes assigned to the
dimensions are called units. Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and temperature
T are selected as primary or fundamental dimensions, while others such as velocity V, energy E, and
volume V are expressed in terms of the primary dimensions and are called secondary dimensions, or
derived dimensions.

Quantity Dimension Units

Mass M Kg
Length L m
Time T s

1.5 Specific volume, Pressure and Temperature

Specific Volume It is the volume occupied by a unit mass of a substance (the reciprocal of density),
and it is designated by the letter 𝑣

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Sometimes the density of a substance is given relative to the density of a well-known substance. Then
it is called specific gravity, or relative density, and is defined as the ratio of the density of a substance
to the density of some standard substance at a specified temperature (usually water at 4°C, for which
rH2O =1000 kg/m3). That is

Pressure
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We speak of pressure only when
we deal with a gas or a liquid. Since pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has the unit of
Newton per square meter (N/m2), which is called a Pascal (Pa).

The pressure unit Pascal is too small for pressures encountered in practice. Therefore, its multiples
kilopascal (1 KPa= 103 Pa) and Mega-Pascal (1 MPa= 106 Pa) are commonly used. Three other
pressure units commonly used in practice, especially in Europe, are bar, standard atmosphere, and
kilogram-force per square centimeter:

The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is measured relative to
absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure). Most pressure-measuring devices, however, are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere and so they indicate the difference between the absolute
pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. This difference is called the gage pressure. Pressures
below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures and are measured by vacuum gages that
indicate the difference between the atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure. Absolute, gage,
and vacuum pressures are all positive quantities and are related to each other by:

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 Fig.10) Absolute, Gage, and Vacuum Pressures.

A device called manometer, it is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences.
A manometer mainly consists of a glass or plastic U-tube containing one or more fluids such as
mercury, water, alcohol, or oil. To keep the size of the manometer to a manageable level, heavy fluids
such as mercury are used if large pressure differences are anticipated. Consider the manometer shown
in Fig. 1-13 that is used to measure the pressure in the tank. Since the gravitational effects of gases are
negligible, the pressure anywhere in the tank and at position 1 has the same value. Furthermore, since
pressure in a fluid does not vary in the horizontal direction within a fluid, the pressure at point 2 is the
same as the pressure at point 1, P2 = P1. The differential fluid column of height h is in static
equilibrium, and it is open to the atmosphere. Then the pressure at point 2 is determined directly from
Eq. (X) to be:-

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 Fig.11) Manometer

This pressure difference is determined from the manometer fluid displaced height as:

Temperature
Although we are familiar with temperature as a measure of “hotness” or “coldness,” it is not easy to
give an exact definition of it. However, temperature is considered as a thermodynamic property that is
the measure of the energy content of a mass. When heat energy is transferred to a body, the body's
energy content increases and so does its temperature. In fact it is the difference in temperature that
causes energy, called heat transfer, to flow from a hot body to a cold body. Two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium when they have reached the same temperature. If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium
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with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. This simple fact is known as
the zeroth law of thermodynamics.

Chapter Two
2. Properties of Pure Substances
2.1 Pure substance
A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a pure substance.

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Example: - Water, nitrogen, air, helium, carbon dioxide etc

Pure substance may exist in different phases, but the chemical compositions is the same. For example
water made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom oxygen. It will have the same composition
when in ice, liquid and vapor forms.

2.2 Fixing the state of a simple pure substance

The number of properties required to fix the state of a system is given by the state postulates. The
state postulate for a simple pure substance states that equilibrium state can be determined by
specifying any two independent intensive properties.

Phase of pure substances

A phase is identified as having a distinct molecular arrangement that is homogenous throughout and
separated from the others by easily identifiable boundary surface.

Under different conditions a substance may appear in different phases. The three principal phases are
solid, liquid and gas.

Considering water, it can be exist as

 Pure solid phase (ice)

 Pure liquid phase
 Pure vapor phase (steam)

It can also exist as an equilibrium mixture of different phase.

Phase-change processes of pure substances

Consider the piston-cylinder device containing liquid water at 20oC and 1atm.

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 Figure 2.1 At 1 atm and 20°C, water exists in the liquid phase (compressed liquid).

Under these conditions, water exists in the liquid phase, and it is called a compressed liquid, or a sub
cooled liquid. As the temperature rises, the liquid water expands slightly, and so its specific volume
increases.
At this point water still a liquid, but any heat addition will cause some of the liquid to vaporize. That
is, a phase change process from liquid to vapor is about to take place. A liquid about to vaporize is
called saturated liquid.

Figure 2.2 At 1 atm pressure and 100°C, water exists as a liquid that is ready to vaporize (Saturated
liquid)

Once boiling starts, the temperature stops rising until the liquid is completely vaporized (it is a
constant phase - change process at p constant).

During this process the only thing is change in volume. At this stage liquid and vapor phase coexist in
equilibrium and it is called saturated liquid-vapor mixture.
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Figure 2.3 As more heat is transferred, part of the saturated liquid vaporizes (saturated liquid–vapor
mixture).

At this point, the entire cylinder is filled with vapor that is on the borderline of the liquid phase.

Any heat loss from this vapor will cause some of the vapor to condense (phase change from vapor to
liquid). The vapor that is about to condense is called a saturated vapor.

Figure 2.4 At 1 atm pressure, the temperature remains constant at 100°C until the last drop of liquid
is vaporized (saturated vapor).

At this stage the phase-change process is completed is completed, we back to a single-phase region
(vapor).

Further transfer of heat will result in an increase in both the temperature and the specific volume.

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A vapor that is not about to condense (i.e. not a saturated vapor) is called a superheated vapor.

Figure 2.5 As more heat is transferred, the temperature of the vapor starts to rise (superheated vapor).

The above process is shown on a T-V diagram at constant pressure.

Figure 2.6 T-V diagrams for the heating process of water at constant pressure

At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes phase is called the saturation
temperature Tsat. Likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance changes
phase is called the saturation pressure Psat. At a pressure of 101.325 kPa, Tsat is 99.97°C. Conversely,
at a temperature of 99.97°C, Psat is 101.325 kPa.
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 Table 2.1 Saturation (boiling) pressure of water at various temperatures

The amount of energy absorbed or released during a phase-change process is called the latent heat.
The amount of energy absorbed during vaporization is called the latent heat of vaporization and it is
equivalent to the energy released during condensation. The amount of energy absorbed during melting
is called the latent heat of fusion and it is equivalent to the amount of energy released during freezing.
During a phase-change process, pressure and temperature are obviously dependent properties

Tsat = f(Psat).

Figure 2.7 The liquid vapor saturation curve of a pure substance

2.4 The T-V Diagram

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Experimental result tells us, as the pressure is increased further, the saturation line of the process will
continue to get shorter and it will become a point. This point is called the critical point of the
substance and it may be defined as the point at which the saturated liquid saturated vapor states are
identical.

Figure 2.10 T-v diagram of constant-pressure phase-change processes of a pure substance at various
pressures (numerical values are for water).

At pressures above the critical pressure, there is not a distinct phase-change process. Instead, the
specific volume of the substance continually increases, and at all times there is only one phase
present. Eventually, it resembles a vapor, but we can never tell when the change has occurred. Above
the critical state, there is no line that separates the compressed liquid region and the superheated vapor
region. However, it is customary to refer to the substance as superheated vapor at temperatures above
the critical temperature and as compressed liquid at temperatures below the critical temperature.

Figure 2.11 T-V diagram of a pure substance.

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The P-V diagram
It is the same as T-V diagram but the T-constant line on this diagram have a down ward trend.

Figure 2.12 P-V diagram of a pure substance

The P-T diagram

This diagram is often called the phase diagram since all three phases are separated from each other by
three lines.

Figure 2.13 P-T diagram of pure substances.

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Melting and Sublimation
Although the phase change from liquid to vapor (vaporization) is the one of principal interest in this
book chapter, it is also instructive to consider the phase changes from solid to liquid (melting) and
from solid to vapor (sublimation). To study these transitions, consider a system consisting of a unit
mass of ice at a temperature below the triple point temperature.

Figure 2.14 Phase diagram for water

Let us begin with the case where the system is at state ‘a’ of Fig. 2.14, where the pressure is greater
than the triple point pressure. Suppose the system is slowly heated while maintaining the pressure
constant and uniform throughout. The temperature increases with heating until point b on Fig. 2.14 is
attained. At this state the ice is a saturated solid. Additional heat transfer at fixed pressure results in
the formation of liquid without any change in temperature. As the system is heated further, the ice
continues to melt until eventually the last bit melts, and the system contains only saturated liquid.
During the melting process the temperature and pressure remain constant. For most substances, the
specific volume increases during melting, but for water the specific volume of the liquid is less than
the specific volume of the solid. Further heating at fixed pressure results in an increase in temperature
as the system is brought to point c on Fig. 2.14. Next, consider the case where the system is initially at
state a’ of Fig. 2.14, where the pressure is less than the triple point pressure. In this case, if the system
is heated at constant pressure it passes through the two-phase solid–vapor region into the vapor region
along the line a’, b’, c’ shown on Fig. 2.14. The case of vaporization discussed previously is shown on
Fig. 2.14 by the line a’’, b’’ and c’’.

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2.4 Thermodynamic tables
Thermodynamic properties of substance are usually given in tabular form to facilitate calculation.
Among them saturated, superheated steam and compressed liquid are the most frequently used
properties.

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Saturated liquid-vapor mixture
During a vaporization process, a substance exists as part liquid and part vapor. That is, it is a mixture
of saturated liquid and saturated vapor. To analyze this mixture properly, we need to know the
proportions of the liquid and vapor phases in the mixture. This is done by defining a new property
called the quality (x) as the ratio of the mass of vapor to the total mass of the mixture:

Quality has significance for saturated mixtures only. It has no meaning in the compressed liquid or
superheated vapor regions. Its value is between 0 and 1. The quality of a system that consists of
saturated liquid is 0 (or 0 percent), and the quality of a system consisting of saturated vapor is 1 (or
100 percent). In saturated mixtures, quality can serve as one of the two independent intensive
properties needed to describe a state. Note that the properties of the saturated liquid are the same
whether it exists alone or in a mixture with saturated vapor. During the vaporization process, only the
amount of saturated liquid changes, not its properties. The same can be said about a saturated vapor.

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 Figure 2.15 Liquid and vapor phases in a saturated mixture

Consider a tank that contains a saturated liquid–vapor mixture. The volume occupied by saturated
liquid is Vf, and the volume occupied by saturated vapor is Vg. The total volume V is the sum of the
two. (The subscript f is used to denote saturated liquid and the subscript g is used to denote saturated
vapor).

Since x = mg /mt and vfg is the difference between vg and vf (that is, vfg = vg - vf ). This relation can
also be expressed as:

The above equation also holds true for other properties:

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Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States
The properties of saturated liquid and saturated vapor for water are listed in Thermodynamics tables.

Figure 2.16 a partial list of Thermodynamic Table

Superheated steam table

In the region to the right of the saturated vapor line and at temperatures above the critical point
temperature, a substance exists as superheated vapor. Since the superheated region is a single- phase
region (vapor phase only), temperature and pressure are no longer dependent properties and they can
conveniently be used as the two independent properties in the tables.

We have super-heated steam table, where T and P are given and the other properties can be tabulated
(can be directed read from table).

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 Figure 2.17 Super-heated regions in graph and table form

Compared to saturated vapor, superheated vapor is characterized by:

 Lower pressures (P < Psat at a given T)

 Higher temperatures (T > Tsat at a given P)
 Higher specific volumes (v > vg at a given P or T)
 Higher internal energies (u > ug at a given P or T)
 Higher enthalpies (h > hg at a given P or T)

Compressed liquid table

Here again, the properties are given without subscripts. Pressure and temperature need to be known to
use these tables. Compressed liquid tables are not as commonly available this is because the
compressed liquid properties depend on temperature much more strongly than they do on pressure. In
the absence of compressed liquid data, a general approximation is to treat compressed liquid as
saturated liquid at the given temperature. In general, a compressed liquid is characterized by:

 Higher pressures (P > Psat at a given T)

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  Lower temperatures (T <Tsat at a given P)
 Lower specific volumes (v < vf at a given P or T)
 Lower internal energies (u < uf at a given P or T)
 Lower enthalpies (h < hf at a given P or T)

Figure 2.18 Compressed liquid region

How to Choose the Right Table

The correct table to use to find the thermodynamic properties of a real substance can always be
determined by comparing the known state properties to the properties in the saturation region. Given
the temperature or pressure and one other property from the group v, u, h, and s, the following
procedure is used. For example if the pressure and specific volume are specified, three questions are
asked: For the given pressure,

The answer to one of these questions must be yes. If the answer to the first question is yes, the state is
in the compressed liquid region, and the compressed liquid tables are used to find the properties of the
state. If the answer to the second question is yes, the state is in the saturation region, and either the
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saturation temperature table or the saturation pressure table is used to find the properties. Then the
quality is calculated and is used to calculate the other properties, u, h, and s. If the answer to the third
question is yes, the state is in the superheated region and the superheated tables are used to find the
other properties.

2.5 Equation of State

The relationship among the state variables, temperature, pressure, and specific volume is called the
equation of state.

Property relations that involve other properties of a substance at equilibrium states are also referred to
as equations of state. There are several equations of state, some simple and others very complex. The
simplest and best-known equation of state for substances in the gas phase is the ideal-gas equation of
state. This equation predicts the P-v-T behavior of a gas quite accurately within some properly
selected region.

Based on our experience in chemistry and physics we recall that the combination of Boyle’s and
Charles’ laws for gases at low pressure result in the equation of state for the ideal gas as

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The constant of proportionality R is called the gas constant. Equation (2.12) is called the ideal- gas
equation of state, or simply the ideal-gas relation, and a gas that obeys this relation is called an ideal
gas. The gas constant R is different for each gas and is determined from

Where Ru is the universal gas constant and M is the molar mass (also called molecular weight) of the
gas. The constant Ru is the same for all substances, and its value is8.314KJ/Kmol∙K.

m  nM
The ideal-gas equation of state can be written in several different forms:
V  mv  PV  mRT
mR  (MN )R  NRu  PV  NRuT

V  Nv  Pv  RuT
By writing Eq. 2.16 twice for a fixed mass and simplifying, the properties of an ideal gas at two
different states are related to each other by:

Air, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, helium, argon etc can be treated as ideal gases:
Compressibility factor (measure of deviation from ideal gas)
The ideal-gas equation is very simple and thus very convenient to use. However, gases deviate from
ideal-gas behavior significantly at states near the saturation region and the critical point. This
deviation from ideal-gas behavior at a given temperature and pressure can accurately be accounted for
by the introduction of a correction factor called the compressibility factor Z defined as:
PV  ZRT
Z = 1 for ideal gases. For real gases Z can be greater than or less than unity. The Z factor is
approximately the same for all gases at the same reduced temperature and reduced pressure. This is
known as the principle of corresponding states.

Where:
PR/ TR=reduced pressure/Temperature

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Pcr /Tcr=critical pressure/Temperature
P/T=actual pressure/ Temperature

Figure 2 19 Comparison of Z factor for various gases

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 Figure 2.20 Simple fluid compressibility chart

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 Chapter Three
3. Energy Transport by Heat, Work and Mass
3.1 Energy of a System
Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause change.

Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric,
magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the total energy E of a system. The total
energy of a system on a unit mass basis is denoted by e and is expressed as

In thermodynamic analysis, energy can be group in to two forms:

 Macroscopic
 Microscopic

Microscopic forms of energy are those related to the molecular structure of a system and the degree of
the molecular activity, and they are independent of outside reference frames.

The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy of a system and is
denoted by U.

Example:-

 Latent energy
 Chemical energy
 Nuclear energy
 Sensible energy

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Internal energy
 A system associated with the kinetic energies of the molecules is called the sensible energy.
 The internal energy associated with the phase of a system is called the latent energy.
 The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule is called chemical energy.
 The tremendous amount of energy associated with the strong bonds within the nucleus of the
atom itself is called nuclear energy.
 The total energy of a system, can be contained or stored in a system, and thus can be viewed
as the static forms of energy.
 The forms of energy not stored in a system can be viewed as the dynamic forms of energy.
 The only two forms of energy interactions associated with a closed system are heat transfer
and work.

Macroscopic forms of energy are those a system possesses as a whole with respect to some outside
reference frame, such as kinetic and potential energies.

 The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some reference
frame is called kinetic energy (KE) and is expressed as:

 The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational field is
called potential energy (PE) and is expressed as:

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The magnetic, electric, and surface tension effects are significant in some specialized cases only and
are usually ignored. In the absence of such effects, the total energy of a system consists of the kinetic,
potential, and internal energies and is expressed as:

E = U + KE +PE
Most closed systems remain stationary during a process and thus experience no change in their kinetic
and potential energies. Closed systems whose velocity and elevation of the center of gravity remain
constant during a process are frequently referred to as stationary systems. The change in the total
energy ∆E of a stationary system is identical to the change in its internal energy ∆U.

3.2. Energy transport by heat and work

Energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in two distinct forms: heat and work.

Figure 3.1 Energy can cross the boundaries of a closed system in the form of heat and work.

Energy Transport by Heat

Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.

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 Figure 3.2 Heat transfer from hot surface to cold surface

That is, an energy interaction is heat only if it takes place because of a temperature difference. Then it
follows that there cannot be any heat transfer between two systems that are at the same temperature.

A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an adiabatic process. The word adiabatic
comes from the Greek word adiabatos, which means not to be passed. There are two ways a process
can be adiabatic: Either the system is well insulated so that only a negligible amount of heat can pass
through the boundary, or both the system and the surroundings are at the same temperature and
therefore there is no driving force (temperature difference) for heat transfer.

Figure 3.3 During an adiabatic process, a system exchanges no heat with its surroundings.

As a form of energy, heat has energy units, kJ being the most common one. The amount of heat
transferred during the process between two states (states 1 and 2) is denoted by Q12, or just Q. Heat
transfer per unit mass of a system is denoted q and is determined from:

Sometimes it is desirable to know the rate of heat transfer (the amount of heat transferred per unit
time) instead of the total heat transferred over some time interval.

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 Figure 3.4 The relationships among q, Q, and Q

The heat transfer rate is denoted Q˙ , where the over dot stands for the time derivative, or “per unit
time.” The heat transfer rate Q˙ has the unit kJ/s, which is equivalent to kW. When Q˙ varies with
time, the amount of heat transfer during a process is determined by integrating Q˙ over the time
interval of the process:

When Q˙ remains constant during a process, this relation reduces to:

Heat is transferred by three mechanisms: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction is the
transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones
as a result of interaction between particles. Convection is the transfer of energy between a solid
surface and the adjacent fluid that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and
fluid motion. Radiation is the transfer of energy due to the emission of electromagnetic waves (or
photons).

Energy Transport by Work

Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a system and its surroundings. As mentioned earlier,
energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in the form of heat or work. Therefore, If the energy
crossing the boundary of a closed system is not heat, it must be work. Work is the energy transfer
associated with force acting through a distance. Example:-

 A rising piston
 A rotating shaft

38 | P a g e
Work is also a form of energy transferred like heat and, therefore, has energy units such as kJ. The
work done during a process between states 1 and 2 is denoted by W12, or simply W. The work done
per unit mass of a system is denoted by w and is expressed as:

The work done per unit time is called power and is denoted by W˙. The unit of power is kJ/s, or kW.
Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms between a system and its surroundings, and there are
many similarities between them:

 Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross the boundaries. That is, both
heat and work are boundary phenomena.
 Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.
 Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike properties, heat or work has no meaning
at a state.
 Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path followed during a process as
well as the end states).

Sign convention for energy transported by heat and work

Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the complete description of a heat or work
interaction requires the specification of both the magnitude and direction. One way of doing that is to
adopt a sign convention. The generally accepted formal sign convention for heat and work
interactions is as follows: heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are positive; heat
transfer from a system and work done on a system are negative. Another way is to use the subscripts
in and out to indicate direction.

Figure 3.5 specifying the directions of heat and work.

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Figure 3.6 Process from stage 1 to 2 Figure 3.7 Process from stage 2 to 1

 W > 0 work done by the system (positive) Figure 3.6

 W < 0 work done on the system (negative) Figure 3.7

Path functions have inexact differentials designated by the symbol ð. Therefore, a differential amount
of heat or work is represented by ðQ or ðW, respectively, instead of dQ or dW. Properties, however, are
point functions (i.e., they depend on the state only, and not on how a system reaches that state), and
they have exact differentials designated by the symbol d. A small change in volume, for example, is
represented by dv, and the total volume change during a process between states 1 and 2 is:

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Figure 3.8 Properties are point functions; but heat and work are path functions

The total work done during process 1–2, however, is:

That is, the total work is obtained by following the process path and adding the differential amounts
of work (⸹W) done along the way. The integral of ⸹W is not W2 - W1 (i.e., the work at state 2 minus
work at state 1), which is meaningless since work is not a property and systems do not possess work
at a state.

3.3 Boundary work

The work associated with a moving boundary is called boundary work. The expansion and
compression work is often called moving boundary work or simply boundary work. Example:-
piston–cylinder device.

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 Figure 3.9 the work associated with a moving boundary is called boundary work.

In this section, we analyze the moving boundary work for a quasi-equilibrium process, a process
during which the system remains nearly in equilibrium at all times. A quasi-equilibrium process,
Boundary work is done by the steam on the piston is calculated from figure 3.10.

Figure 3.10 The area under the process curve on a P-V diagram represents the boundary work.

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This integral can be during the process. Evaluated only if we know the functional relationship
between P and v, P= f (V) is simply the equation of the process path on a P-V diagram. The
differential area dA is equal to PdV. The total area A under the process curve 1–2 is obtained by
adding these differential areas:

A comparison of this equation with the above (Wb =1 2PdV ), reveals that the area under the
process curve on a P-v diagram is equal, in magnitude, to the work done during a quasi-equilibrium
expansion or compression process of a closed system. (On the P-v diagram, it represents the boundary
work done per unit mass.)

Some typical process

 Boundary work at constant volume process:

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Figure 3.11 Schematic and P-V diagram for constant pressure process

If the volume is held constant, dV=0 and the boundary work equation become:

 Boundary work at constant pressure

Figure 3.12 Schematic and P-v diagram for constant pressure

If the pressure is held constant the boundary work equation becomes.

 Boundary work at constant temperature (Isothermal)

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 Figure 3.13 Schematic and P-V diagram for a polytropic process.

If the temperature of an ideal gas system held constant, then the equation of state provides the
pressure volume relation.

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  Polytropic Process
During actual expansion and compression processes of gases, pressure and volume are often related
by PVn = C. where n and C are constants.

Since C = P1V1 n = P2V2 n, for an ideal gas (PV = mRT), this equation can also be written as:

 Spring Work
When the length of the spring changes by a differential amount dx under the influence of a force

F, the work done is:

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 figure 3.14 Elongation of a spring under the influence of a force.

3.4 Energy transferred by Mass

Mass flow into and out of a system changes the energy content of the system. When mass enters a
control volume, the energy of the control volume increase because the entering mass carries some
energy with it. Likewise when some mass leaves the control volume, the energy contained within the
control volume decreases because some leaving mass takeout some energy within it.

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 Figure 3.14 the energy content of a control volume can be changed by mass flow

Chapter Four
4. The First Law of Thermodynamics
It is the law that relates the various forms of energies for system of different types.

“It is simply the expression of the conservation of energy principle”

The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the conservation of energy principle, provides a
sound basis for studying the relationships among the various forms of energy and energy
interactions. Based on experimental observations, the first law of thermodynamics states that:
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 “Energy can be neither created nor destroyed during a process; it can only change forms.”
A major consequence of the first law is the existence and the definition of the property total Energy E.

Figure 4.1 Different forms of energies

For the system shown above, the conservation of energy principle or the first law of thermodynamics
is expressed as:

Ein  Eout  Esystem

This relation is often referred to as the energy balance and is applicable to any kind of system
undergoing any kind of process.

Normally the stored energy, or total energy, of a system is expressed as the sum of three separate
energies. The total energy of the system, Esystem, is given as:

Esystem = {Internal Energy} + {Kinetic Energy} + {Potential Energy}

Esystem = U + KE + PE

Where:

U = is the sum of the energy contained within the molecules of the system and is called the internal
energy. The kinetic energy KE and the potential energy PE are given by:

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Now the conservation of energy principle, or the first law of thermodynamics for closed systems, is
written as:

If the system does not move with a velocity and has no change in elevation, it is called a stationary
system, and the conservation of energy equation reduces to:

The mechanisms of energy transfer at a system boundary are: Heat, Work, mass flow. Only heat and
work energy transfers occur at the boundary of a closed (fixed mass) system. Open systems or control
volumes have energy transfer across the control surfaces by mass flow as well as heat and work.

4.1 Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout

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Heat Transfer, (Q) Heat transfer to a system (heat gain) increases the energy of the molecules and thus
the internal energy of the system and heat transfer from a system (heat loss) decreases it since the
energy transferred out as heat comes from the energy of the molecules of the system. Q is zero for
adiabatic systems.

Work Transfer, (W) Work transfer to a system (i.e. Work done on a system) increases the energy of
the system, and work transfer from a system (i.e., work done by the system) decreases it, since the
energy transferred out as work comes from the energy contained in the system. Car engines and
hydraulic, steam, or gas turbines produce work while compressors, pumps, and mixers consume work.
Mass Flow, (m) When mass enters a system, the energy of the system increases because mass carries
energy with it (in fact, mass is energy). Likewise, when some mass leaves the system, the energy
contained within the system decreases because the leaving mass takes out some energy with it. The
energy balance can be written more explicitly as:

The energy balance can be written more explicitly as

Ein  Eout  (Qin  Qout)  (Win  Wout)  (Emass, in  Emass, out)  Esystem

Figure 4.2 the energy content of a control volume can be changed by mass flow as well as heat and
work interactions.

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For constant rates, the total quantities during the time interval, (Δt) is related to the quantities per unit
time as:

The energy balance may be expressed on a per unit mass basis as:

4.2 The first law and a closed system

For the closed system where the mass never crosses the system boundary, then the energy balance is:

 Q in -Q out + Win -W out = E system

Closed system undergoing a cycle
For a closed system undergoing a cycle, the initial and final states are identical, and thus

Figure 4.3 for a cycle ∆E = 0, thus Q = W.

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 =====>>

Noting that a closed system does not involve any mass flow across its boundaries, the energy balance
for a cycle can be expressed in terms of heat and work interactions as:

If the total energy is a combination of internal energy, kinetic energy and potential energy:

Internal energy and Enthalpy Internal energy

The internal energy includes some complex forms of energy show up due to translation, rotation and
vibration of molecules. It is designated by U and it is extensive property. Or per unit mass as, specific
internal energy, u = U/m, is an intensive property of the system like P, V, and T but not measurable.

The internal energy expression can be used to determine the state of the substance if one additional
property is known. If we take two phase as liquid and vapor at a given saturation pressure or
temperature.

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Enthalpy
It is another extensive property which has a unit of energy and it is denoted by H. The enthalpy is a
convenient grouping of the internal energy, pressure, and volume and is given by:

H  U  PV
The enthalpy per unit mass is, h = H/m, which is said to be specific enthalpy and:

h= u+ Pv

Consider a piston cylinder assembly where we have a continuous supply heat so that the boundary
change for the process is:

Q12  U2 U1   W12

(In the above equation we are neglecting change in kinetic energy and potential energy). If we are
assuming the process is at constant pressure:

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4.3 Specific Heat
It is an intensive property of a substance that will enable us to compare the energy storage capability
of various substances. The unit is [KJ/ Kg.Ԩ] OR [KJ/Kg.K].

It defined as; the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree.
In general, this energy depends on how the process is executed. (Heat is path dependent property) In
thermodynamics, we are interested in two kinds of specific heats: specific heat at constant volume Cv
and specific heat at constant pressure Cp.

The specific heat at constant volume Cv can be viewed as the energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the volume is maintained constant. Here
the boundary work is zero because the volume is constant

(Change in internal energy with temperature at constant volume)

The specific heat at constant pressure Cp can be viewed as the energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the pressure is maintained constant.

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(Change in internal energy with temperature at constant Pressure)

Specific heats are sometimes given on a molar basis. They are then denoted by C v and Cp have the
unit kJ/kmol °C or kJ/kmol K.

4.4 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases

We defined an ideal gas as a gas whose temperature, pressure, and specific volume are related by

Pv = RT

It has been demonstrated mathematically (the coming chapters) and experimentally that for an ideal
gas the internal energy is a function of the temperature only. That is,

U = U (T )

Using the definition of enthalpy, we have, h = u + Pv but Pv = RT. Combining the above to
equation, h = u + RT.

This shows that h = h(T) From the specific heat relation: du = Cv(T)dT

Or taking average value of specific heat for narrow temperature difference.

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Relation between CP and CV for Ideal Gases
Using the definition of enthalpy (h = u + pv) and writing the differential of enthalpy, the relationship
between the specific heats for ideal gases is:

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Where R¯ is the universal gas constant R¯=8.314 KJ/Kmol

At this point, we introduce another ideal-gas property called the specific heat ratio k, defined as:

Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of Solids and Liquids A substance whose specific
volume (or density) is constant is called an incompressible substance. The specific volumes of solids
and liquids essentially remain constant during a process. Therefore, liquids and solids can be
approximated as incompressible substances.

It can be mathematically shown that the constant-volume and constant-pressure specific heats are
identical for incompressible substances. The specific heat can be expressed as: Cp = Cv = C

4.5 The First Law and the Control Volume

The conservation of mass and the conservation of energy principles for open systems or control
volumes apply to systems having mass crossing the system boundary or control surface. In addition to
the heat transfer and work crossing the system boundaries, mass carries energy with it as it crosses the
system boundaries. Thus, the mass and energy content of the open system may change when mass
enters or leaves the control volume.

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 Figure 4.4 Typical control volume or open system

Hence the conservation of mass principle can be used to relate mass which entering and leaving a
system. It can be expressed as:

“The net mass transfer to or from a control volume during a process (a time interval ∆t) is equal to the
net change (increase or decrease) in the total mass within the control volume during that process
(∆t)”. That is,

Where m˙in and m˙out are the total rates of mass flow into and out of the control volume, and dmCV/dt
is the time rate of change of mass within the control volume boundaries. Some time we also use
volume flow rate which indicates the volume of the fluid flowing through a part per unit time and
denoted by,

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Thermodynamic processes involving control volumes can be considered in two groups: steady- flow
processes and unsteady-flow processes.

Steady state process

The flow through a control volume is at steady state if, “the property of the substance at a given
position within or at the boundaries of the control volume do not change with time”. During a steady
flow process, the total amount of mass contained within a control volume does not change with time
(mcv= constant). Then the conservation of mass principle requires that the total amount of mass
entering a control volume equal the total amount of mass leaving it. Mass in the control volume is
constant:

Unsteady state process

The properties within the control volume change with time but remain uniform at any instant of time.
The properties at the flow areas do not change with time although the mass flow rates may change
with time. Typical example: - filling and empting processes where most of the cases average value of
properties must be used.

For such cases:

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4.6 Flow Work and the Energy of a Flowing Fluid
Unlike closed systems, control volumes involve mass flow across their boundaries, and some work is
required to push the mass into or out of the control volume. This work is known as the flow work, or
flow energy, and is necessary for maintaining a continuous flow through a control volume.

Figure 4.5 Schematic for flow work

If the fluid pressure is P and the cross-sectional area of the fluid element is A, the force applied on the
fluid element by the imaginary piston is: F = PA

To push the entire fluid element into the control volume, this force must act through a distance L.
Thus, the work done in pushing the fluid element across the boundary (i.e., the flow work) is

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Development of energy balance
The general representation of the first law of thermodynamics:

The first law for open system will also have the same form, but:

The total energy of a simple compressible system consists of three parts: internal, kinetic, and
potential energies:

E = {Internal Energy} + {Kinetic Energy} + {Potential Energy}

E =U + KE + PE
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The fluid entering or leaving a control volume possesses an additional form of energy, the flow
energy Pv, as already discussed. Then the total energy of a flowing fluid on a unit-mass basis
(denoted by θ) becomes:

But the combination (Pv + u) has been previously defined as the enthalpy h. So the relation in the
above equation reduces to:

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In such cases, it is common practice to assume heat to be transferred into the system (heat input) at a
rate of Q˙, and work produced by the system (work output) at a rate of W˙ , and then solve the
problem. The first-law or energy balance relation in that case for a general steady-flow system
becomes:

When the fluid experiences negligible changes in its kinetic and potential energies (that is, ke = 0, pe
= 0), the energy balance equation is reduced further to:

4.7 Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices

Nozzles and Diffusers

Nozzles and diffusers are commonly utilized in jet engines, rockets, spacecraft, and even garden
hoses. A nozzle is a device that increases the velocity of a fluid at the expense of pressure. A diffuser
is a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by slowing it down. That is, nozzles and diffusers
perform opposite tasks. The cross-sectional area of a nozzle decreases in the flow direction for
subsonic flows and increases for supersonic flows. The reverse is true for diffusers.

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 Figure 4.6 Schematic diagrams of Nozzles and diffusers

For flow through nozzles, the heat transfer, work, and potential energy are normally neglected, and
nozzles have one entrance and one exit. The conservation of energy becomes:

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A Turbine In steam, gas, or hydroelectric power plants, the device that drives the electric generator is
the turbine. As the fluid passes through the turbine, work is done against the blades, which are
attached to the shaft. As a result, the shaft rotates, and the turbine produces work.

Figure 4.7 Schematic diagrams of Turbines

If we neglect the changes in kinetic and potential energies as fluid flows through an adiabatic turbine
having one entrance and one exit, the conservation of mass and the steady-state, steady- flow first law
becomes:

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Compressors
Compressors, as well as fans, are devices used to increase the pressure of a fluid. Work is supplied to
these devices from an external source through a rotating shaft. Therefore, compressors involve work
inputs. Even though these three devices function similarly, they do differ in the tasks they perform. A
fan increases the pressure of a gas slightly and is mainly used to mobilize a gas.

Figure 4.8 Schematic diagram of Compressors

If we neglect the changes in kinetic and potential energies as fluid flows through an adiabatic
compressor having one entrance and one exit, the steady-state, steady-flow first law or the
conservation of energy equation becomes:

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Pumps
The work required when pumping an incompressible liquid in an adiabatic steady-state, steady- flow
process is given by:

The enthalpy difference can be written as:

For incompressible liquids we assume that the density and specific volume are constant. The pumping
process for an incompressible liquid is essentially isothermal, and the internal energy change is
approximately zero (we will see this more clearly after introducing the second law). Thus, the
enthalpy difference reduces to the difference in the pressure specific volume products. Since v2 = v1 =
v the work input to the pump becomes:

W˙ is the net work done by the control volume, and it is noted that work is input to the pump; so, W˙
= -W˙ in, pump, If we neglect the changes in kinetic and potential energies, the pump work becomes:

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We use this result to calculate the work supplied to boiler feed water pumps in steam power plants.

Throttling Valves
Throttling valves are any kind of flow-restricting devices that cause a significant pressure drop in the
fluid. Some familiar examples are ordinary adjustable valves, capillary tubes, and porous plugs.
Unlike turbines, they produce a pressure drop without involving any work. The pressure drop in the
fluid is often accompanied by a large drop in temperature, and for that reason throttling devices are
commonly used in refrigeration and air-conditioning applications.

Figure 4.9 Schematic diagrams of Throttling valves

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Mixing Chambers
The mixing of two fluids occurs frequently in engineering applications. The section where the mixing
process takes place is called a mixing chamber. The ordinary shower is an example of a mixing
chamber.

Figure 4.10 Schematic diagram of Mixing Chamber

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According to the sketched control volume, mass crosses the control surface. Neglecting kinetic and
potential energies and noting the process is adiabatic with entrances and one exit no work, we have
for two entrances and one exit.

Heat Exchangers

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Heat exchangers are normally well-insulated devices that allow energy exchange between hot and
cold fluids without mixing the fluids. The pumps, fans, and blowers causing the fluids to flow across
the control surface are normally located outside the control surface.

Figure 4.11 A heat exchanger can be as simple as two concentric pipes.

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 Chapter Five
5. The Second Law of Thermodynamics
5.1 Introduction
The second law of thermodynamics states that processes occur in a certain direction, not in just any
direction. Physical processes in nature can proceed toward equilibrium spontaneously:

 Water flows down a waterfall.

 Gases expand from a high pressure to a low pressure.
 Heat flows from a high temperature to a low temperature.

Once it has taken place, a spontaneous process can be reversed, but it will not reverse itself
spontaneously. Some external inputs, energy, must be expended to reverse the process.

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As it falls down the waterfall, water can be collected in a water wheel, cause a shaft to rotate, coil a rope
onto the shaft, and lift a weight. So the energy of the falling water is captured as potential energy
increase in the weight, and the first law of thermodynamics is satisfied. However, there are losses
associated with this process (friction). Allowing the weight to fall, causing the shaft to rotate in the
opposite direction, will not pump all of the water back up the waterfall. Spontaneous processes can
proceed only in a particular direction.

The first law of thermodynamics gives no information about direction; it states only that when one form
of energy is converted into another, identical quantities of energy are involved regardless of the
feasibility of the process. We know by experience that heat flows spontaneously from a high temperature
to a low temperature. But heat flowing from a low temperature to a higher temperature with no
expenditure of energy to cause the process to take place would not violate the first law.

The first law is concerned with the conversion of energy from one form to another. Joule's experiments
showed that energy in the form of heat could not be completely converted into work; however, work
energy can be completely converted into heat energy. Evidently heat and work are not completely
interchangeable forms of energy. Furthermore, when energy is transferred from one form to another,
there is often a degradation of the supplied energy into a less “useful” form. We shall see that it is the
second law of thermodynamics that controls the direction processes may take and how much heat is
converted into work. A process will not occur unless it satisfies both the first and the second laws of
thermodynamics.

5.2 Some Definitions

To express the second law in a workable form, we need the following definitions.

Heat (thermal) reservoir

A heat reservoir is a sufficiently large system in stable equilibrium to which and from which finite
amounts of heat can be transferred without any change in its temperature. A high temperature heat
reservoir from which heat is transferred is sometimes called a heat source. A low temperature heat
reservoir to which heat is transferred is sometimes called a heat sink.

Work reservoir
A work reservoir is a sufficiently large system in stable equilibrium to which and from which finite
amounts of work can be transferred adiabatically without any change in its pressure.

Thermodynamic cycle

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A system has completed a thermodynamic cycle when the system undergoes a series of processes and
then returns to its original state, so that the properties of the system at the end of the cycle are the
same as at its beginning. Thus, for whole numbers of cycles:

Pf=Pi, Tf=Ti, uf=ui, vf =vi etc….

5.3 Heat Engines

Work can easily be converted to other forms of energy, but converting other forms of energy to work
is not that easy. The mechanical work done by the shaft shown in Figure (5.1), for example, is first
converted to the internal energy of the water. This energy may then leave the water as heat. We know
from experience that any attempt to reverse this process will fail. That is, transferring heat to the
water does not cause the shaft to rotate.

Figure 5.1 Work can always be converted to heat directly and completely, but the reverse is not true.

From this and other observations, we conclude that work can be converted to heat directly and
completely, but converting heat to work requires the use of some special devices. These devices are
called heat engines.

A heat engine is a thermodynamic system operating in a thermodynamic cycle to which net heat is
transferred and from which network is delivered.

The system, or working fluid, undergoes a series of processes that constitute the heat engine cycle.
Heat engines differ considerably from one another, but all can be characterized by the following

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  They receive heat from a high-temperature source (solar energy, oil furnace, nuclear reactor,
etc.).
 They convert part of this heat to work (usually in the form of a rotating shaft).
 They reject the remaining waste heat to a low-temperature sink (the atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
 They operate on a cycle.

Figure 5.2 Part of the heat received by a heat engine is converted to work, while the rest is rejected to
a sink.

Engines that involve internal combustion such as gas turbines and car engines fall into this category.
The work-producing device that best fits into the definition of a heat engine is the steam power plant,
which is an external-combustion engine. That is, combustion takes place outside the engine, and the
thermal energy released during this process is transferred to the steam as heat. Figure (5.2) illustrates
a schematic diagram of steam power plant as a heat engine operating in a thermodynamic cycle. The
various quantities shown on this figure are as follows:

 Qin = amount of heat supplied to steam in boiler from a high-temperature source (furnace)
 Qout= amount of heat rejected from steam in condenser to a low-temperature sink (the
atmosphere, a river, etc.)
 Wout= amount of work delivered by steam as it expands in turbine
 W in = amount of work required to compress water to boiler pressure

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Figure 5.3 Components of a simple vapor power plant.

Using the first law of thermodynamics for the system:

If we want to compare the output against the input, we introduce Thermal Efficiency for the cycle.
The thermal efficiency is the index of performance of a work-producing device or a heat engine and is
defined by the ratio of the network output (the desired result) to the heat input (the costs to obtain the
desired result)

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For a heat engine the desired result is the net work done and the input is the heat supplied to make the
cycle operate.

The thermal efficiency is always less than 1 or less than 100 percent.

Cyclic devices such as heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps often operate between a high-
temperature reservoir at temperature TH and a low temperature reservoir at temperature TL. To bring
uniformity to the treatment of heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps, we define these two
quantities:

 QH = magnitude of heat transfer between the cyclic device and the high-temperature medium
at temperature TH
 QL = magnitude of heat transfer between the cyclic device and the low-temperature medium at
temperature TL

Then the network output and thermal efficiency relations for any heat engine (shown in Fig 5.4) can
also be expressed as:

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 Figure 5.4 Schematic of a heat engine. Equation on page

5.4 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps

We all know from experience that heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature, that
is, from high-temperature mediums to low-temperature ones. This heat transfer process occurs in
nature without requiring any devices. The reverse process, however, cannot occur by itself. The
transfer of heat from a low-temperature medium to a high-temperature one requires special devices
called refrigerators. Refrigerators, like heat engines, are cyclic devices. The working fluid used in the
refrigeration cycle is called a refrigerant. The most frequently used refrigeration cycle is the vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle, which involves four main components: a compressor, a condenser,
an expansion valve, and an evaporator, as shown in Figure (5.5).

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 Figure 5.5 Basic components of a refrigeration system and typical operating conditions.

The refrigerant enters the compressor as a vapor and is compressed to the condenser pressure. It
leaves the compressor at a relatively high temperature and cools down and condenses as it flows
through the coils of the condenser by rejecting heat to the surrounding medium. It then enters a
capillary tube where its pressure and temperature drop drastically due to the throttling effect. The low-
temperature refrigerant then enters the evaporator, where it evaporates by absorbing heat from the
refrigerated space. The cycle is completed as the refrigerant leaves the evaporator and reenters the
compressor.

In a household refrigerator, the freezer compartment where heat is absorbed by the refrigerant serves
as the evaporator, and the coils usually behind the refrigerator where heat is dissipated to the kitchen
air serve as the condenser. A refrigerator is shown schematically in Figure (5.6). Here Q L is the
magnitude of the heat removed from the refrigerated space at temperature T L, QH is the magnitude of
the heat rejected to the warm environment at temperature TH, and Wnet, in is the network input to the
refrigerator. As discussed before, QL and QH.

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 Figure 5.6 The objective of a refrigerator is to remove Q represent magnitudes and thus are positive
quantities.

Another device that transfers heat from a low-temperature medium to a high-temperature one is the
heat pump, shown schematically in Figure (5.7). Refrigerators and heat pumps operate on the same
cycle but differ in their objectives. The objective of a refrigerator is to maintain the refrigerated space
at a low temperature by removing heat from it. Discharging this heat to a higher-temperature medium
is merely a necessary part of the operation, not the purpose. The objective of a heat pump, however, is
to maintain a heated space at a high temperature. This is accomplished by absorbing heat from a low-
temperature source, such as well water or cold outside air in winter, and supplying this heat to the
high-temperature medium such as a house.

Fig.5.7) The objective of a heat pump is to supply heat QH into the warmer space.
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The index of performance of a refrigerator or heat pump is expressed in terms of the coefficient of
performance, COP, the ratio of desired result to input. This measure of performance may be larger
than 1, and we want the COP to be as large as possible. For the refrigerator the desired result is the
heat supplied at the low temperature and the input is the network into the device to make the cycle
operate.

And the coefficient of performance becomes:

For the device acting like a “heat pump,” the primary function of the device is the transfer of heat to
the high-temperature system. The coefficient of performance for a heat pump is

Note, under the same operating conditions the COPHP and COPR are related by:

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 5.5 Statements of the Second Law of thermodynamics
The following two statements of the second law of thermodynamics are based on the definitions of the
heat engines and heat pumps.

Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law

It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and
produce a net amount of work. The Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics
states that no heat engine can produce a net amount of work while exchanging heat with a single
reservoir only. That is, a heat engine must exchange heat with a low-temperature sink as well as a
high-temperature source to keep operating. The Kelvin–Planck statement can also be expressed as no
heat engine can have a thermal efficiency of 100 percent, or as for a power plant to operate, the
working fluid must exchange heat with the environment as well as the furnace.

Figure 5.8 Heat engine that violates the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law
Clausius statement of the second law The Clausius statement of the second law states that it is
impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect other than the transfer
of heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher temperature body.

Figure 5.9 a refrigerator that violates the Clausius statement of the second law.

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Or energy from the surroundings in the form of work or heat has to be expended to force heat to flow
from a low-temperature medium to a high temperature medium. Thus, the COP of a refrigerator or
heat pump must be less than infinity, (COP < ∞)
Consider the heat-engine-refrigerator combination shown in Fig. 5–10a, operating between the same
two reservoirs. The heat engine is assumed to have, in violation of the Kelvin–Planck statement, a
thermal efficiency of 100 percent, and therefore it converts all the heat QH it receives to work W.
This work is now supplied to a refrigerator that removes heat in the amount of Q L from the low-
temperature reservoir and rejects heat in the amount of QL+ QH to the high-temperature reservoir.
During this process, the high-temperature reservoir receives a net amount of heat QL (the difference
between QL+QH and QH). Thus, the combination of these two devices can be viewed as a refrigerator,
as shown in Fig. 5-10b that transfers heat in an amount of QL from a cooler body to a warmer one
without requiring any input from outside. This is clearly a violation of the Clausius statement.
Therefore, a violation of the Kelvin–Planck statement results in the violation of the Clausius
statement.

Figure 5.10 Proof that the violation of the Kelvin–Planck statement leads to the violation of the
Clausius statement.

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Perpetual-Motion Machines
Any device that violates the first or second law of thermodynamics is called a perpetual-motion
machine and despite numerous attempts, no perpetual-motion machine is known to have worked. A
device that violates the first law of thermodynamics (by creating energy) is called a perpetual-motion
machine of the first kind (PMM1), and a device that violates the second law of thermodynamics is
called a perpetual-motion machine of the second kind (PMM2). Consider the steam power plant
shown in Fig. 5-11. It is proposed to heat the steam by resistance heaters placed inside the boiler,
instead of by the energy supplied from fossil or nuclear fuels. Part of the electricity generated by the
plant is to be used to power the resistors as well as the pump. The rest of the electric energy is to be
supplied to the electric network as the net-work output. The inventor claims that once the system is
started, this power plant will produce electricity indefinitely without requiring any energy input from
the outside.

Figure 5.11 A perpetual-motion machine that violates the first law of thermodynamics.
Well, here is an invention that could solve the world’s energy problem-f it works, of course. A careful
examination of this invention reveals that the system enclosed by the shaded area is continuously
supplying energy to the outside at a rate of 𝑄out+𝑊net, out, without receiving any energy. That is, this
system is creating energy at a rate of 𝑄out+𝑊net, out, which is clearly a violation of the first law.
Therefore, this wonderful device is nothing more than a PMM1 and does not warrant any further
consideration.

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5.6 Reversible and Irreversible Processes
The second law of thermodynamics states that no heat engine can have an efficiency of 100 percent.
Then one may ask, what is the highest efficiency that a heat engine can possibly have? Before we can
answer this question, we need to define an idealized process first, which is called the reversible
process. The processes that were discussed at the beginning of this chapter occurred in a certain
direction. Once having taken place, these processes cannot reverse themselves spontaneously and
restore the system to its initial state. For this reason, they are classified as irreversible processes. Once
a cup of hot coffee cools, it will not heat up by retrieving the heat it lost from the surroundings. If it
could, the surroundings, as well as the system (coffee), would be restored to their original condition,
and this would be a reversible process. A reversible process is defined as a process that can be
reversed without leaving any trace on the surroundings. That is, both the system and the surroundings
are returned to their initial states at the end of the reverse process. This is possible only if the net heat
and net-work exchange between the system and the surroundings is zero for the combined (original
and reverse) process. Processes that are not reversible are called irreversible processes.

Figure 5.12 Two familiar reversible processes

Reversible processes actually do not occur in nature. They are merely idealizations of actual
processes. Reversible processes can be approximated by actual devices, but they can never be
achieved. That is, all the processes occurring in nature are irreversible. You may be wondering, then,
why we are bothering with such fictitious processes. There are two reasons. First, they are easy to
analyze, since a system passes through a series of equilibrium states during a reversible process;
second, they serve as idealized models to which actual processes can be compared. Reversible
processes can be viewed as theoretical limits for the corresponding irreversible ones. Some processes
are more irreversible than others. We may never be able to have a reversible process, but we can

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certainly approach it. The more closely we approximate a reversible process, the more work delivered
by a work-producing device or the less work required by a work-consuming device.

Irreversibilities The factors that cause a process to be irreversible are called irreversibilities. They
include friction, unrestrained expansion, mixing of two fluids, heat transfer across a finite temperature
difference, electric resistance, inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical reactions. The presence of
any of these effects renders a process irreversible. A reversible process involves none of these.
Internally and Externally Reversible Processes A process is called internally reversible if no
irreversibilities occur within the boundaries of the system during the process. During an internally
reversible process, a system proceeds through a series of equilibrium states, and when the process is
reversed, the system passes through exactly the same equilibrium states while returning to its initial
state. That is, the paths of the forward and reverse processes coincide for an internally reversible
process. The quasi-equilibrium process is an example of an internally reversible process. A process is
called externally reversible if no irreversibilities occur outside the system boundaries during the
process. Heat transfer between a reservoir and a system is an externally reversible process if the outer
surface of the system is at the temperature of the reservoir.
A process is called totally reversible, or simply reversible, if it involves no irreversibilities within the
system or its surroundings (Fig. 6–35). A totally reversible process involves no heat transfer through a
finite temperature difference, no non-quasi-equilibrium changes, and no friction or other dissipative
effects.

Figure 5.13 A reversible process involves no internal and external irreversibilities.

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5.7 The Carnot Cycle
French military engineer Nicolas Sadi Carnot (1769-1832) was among the first to study the
principles of the second law of thermodynamics. Carnot was the first to introduce the concept of
cyclic operation and devised a reversible cycle that is composed of four reversible processes, two
isothermal and two adiabatic. Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, TH = constant). Initially
(state 1), the temperature of the gas is TH and the cylinder head is in close contact with a source at
temperature TH. The gas is allowed to expand slowly, doing work on the surroundings. As the gas
expands, the temperature of the gas tends to decrease. But as soon as the temperature drops by an
infinitesimal amount dT, some heat is transferred from the reservoir into the gas, raising the gas
temperature to TH. Thus, the gas temperature is kept constant at TH. Since the temperature difference
between the gas and the reservoir never exceeds a differential amount d T, this is a reversible heat
transfer process. It continues until the piston reaches position 2. The amount of total heat transferred
to the gas during this process is QH.

Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3, temperature drops from TH to TL). At state 2, the
reservoir that was in contact with the cylinder head is removed and replaced by insulation so that the
system becomes adiabatic. The gas continues to expand slowly, doing work on the surroundings until
its temperature drops from TH to TL
Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, T (state 3). The piston is assumed to be frictionless
and the process to be quasi-equilibrium, so the process is reversible as well as adiabatic.

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Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, T (state 3). The piston is assumed to be frictionless
and the process to be quasi-equilibrium, so the process is reversible as well as adiabatic.
L = constant). At state 3, the insulation at the cylinder head is removed, and the cylinder is brought
into contact with a sink at temperature TL. Now the piston is pushed inward by an external force,
doing work on the gas. As the gas is compressed, its temperature tends to rise. But as soon as it rises
by an infinitesimal amount dT, heat is transferred from the gas to the sink, causing the gas temperature
to drop to TL. Thus, the gas temperature remains constant at TL. Since the temperature difference
between the gas and the sink never exceeds a differential amount d T, this is a reversible heat transfer
process. It continues until the piston reaches state 4. The amount of heat rejected from the gas during
this process is QL.

Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1, temperature rises from TL to TH). State 4 is such that
when the low-temperature reservoir is removed, the insulation is put back on the cylinder head, and
the gas is compressed in a reversible manner, the gas returns to its initial state (state 1). The
temperature rises from TL to TH.
Figure 5.14 Execution of the Carnot cycle in a closed system. The P-V diagram of this cycle is shown
in Fig. 5.15. Remembering that on a P-V diagram the area under the process curve represents the
boundary work for quasi-equilibrium (internally reversible) processes, we see that the area under
curve 1-2-3 is the work done by the gas during the expansion part of the cycle, and the area under
curve 3-4-1 is the work done on the gas during the compression part of the cycle. The area enclosed
by the path of the cycle (area 1-2-3-4-1) is the difference between these two and represents the net
work done during the cycle. During this reversible adiabatic compression process, this completes the
cycle.

Figure 5.14 Execution of the Carnot cycle in a closed system.

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The P-V diagram of this cycle is shown in Fig. 5.15. Remembering that on a P-V diagram the area
under the process curve represents the boundary work for quasi-equilibrium (internally reversible)
processes, we see that the area under curve 1-2-3 is the work done by the gas during the expansion
part of the cycle, and the area under curve 3-4-1 is the work done on the gas during the compression
part of the cycle. The area enclosed by the path of the cycle (area 1-2-3-4-1) is the difference between
these two and represents the net work done during the cycle.

Figure 5.15 P-V diagram of the Carnot cycle

You may have observed that the power cycle operates in the clockwise direction when plotted on a
process diagram. The Carnot cycle may be reversed, in which it operates as a refrigerator. The
refrigeration cycle operates in the counter clockwise direction.

Figure 5.16 P-V diagram of the reversed Carnot cycle.

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5.8 Carnot Principles
The second law of thermodynamics puts limits on the operation of cyclic devices as expressed by the
Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statements. A heat engine cannot operate by exchanging heat with a
single heat reservoir, and a refrigerator cannot operate without net-work input from an external
source. Considering heat engines operating between two fixed temperature reservoirs at TH > TL
(a) The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency of a reversible
one operating between the same two reservoirs. (. We draw two conclusions about the thermal
efficiency of reversible and irreversible heat engines, known as Carnot Principles.
(b) The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between same two constant
temperature heat reservoirs have the same efficiency.

Figure 5.17 The Carnot principles

As the result of the above, Lord Kelvin in 1848 used energy as a thermodynamic property to define
temperature and devised a temperature scale that is independent of the thermodynamic substance. He
considered the following arrangement: Since the thermal efficiency in general is

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 Figure 5.18 Lord Kelvin's Carnot heat engine arrangement

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This is the maximum possible efficiency of a heat engine operating between two heat reservoirs at
temperatures TH and TL. Note that the temperatures are absolute temperatures. These statements form
the basis for establishing an absolute temperature scale, also called the Kelvin scale, related to the
heat transfers between a reversible device and the high- and low-temperature heat reservoirs by:

Then the QH/QL ratio can be replaced by TH/TL for reversible devices, where TH and TLare the absolute
temperatures of the high- and low-temperature heat reservoirs, respectively. This result is only valid
for heat exchange across a heat engine operating between two constant temperature heat reservoirs.
These results do not apply when the heat exchange is occurring with heat sources and sinks that do
not have constant temperature. Irreversible heat engine reversible heat engine impossible heat.

The thermal efficiencies of actual and reversible heat engines operating between the same temperature
limits compare as follows:

Reversed Carnot Device Coefficient of Performance

If the Carnot device is caused to operate in the reversed cycle, the reversible heat pump is created.
The COP of reversible refrigerators and heat pumps are given in a similar manner to that of the Carnot
heat engine as:

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Again, these are the maximum possible COPs for a refrigerator or a heat pump operating between the
temperature limits of TH and TL.

The coefficients of performance of actual and reversible (such as Carnot) refrigerators operating
between the same temperature limits compare as follows:

A similar relation can be obtained for heat pumps by replacing all values of COPR by COPHP in the
above relation.

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 Chapter Six
6. Entropy
6.1 Introduction

The second law of thermodynamics leads to the definition of a new property called entropy, a
quantitative measure of microscopic disorder for a system (abstract property and difficult to give a
physical description of it). Entropy is a measure of energy that is no longer available to perform
useful work within the current environment.

Entropy is a level of molecule disorder (randomness/disorganization)

 High molecular disorder reduces the potential of the system to develop useful power/
increase the net power input.
 Friction (dissipative forces) creates high disorder (entropy).
 Hence, the power of the second law of thermodynamics on process is made evident
through entropy.

6.2 Entropy and the Clausius Inequality

First consider the heat engine operating on Carnot cycle principle

Figure 6.1 the system considered in the development of the Clausius inequality.

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96 | P a g e
 This show for the generalized heat engine

The clausius inequality, which is the corollaries of the second law of thermodynamics, is expressed
as for any system operating in a cycle

If no irreversibilities occur within the system as well as the reversible cyclic device, then the cycle
undergone by the combined system is internally reversible. As such, it can be reversed. In the
reversed cycle case, all the quantities have the same magnitude but the opposite sign. Therefore, the
work WC, which could not be a positive quantity in the regular case, cannot be a negative quantity in
the reversed case. Then it follows that WC, int.rev = 0 since it cannot be a positive or negative quantity,
and therefore for internally reversible cycles.

Thus, we conclude that the equality in the Clausius inequality holds for totally or just internally
reversible cycles and the inequality for the irreversible ones. Clausius realized in 1865 that he had
discovered a new thermodynamic property, and he chose to name this property entropy. It is
designated S and is defined as

Entropy is an extensive property of a system and sometimes is referred to as total entropy. Entropy
per unit mass, designated s, is an intensive property and has the unit kJ/kg.K. The entropy change of a
system during a process can be determined by integrating.

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The intensive property (Specific entropy) is given by:

The value of entropy at a specified state is determined just like any other property. In the compressed
liquid and superheated vapor regions, it can be obtained directly from the tables at the specified state.
In the saturated mixture region, it is determined from:

6.3 The Increase of Entropy Principle

Consider a cycle that is made up of two processes: process 1-2, which is arbitrary (reversible or
irreversible), and process 2-1, which is internally reversible, as shown in Figure below.

From the Clausius inequality,

Figure 6.2 A cycle composed of a reversible and an irreversible process.

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The second integral in the previous relation is recognized as the entropy change S1 - S2. Therefore,

Where:- the equality holds for an internally reversible process and the inequality for an irreversible
process.

We may conclude from these equations that the entropy change of a closed system during an
irreversible process is greater than the integral of dQ/T evaluated for that process. In the limiting case
of a reversible process, these two quantities become equal. We again emphasize that T in these
relations is the thermodynamic temperature at the boundary where the differential heat dQ is
transferred between the system and the surroundings.

The quantity ∆S = S2 - S1 represents the entropy change of the system. For a reversible process, it

becomes equal to , which represents the entropy transfer with heat.

The inequality sign in the preceding relations is a constant reminder that the entropy change of a
closed system during an irreversible process is always greater than the entropy transfer. That is, some
entropy is generated or created during an irreversible process, and this generation is due entirely to the
presence of irreversibilities. The entropy generated during a process is called entropy generation and
is denoted by Sgen. Noting that the difference between the entropy change of a closed system and the
entropy transfer is equal to entropy generation, the above equation can be rewritten as equality as:

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 Note that the entropy generation Sgen is always a positive quantity or zero. Its value depends on the
process, and thus it is not a property of the system. Also, in the absence of any entropy transfer, the
entropy change of a system is equal to the entropy generation.

For an isolated system (or simply an adiabatic closed system), the heat transfer is zero, and the
above equation reduces to:

Sisolated  0

This equation can be expressed as the entropy of an isolated system during a process always
increases or, in the limiting case of a reversible process, remains constant. In other words, it never
decreases. This is known as the increase of entropy principle.

Since no actual process is truly reversible, we can conclude that some entropy is generated during a
process, and therefore the entropy of the universe, which can be considered to be an isolated
system, is continuously increasing. The more irreversible a process, the larger the entropy
generated during that process.

No entropy is generated during reversible processes (Sgen =0). The increase of entropy principle can
be summarized as follows:

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 6.4. The T-S Diagram of the Carnot Cycle

Recall that the Carnot cycle is made up of two reversible isothermal (T = constant) processes and
two isentropic (s = constant) processes. These four processes form a rectangle on a T-S diagram, as
shown in figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3 The T-S diagram of a Carnot cycle

6.5 Entropy Change of Pure Substances

Entropy is a property, and thus the value of entropy of a system is fixed once the state of the system
is fixed. Specifying two intensive independent properties fixes the state of a simple compressible
system, and thus the value of entropy, as well as the values of other properties at that state.

The value of entropy at a specified state is determined just like any other property. In the
compressed liquid and superheated vapor regions, it can be obtained directly from the tables at the
specified state. In the saturated mixture region, it is determined from

S  s f  xs fg (kJ / kg.k)
Where x is the quality and sf and sfg values are listed in the saturation tables. In the absence of
compressed liquid data, the entropy of the compressed liquid can be approximated by the entropy
of the saturated liquid at the given temperature:

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 The entropy change of a specified mass m (a closed system) during a process is simply

Figure 6.4 The entropy of a pure substance is determined from the tables (like other properties).

The general characteristics of the T-s diagram of pure substances are shown in the figure below
using data for water. Notice from this diagram that the constant-volume lines are steeper than the
constant-pressure lines and the constant-pressure lines are parallel to the constant-temperature lines
in the saturated liquid–vapor mixture region. Also, the constant-pressure lines almost coincide with
the saturated liquid line in the compressed liquid region.

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 Figure 6.5 Schematic of the T-s diagram for water.

6.6 Isentropic Processes

We mentioned earlier that the entropy of a fixed mass can be changed by (1) heat transfer and (2)
irreversibilities (entropy generation). Then it follows that the entropy of a fixed mass does not
change during a process that is internally reversible and adiabatic. A process during which the
entropy remains constant is called an isentropic process. It is characterized by

Many engineering systems or devices such as pumps, turbines, nozzles, and diffusers are essentially
adiabatic in their operation, and they perform best when the irreversibilities, such as the friction
associated with the process, are minimized. Therefore, an isentropic process can serve as an
appropriate model for actual processes. Also, isentropic processes enable us to define efficiencies
for processes to compare the actual performance of these devices to the performance under
idealized conditions.

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 6.7 Property Diagrams Involving Entropy

Property diagrams serve as great visual aids in the thermodynamic analysis of processes. In the
second law analysis, it is very helpful to plot the processes on diagrams for which one of the
coordinates is entropy. The two diagrams commonly used in the second-law analysis are the
temperature-entropy and the enthalpy-entropy diagrams.

Consider the defining equation of entropy. It can be rearranged as:

As shown in Fig. 6.6, ⸹ Qint.rev corresponds to a differential area on a T-S diagram. The total heat
transfer during an internally reversible process is determined by integration to be which
corresponds to the area under the process curve on a T-S diagram.

Therefore, we conclude that the area under the process curve on a T-S diagram represents heat
transfer during an internally reversible process. This is somewhat analogous to reversible boundary
work being represented by the area under the process curve on a P-V diagram. Note that the area
under the process curve represents heat transfer for processes that are internally (or totally)
reversible. The area has no meaning for irreversible processes.

Figure 6.6 T-S diagram

To perform the integrations in Eqs. 6.32, one needs to know the relationship between T and s
during a process. One special case for which these integrations can be performed easily is the

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 internally reversible isothermal process. It yields:-

An isentropic process on a T-s diagram is easily recognized as a vertical line segment. This is
expected since an isentropic process involves no heat transfer, and therefore the area under the
process path must be zero.

Figure 6.7 T-s diagram of isentropic process.

Another diagram commonly used in engineering is the enthalpy- entropy diagram, which is quite
valuable in the analysis of steady-flow devices such as turbines, compressors, and nozzles. The
coordinates of an h-s diagram represent two properties of major interest: enthalpy, which is a
primary property in the first-law analysis of the steady-flow devices, and entropy, which is the
property that accounts for irreversibilities during adiabatic processes. In analyzing the steady flow
of steam through an adiabatic turbine, for example, the vertical distance between the inlet and the
exit states ∆h is a measure of the work output of the turbine, and the horizontal distance ∆s is a
measure of the irreversibilities associated with the process.

Figure 6.8 h-s diagram

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 Chapter Seven
7. Availability and Irreversibility
The entropy of a system plus its surroundings (i.e. an isolatedsystem) can never decrease (2nd law).
The second law states:

(∆S) system + (∆S) surr. = 0 where ∆= final - initial

> 0 irreversible (real world)

= 0 reversible (frictionless, ideal)

In an ideal case if Q is the heat supplied from a source at T, itsavailability or the maximum work
it can deliver is Q (1-T0/T) where T0 is the temperature of the surroundings. Invariably it will be
less than this value. The difference is termed as irreversibility.

Availability = Maximum possible work-Irreversibility

W useful = W rev- I
Irreversibility can also be construed as the amount of work to be done to restore the system to the
original state.

Example: If air at 10bar is throttled to 1 bar, the irreversibility will be (pv ln (10)) which is the work
required to get 10 bar back. Here p is 1 bar and v is the specific volume at this condition.

Note that the system has been restored to the original state but not the surroundings Therefore
increase in entropy will be; (R10)

Combining I & II laws:

TdS >= ∆u+⸹W

Equality sign being for the reversible process, it implies that the amount of heat energy to be supplied
in a real process is larger than the thermodynamic limit.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

 Irreversible Processes increase the entropy of the universe
 Reversible Processes do not affect the entropy of the universe
 Impossible Processes decrease the entropy of the universe

∆Suniverse = 0
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 Entropy Generation in the universe is a measure of lost work

∆S Universe = ∆S System + ∆S Surroundings

Ideal maximum work –Availability or Exergy

Consider a fully reversible process with no dissipative effects – that is all work is transferred without
loss and all heat is transferred using an ideal Carnot process to generate additional work.

The resulting maximum work in Secondary system given by:

Clearly, the availability B is a state function in the strictest mathematical sense so the maximum (or
minimum) work associated with any steady state process is also independent of the path.

Availability:
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  Yields the maximum work producing potential or the minimum work requirement of a process
 Allows evaluation and quantitative comparison of options in a sustainability context

Exergy analysis

Exergy analysis is a formalized way of applying availability theory to engineering installations such
as power generating plants. Energy (First Law) analysis keeps track of the heat and work transfers but
does not indicate the source and magnitude of the irreversible entropy creation.

Exergy (Second Law) analysis provides this information. It is useful in indicating where research
resources can be directed to best advantage.

Steady-flow Exergy Equation

The specific steady-flow availability function is defined by,

 T0 is the temperature of a heat reservoir (usually the environment).

 The datum level for b (the state at which b = 0) depends on the datum levels for h and s.
These can be chosen arbitrarily because it is only differences in h, s and b which are
meaningful.
 When a fluid is at equilibrium with the environment, it has zero potential for doing work
 It would therefore be physically meaningful if b were zero at this condition.
 This will not be so unless h and s also happen to be zero. Rather than change the h and s
datum levels in all the different thermodynamic tables, we choose instead to replace the
availability function with a new quantity called the Exergy.
 When the fluid is at equilibrium with the environment it is said to be in its dead state
(PD,TD)
 The dead state is usually taken as pD = 1 bar and TD = 25 °C (which coincides with what is
known as the ‘standard state’).
 The specific steady-flow Exergy e is then defined as the difference between the actual value
of b and its value bD at the dead state,

Where: hD and sD are the fluid specific enthalpy and entropy at (pD, TD). Hence, eD = 0.

108 | P a g e
  The steady-flow Exergy of a fluid at a given state is therefore the maximum power which
could be obtained by taking the fluid, in steady-flow, from the given state to the dead state
(allowing heat transfer only with the environment at T0).
 Although this confers a certain absolute status on, e, it is important to appreciate that the
only truly meaningful quantities are changes in e and b and that these are equal,
(e2 - e1) = (b2 - b1).

The figure shows a device such as a turbine, boiler, condenser, etc. The device may produce shaft
power Ws and there may be a heat transfer dQ0 between the control volume at local temperature T and
the environment at To. Also indicated is a possible heat transfer dQS between an unspecified heat
source and the control volume. The work and heat transfers are positive in the direction of the arrows.

Neglecting changes in KE and PE between inlet and outlet states, the steady-flow energy and entropy
equations applied to the control volume are:

109 | P a g e
Second Law efficiency
The general definition of second law efficiency of a process can be obtained interms of
change in availability during the process:

110 | P a g e
Next Course is Thermodynamics II Prepared by Mohammed Seid
Thermodynamics II (MENG2112) Exit Exam Module by Mohammed Seid

Contents page
Chapter 1………………………………………………………………………………..1
1.0 Mixture of Ideal Gases……………………………………………………………...1
1.1 Composition of a Gas Mixture: Mass and Mole Fractions………………................1
1.2 P-v-T Behavior of Ideal Gas Mixtures…………………………………………..…2
1.3 Properties of Gas Mixture………………………………………………………..…3
1.4 Adiabatic Mixing of Perfect Gases………………………………………….……...3
1.5 Mixing of Ideal Gases initially at different Pressure and Temperature……….……4
Chapter 2………………………………………………………………………………..6
2.0 Gas-vapor Mixture……………………………………………………………….…6
2.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………....…6
2.2 Specific and Relative Humidity of Air………………………………….………......6
2.3 Dew-Point Temperature…………………………………………………………....7
2.4 Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb Temperatures………………………………....8
2.5 The Psychrometric Chart……………………………………………………….….10
2.6 Air-Conditioning Processes………………………………………………………...11
2.6.1 Simple Heating and Cooling ( = constant)……………….…..11
2.6.2 Heating with Humidification……………………………….….13
2.6.3 Cooling with Dehumidification………………………………..13
2.6.4 Adiabatic Mixing of Airstreams…………………………….…14
2.7 Cooling Towers…………………………………………………………………….15
2.7.1 Types of Cooling Tower………………………………………..15
2.7.2 Energy Analysis of a Cooling Tower……………………….….16
Chapter 3…………………………………………………………………………….….17
3.0 Air-Standard PowerCycle…………………………………………………………...17
3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………17
3.2 An Overview of Reciprocating Engines…………………………………………….18
3.3 Air-Standard Otto Cycle………………………………………………...…………..19
3.4 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle…………………………………………………………..23
3.5 Air-Standard Dual Cycle…………………………………………………………….25
3.6 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles……………………………………………………..…..26
3.7 Modeling Gas Turbine Power Plants…………………………………………….......27
3.8 Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle For Gas-Turbine Engines………………………….27
3.9 The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration……………………………………………….30
3.10 The Brayton Cycle with Inter-cooling, Reheating, and Regeneration…………...31
Chapter 4……………………………………………………………………………....…33
4.0 Vapor-Power Cycle………………………………………………………….……….33
4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………….………33
4.2 The Carnot Vapor Cycle………………………………………………….………….33
I|Page
4.3 Rankine Cycle……………………………………………………………..………..34
4.4 Increase the Efficiency of the Rankine Cycle…………………………………..…..37
4.5 The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle…………………………………………………….39
4.6 The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle………………………………………….…..41
Chapter 5…………………………………………………………………………………45
5.0 Refrigeration cycles……………………………………………………………….....45
5.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………….45
5.2 The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle…………………………..……..47
5.3 Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle……………………………………50
5.4 Innovative Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Systems……………………………..52
5.4.1 Effect of Sub-cooling the Refrigerant………………………..….52
5.4.2 Effect of Superheating the Refrigerant………………………….53
5.4.3 Cascade Refrigeration Systems………………………………….53
5.4.4 Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems….55
5.4.5 Air Refrigeration cycle
Chapter 6…………………………………………………………………………………58
6.0 Thermodynamic Property Relations…………………………………………………58
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..58
6.1 The Maxwell relations……………………………………………………….………58
6.2 The Clapeyron Equation………………………………………………………….….60
6.3 General Relations (for du, dh, ds cv, and cp )……………………………………….61
6.4 The Joule-Thomson Coefficient……………………………………………….…….63
Chapter 7…………………………………………………………………………………64
7.0 Combustion…………………………………………………………………………..64
7.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..64
7.2 Fuels………………………………………………………………………………….65
7.3 Basic Chemistry…………………………………………………………...…………66
7.4 Combustion Equations……………………………………………………………….67
7.5 Theoretical Air and Excess Air………………………………………………………70
7.6 Stoichiometric Air Fuel (AF) Ratio………………………………………………….71
7.7 Analysis of Exhaust and Flue Gas…………………………………………………...73
7.8 Enthalpy of Formation………………………………………………………………76
7.9 Adiabatic-Flame Temperature…………………………………………………..…..79
7.10 Heating Value of Fuels……………………………………………………….….80
7.11 Experimental Determination of Heating Values of Fuels………………………..81
7.12 Dissociation………………………………………………………………………84
Chapter 8…………………………………………………....……………………………87
8.0 Phase equilibrium……………………………………………………………………87
8.1 Criterion for Chemical Equilibrium…………………………………………….……87

II | P a g e
 Chapter One
Mixture of Ideal Gases
1.1 Composition of a Gas Mixture: Mass and Mole Fractions
To determine the properties of a mixture, the composition of the mixture and the properties of the individual
components is needed. There are two ways to describe the composition of a mixture: by specifying the number of
moles of each component (molar analysis), and by specifying the mass of each component, (gravimetric analysis).
Consider a gas mixture composed of k components. The mass of the mixture mtot is the sum of the masses of the
individual components, and the mole number of the mixture Ntot is the sum of the mole numbers of the individual
component
𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡 + 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯ . . + 𝑚𝑘 = ∑𝑘𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡 + 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + ⋯ . . + 𝑛𝑘 = ∑𝑘𝑖=1 𝑛𝑖 (1.1)
The ratio of the mass of a component to the mass of the mixture is called the mass fraction mf, and the ratio of the
mole number of a component to the mole number of the mixture is called the mole fraction y:
𝑚𝑖 𝑛𝑖
𝑚𝑓𝑖 = 𝑚 and 𝑦=𝑛 (1.2)
𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑡
A listing of the mass fractions of the components of a mixture is sometimes referred to as a gravimetric analysis. A
listing of the mole fractions of the components of a mixture may be called a molar analysis. An analysis of a mixture
in terms of mole fractions is also called a volumetric analysis.

The sum of the mass fractions or mole fractions for a mixture is equal to unity. i.e ∑𝑘𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖 = 1 and ∑𝑘𝑖=1 𝑚𝑓𝑖 = 1
k k
The mass of a substance can be expressed in terms of the mole number n and molar mass M of the substance as
m = nM. Then the average molar mass a mixture can be expressed as
𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 ∑ 𝑛𝑖 𝑀𝑖
𝑀𝑎𝑣𝑟 = = = = ∑𝑘𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖 𝑀𝑖 (1.3)
𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡

The gas constant R is different for each gas and is determined from
𝑅𝑢
𝑅= (1.4)
𝑀
Where Ru is the universal gas constant and M is the molar mass of the gas. The constant Ru is the same for all
substances, and its value is 3.1447kJ / Kmol.K .The average gas constant of a mixture can be expressed as
𝑅
𝑅𝑎𝑣𝑟 = 𝑢 (1.5)
𝑀𝑎𝑣𝑟
The molar mass of a mixture can also be expressed as
𝑚𝑚
𝑀𝑚 = (1.6)
𝑛𝑚
Mass and mole fractions of a mixture are related by
𝑚 𝑛𝑖 𝑀𝑖 𝑀
𝑚𝑓𝑖 = 𝑚 𝑖 = 𝑛 = 𝑦𝑖 𝑀 𝑖 (1.6)
𝑚 𝑚𝑀𝑚 𝑚

1 pages of 93
 1.2 P-v-T Behavior of Ideal Gas Mixtures
Many thermodynamic applications involve mixtures of ideal gases. That is, each of the gases in the mixture
individually behaves as an ideal gas. An ideal gas is defined as a gas whose molecules are spaced far apart so that
the behavior of a molecule is not influenced by the presence of other molecules a situation encountered at low
densities.

The P-v-T behavior of an ideal gas is expressed by the simple relation, which is called the ideal-gas
equation of state. Pv  RT (1.7)

The P-v-T behavior of real gases is expressed by more complex equations of state or by Pv= ZRT, where Z
is the compressibility factor.The prediction of the P-v-T behavior of gas mixtures is usually based on two models:
Dalton’s law of additive pressures and Amagat’s law of additive volumes. Both models are described and
discussed below.
Dalton’s law of additive pressures: The pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the pressures each gas
would exert if it existed alone at the mixture temperature and volume.
Amagat’s law of additive volumes: The volume of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the volumes each gas
would occupy if it existed alone at the mixture temperature and pressure.

Figure 1.1 Dalton’s law of additive pressures for a Figure 1.2 Amagat’s law of additive volumes for a
mixture of two ideal gases. mixture of two ideal gases.

For ideal gases, these two laws are identical and give identical results. Dalton’s and Amagat’s laws can be
expressed as follows:

Dalton’s law: 𝑷𝒎 = ∑𝒌𝒊=𝟏 𝑷𝒊 (𝑻𝒎 𝑽𝒎 ) (𝟏. 𝟖) 𝐀𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐚𝐭’𝐬 𝐥𝐚𝐰: 𝑽𝒎 = ∑𝒌𝒊=𝟏 𝑽𝒊 (𝑻𝒎 𝑽𝒎 ) (𝟏. 𝟗)
𝑷𝒊
Where 𝑷𝒊 𝒊𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 , 𝑽𝒊 𝒊𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞, 𝑷 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧,
𝑽𝒊
𝐢𝐬 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 of component 𝑖.
𝑽
For ideal gases, using the ideal-gas relation for both the components and the gas mixture:
𝑃𝑖 (𝑻𝒎 𝑽𝒎 ) 𝑛𝑖 𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑚⁄𝑉𝑚 𝑛𝑖
𝑦𝑖 = = = (1.10)
𝑃𝑚 𝑛𝑚 𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑚⁄𝑉𝑚 𝑛𝑚

𝑉𝑖 (𝑻𝒎 𝑽𝒎 ) 𝑛 𝑅 𝑇 ⁄𝑃 𝑛
𝑦𝑖 = = 𝑛 𝑖 𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑚 ⁄𝑃𝑚 = 𝑛 𝑖 (1.11)
𝑉𝑚 𝑚 𝑢 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

𝑉𝑖 𝑷 𝑛
= 𝒑 𝒊 = 𝑛 𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 (1.13)
𝑉𝑚 𝒎 𝑚

Therefore for an ideal-gas mixture, the mole fraction, the pressure fraction, and the volume fraction of a
component are identical.

2 pages of 93
 1.3 Properties of Gas Mixture
Dalton’s law was re-formulated by Gibbs to include a second statement on the properties of mixtures (Gibbs-
Dalton law).
 The internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy of a gaseous mixture are respectively equal to
the sums of the internal energies, enthalpies, and entropies, of the constituents.
 Each constituent has that internal energy, enthalpy and entropy, which it could have if it
occupied alone that volume occupied by the mixture at the temperature of the mixture.
This statement leads to the following equations:
𝑘 𝑘

(𝑚𝑢)𝑚 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑢𝑖 (1.13) 𝑢 = ∑ 𝑚𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖 (1.14)

𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑘 𝑘

(𝑚ℎ)𝑚 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 ℎ𝑖 (1.15) ℎ = ∑ 𝑚𝑓𝑖 ℎ𝑖 (1.16)

𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑘 𝑘

(𝑚𝑠)𝑚 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑠𝑖 (1.17) 𝑠 = ∑ 𝑚𝑓𝑖 𝑠𝑖 (1.18)

𝑖=1 𝑖=1
1.4 Adiabatic Mixing of Perfect Gases

Figure 1.3 Gases before and after mixture

Figure 1.3 shows two gases A and B separated from each other in a closed vessel by a thin diaphragm. If the
diaphragm is removed or punctured then the gases mix and each then occupies the total volume, behave as if the
other gas were not present. This process is equivalent to a free expansion of each gas, and is irreversible.

In a free expansion process, the internal energy initially is equal to the internal energy finally.
𝑈1 = 𝑛𝐴 𝐶𝑉𝐴 𝑇𝐴 + 𝑛𝐵 𝐶𝑉𝐵 𝑇𝐵 𝑈2 = (𝑛𝐴 𝐶𝑉𝐴 + 𝑛𝐵 𝐶𝑉𝐵 )𝑇(1.19)
If this result is extended to any number of gases,
𝑘 𝑘

𝑈1 = ∑ 𝑛𝑖 𝐶𝑉𝑖 𝑇𝑖 = 𝑈2 = 𝑇 ∑(𝑛𝑖 𝐶𝑉𝑖 )

𝑖−1 𝑖−1

∑𝑘𝑖−1 𝑛𝑖 𝐶𝑉𝑖 𝑇𝑖
𝑇= (1.20)
𝑇 ∑𝑘𝑖−1(𝑛𝑖 𝐶𝑉𝑖 )

3 pages of 93
When two streams of fluid meet to form a common stream in steady flow, they give another form
of mixing

Figure 1.4 Fluid mixture

Applying steady flow energy equation to the mixing section (neglecting changes in kinetic and potential energy),
-

𝑚̇𝐴 ℎ𝐴1 + 𝑚̇𝐵 ℎ𝐵1 + 𝑄 = 𝑚̇𝐴 ℎ𝐴2 + 𝑚̇𝐵 ℎ𝐵2 + 𝑊 (1.21)

In case of adiabatic flow: Q = 0, and also W = 0 in this case
𝑚̇𝐴 ℎ𝐴1 + 𝑚̇𝐵 ℎ𝐵1 = 𝑚̇𝐴 ℎ𝐴2 + 𝑚̇𝐵 ℎ𝐵2 (1.22) Also h = cpT, hence
𝑚̇𝐴 𝑐𝑃𝐴1 𝑇𝐴1 + 𝑚̇𝐵 𝑐𝑃𝐵1 𝑇𝐴1 = 𝑚̇𝐴 𝑐𝑃𝐴1 𝑇 + 𝑚̇𝐵 𝑐𝑃𝐵1 (1.23)
For any number of gases this becomes:

∑𝑘
𝑖=1 𝑚̇𝑖 𝐶𝑃𝑖 𝑇𝑖
∑𝑘𝑖=1 𝑚̇𝑖 𝑐𝑃𝑖 𝑇𝑖 = 𝑇 ∑𝑘𝑖=1 𝑚̇𝑖 𝑐𝑃𝑖 𝑇= (1.24)
∑𝑘
𝑖=1 𝑚̇𝑖 𝐶𝑃𝑖

∑𝑘
𝑖=1 𝑛𝑖 𝑐𝑃𝑖 𝑇𝑖
and also 𝐶𝑝 = 𝑀𝑐𝑝 , M=m/n, 𝑛𝐶𝑝 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑇= ∑𝑘
(1.25)
𝑖=1 𝑛𝑖 𝑐𝑃𝑖

1.5 Mixing of Ideal Gases initially at different Pressure and Temperature

Consider three ideal gases A, B and C initially at different pressure and temperature and separated by partitions. Let
the gases be mixed by removing the partitions.

The total volume and mass occupied by the mixture are given by

𝑉 = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵 +𝑉𝐶 and 𝑚 = 𝑚𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 +𝑚𝐶 (1.26)

In terms of the mixing masses, the internal energy of the gases after mixing can be related to the
internal energy of the gases before mixing by expression:

𝑚𝑢 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑢𝑎 + 𝑚𝑏 𝑢𝑏 + 𝑚𝑐 𝑢𝑐 (1.27) since u for a perfect gas is equal to 𝑐𝑣 𝑇

𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑐𝑣𝑎 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑚𝑏 𝑐𝑣𝑏 𝑇𝑏 + 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑣𝑐 𝑇𝑐 (1.28)

𝑚𝑎 𝑐𝑣𝑎 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑚𝑏 𝑐𝑣𝑏 𝑇𝑏 + 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑣𝑐 𝑇𝑐

𝑇= (1.29)
𝑚𝑐𝑣

𝑚𝑎 𝑐𝑣𝑎 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑚𝑏 𝑐𝑣𝑏 𝑇𝑏 + 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑣𝑐 𝑇𝑐

𝑇= (1.30)
𝑚𝑎 𝑐𝑣𝑎 + 𝑚𝑏 𝑐𝑣𝑏 + 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑣𝑐

4 pages of 93
applying the perfect gas law i.e, PV= mRT
𝑃𝑎 𝑐𝑣𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑃𝑏 𝑐𝑣𝑏 𝑉𝑏 𝑃𝑐 𝑐𝑣𝑐 𝑉𝑐
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑏 + 𝑅𝑐
𝑇= (1.31)
𝑃𝑎 𝑐𝑣𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑃𝑏 𝑐𝑣𝑏 𝑉𝑏 𝑃𝑐 𝑐𝑣𝑐 𝑉𝑐
𝑇𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑏 𝑇𝑏 + 𝑅𝑐 𝑇𝑐

Multiplying each terms in the numerator and denominator of equation by the respective
molecular weights:
𝑀𝑎 𝑃𝑎 𝑐𝑣𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑀𝑏 𝑃𝑏 𝑐𝑣𝑏 𝑉𝑏 𝑀𝑐 𝑃𝑐 𝑐𝑣𝑐 𝑉𝑐
+ +
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐
𝑇= (1.32)
𝑀𝑎 𝑃𝑎 𝑐𝑣𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑀𝑏 𝑃𝑏 𝑐𝑣𝑏 𝑉𝑏 𝑀𝑐 𝑃𝑐 𝑐𝑣𝑐 𝑉𝑐
+ +
𝑇𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏 𝑇𝑏 𝑅𝑐 𝑇𝑐
The product Mcv is the same for ideal gases and the product MR=Ru is a constant for all ideal gases. Cancellation of
these quantities from equation results in:
𝑃𝑎 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑃𝑏 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑃𝑐 𝑉𝑐
𝑇= (1.33)
𝑃𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑃𝑏 𝑉𝑏 𝑃𝑐 𝑉𝑐
𝑇𝑎 + 𝑇𝑏 + 𝑇𝑐
Where : mR=PV/T
𝑃𝑎 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑃𝑏 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑃𝑐 𝑉𝑐
𝑇= (1.34)
𝑚𝑅
If the pressure are all equal before mixing then, then from equation, the resulting mixing temperature will be
obtained from:
𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐
𝑇= (1.35)
𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑐
+ +
𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑏 𝑇𝑐

If the volume are all equal before mixing then, then from equation, the resulting mixing
temperature will be obtained from:
𝑃𝑎 + 𝑃𝑏 + 𝑃𝑐
𝑇= (1.36)
𝑃𝑎 𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑐
𝑇𝑎 + 𝑇𝑏 + 𝑇𝑐

5 pages of 93
 Chapter Two
Gas-vapor Mixture
2.1 Introduction
Air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and small amounts of some other gases. Air in the atmosphere normally contains
some water vapor (moisture) and is referred to as atmospheric air. By contrast, air that contains no water vapor is
called dry air. It is often convenient to treat air as a mixture of water vapor and dry air since the composition of dry air
remains relatively constant, but the amount of water vapor changes as a result of condensation and evaporation from
oceans, lakes, rivers, showers, and even the human body.

The atmospheric air can be treated as an ideal-gas mixture whose pressure is the sum of the partial pressure of dry air
Pa (Dry air pressure) and that of water vapor Pv (water vapor pressure).

P  Pa  Pv (kPa) (2.1)
Since water vapor is an ideal gas, the enthalpy of water vapor is a function of temperature only, that is, h = h(T ) . The
enthalpy of water vapor in air can be taken to be equal to the enthalpy of saturated vapor at the same temperature. That
is,

hv (T , lowP)  hg (T ) (2.2)
2.2 Specific and Relative Humidity of Air
The amount of water vapor in the air can be specified in various ways. The most logical way is to specify directly the
mass of water vapor present in a unit mass of dry air. This is called absolute or specific humidity (also called
humidity ratio) and is denoted by 𝜔:
kg water vapor 𝑚
𝜔= = 𝑚𝑣 (2.3)
kg dry air 𝑎

𝑚 𝑃 𝑉/𝑅 𝑇 𝑃 /𝑅
The specific humidity can also be expressed as 𝜔 = 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑃𝑣 𝑉/𝑅𝑣 𝑇 = 𝑃𝑣/𝑅𝑣 (2.4)
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

From thermodynamics table 𝑅𝑣 = 0.4615kJ/kg · K &𝑅𝑎 = 0.2870kJ/kg·K

𝑃
𝜔 = 0.622 𝑃𝑣 (2.5)
𝑎

𝑣 𝑃
𝜔 = 0.622 𝑝−𝑃 (2.6) Where: P is the total pressure.
𝑣

Consider 1 kg of dry air. By definition, dry air contains no water vapor, and thus its specific humidity is zero. Now let
us add some water vapor to this dry air. The specific humidity will increase. As more vapor or moisture is added, the
specific humidity will keep increasing until the air can hold no more moisture. At this point, the air is said to be
saturated with moisture, and it is called saturated air. Any moisture introduced into saturated air will condense. The
amount of water vapor in saturated air at a specified temperature and pressure can be determined from Eq. (2.6) by
replacing Pv by Pg, the saturation pressure of water at that temperature. The amount of moisture the air holds (mv)

6 pages of 93
relative to the maximum amount of moisture the air can hold at the same temperature (mg). The ratio of these two
quantities is called the relative humidity.

𝑚𝑣 𝑃𝑉
𝜙= = where 𝑃𝑔 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡@𝑇 (2.7)
𝑚𝑔 𝑃𝑔

𝜔𝑃 0.622𝜙𝑃𝑔
Combining Eqs. (2.6) and (2.7), 𝜙 = ( and 𝜔 = (2.8)
0.622+𝜔)𝑃𝑔 𝑃−𝜙𝑃𝑔

Note that the amount of moisture air can hold depends on its temperature. Therefore, the relative humidity of air
changes with temperature even when its specific humidity remains constant.
The enthalpy of air is expressed in terms of the enthalpies of the dry air and the water vapor. The amount of dry air in
the air–water-vapor mixture remains constant, but the amount of water vapor changes. Therefore, the enthalpy of
atmospheric air is expressed per unit mass of dry air instead of per unit mass of the air–water vapor mixture. The
values of H, U, and S for moist air modeled as an ideal gas mixture can be found by adding the contribution of each
component at the condition at which the component exists in the mixture.

H  Ha  Hv  maha  mvhv (2.9)

The mixture enthalpy per unit mass of dry air
𝑚
ℎ = ℎ𝑎 + 𝑚𝑣 ℎ𝑣 = ℎ𝑎 + 𝜔ℎ𝑣 (2.10)
𝑎

An approach similar to that for enthalpy also applies to the evaluation of the internal energy of moist air.
Eq. (2.10) can be taken as hg at the mixture temperature. That is hv  hg
𝑚
ℎ = ℎ𝑎 + 𝑚𝑣 ℎ𝑣 = ℎ𝑎 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔 (kJ/kg dry air ) (2.11)
𝑎

For air-conditioning applications dry air can be treated as an ideal gas with a constant 𝑐𝑝 = 1.005𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾 . Taking
0°C as the reference temperature, the enthalpy and enthalpy change of dry air can be determined from
ℎ𝑎 = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇 = 1005𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ℃ (2.12)

2.3 Dew-Point Temperature

If you live in a humid area, you are probably used to waking up most summer mornings and finding the grass wet.
The excess moisture in the air simply condensed on the cool surfaces, forming what we call dew. For saturated air
and its relative humidity is 100 percent. Any further drop in temperature results in the condensation of some of the
moisture, and this is the beginning of dew formation.
The dew-point temperature Tdp is defined as the temperature at which condensation begins when the air is cooled
at constant pressure. In other words, Tdp is the saturation temperature of water corresponding to the vapor pressure.
𝑇𝑑𝑝 = 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 @ 𝑝𝑣 (2.13)

7 pages of 93
 As the air cools at constant pressure, the vapor pressure Pv remains
constant. Therefore, the vapor in the air (state 1) undergoes a constant-
pressure cooling process until it strikes the saturated vapor line (state
2). The temperature at this point is Tdp, and if the temperature drops
any further, some vapor condenses out. As a result, the amount of
vapor in the air decreases, which results in a decrease in Pv. The air
remains saturated during the condensation process and thus follows a
path of 100 percent relative humidity (the saturated vapor line). The
ordinary temperature and the dew-point temperature of saturated air
are identical.

Figure 2.1 Constant-pressure cooling of moist air and

the dew-point temperature on the T-s diagram of water.

2.4 Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb Temperatures

In an insulated chamber when unsaturated air flows over a long insulated channel that contains a pool of water, the
water evaporates, and the specific humidity of the air increases. As the evaporation takes place both the air and water
are cooled. The process continues until the energy transferred from the air to the water is equal to the energy required
to vaporize the water. When this point is reached, thermal equilibrium exists with respect to water, air and water
vapors, and consequently the air is saturated. The equilibrium temperature is called the adiabatic saturation
temperature.
The make-up water is introduced at this temperature to
make the water level constant. Although the total
pressure of the mixture is constant, the partial pressure
of the vapor increases and in the saturated state
corresponds to the adiabatic saturation temperature

Figure 2.2 Adiabatic saturator Schematic diagram.

Figure 2.3 The adiabatic saturation process and its

representation on a T-s diagram of water.

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The process involves no heat or work interactions, and the kinetic and potential energy changes can be neglected.
Then the conservation of mass and conservation of energy relations for this two-inlet and one-exit steady-flow
system reduces to the following:

Mass balance: 𝑚̇𝑎1 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (The mass flow rate of dry air remains constant)

𝑚̇𝑣1 = 𝑚̇𝑓 = 𝑚̇𝑣2 (The mass flow rate of vapor in the air increases
by an amount equal to the rate of evaporation mf)
Or 𝑚̇𝑎 𝜔1 + 𝑚̇𝑓 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝜔2 thus 𝑚̇𝑓 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 )
𝐸in = 𝐸out
Energy balance: 𝑚˙ 𝑎 ℎ1 + 𝑚 ˙ 𝑓 ℎ𝑓2 = 𝑚
˙ 𝑎 ℎ2
𝑚
˙ 𝑎 ℎ1 + 𝑚 ˙ 𝑎 (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 )ℎ𝑓2 = 𝑚 ˙ 𝑎 ℎ2

Dividing by 𝑚
˙ 𝑎 gives ℎ1 + (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 )ℎ𝑓2 = ℎ2

𝑂𝑟 (𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 + 𝜔1 ℎ𝑔1 ) + (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 )ℎ𝑓2 = (𝑐𝑝 𝑇2 + 𝜔2 ℎ𝑔2 )

𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + ℎ𝑓𝑔2
𝜔1 = (2.14)
ℎ𝑔1 − ℎ𝑓2

If the air entering the channel is already saturated, then the adiabatic saturation temperature T2 will be identical to the
inlet temperature T1, in which case Eq. (2.14) yields 1 = 2 . In general, the adiabatic saturation temperature is between
the inlet and dew-point temperatures. The adiabatic saturation process discussed above provides a means of
determining the absolute or relative humidity of air, but it requires a long channel or a spray mechanism to achieve
saturation conditions at the exit. A more practical approach is to use a thermometer whose bulb is covered with a cotton
wick saturated with water and to blow air over the wick, as shown in Fig. (2.4).The temperature measured in this
manner is called the wet-bulb temperature Twb, and it is commonly used in air-conditioning applications.

The basic principle involved is similar to that in adiabatic saturation. When

unsaturated air passes over the wet wick, some of the water in the wick
evaporates. As a result, the temperature of the water drops, creating a temperature
difference (which is the driving force for heat transfer) between the air and the
water. After a while, the heat loss from the water by evaporation equals the heat
gain from the air, and the water temperature stabilizes. The thermometer reading
at this point is the wet-bulb temperature.

9 pages of 93
In normal practice, the state of atmospheric air is specified by determining the wet-bulb and dry- bulb temperatures.
These temperatures are measured by using a device called a psychrometer. The psychrometer is composed of two
thermometers mounted on a sling. One thermometer is fitted with wet gauze and reads the wet-bulb temperature. The
other thermometer reads the dry- bulb, or ordinary, temperature. As the
psychrometer is slung through the air, water vaporizes from the wet gauze,
resulting in a lower temperature to be registered by the thermometer. The
dryer the atmospheric air, the lower the wet-bulb temperature will be. When
the relative humidity of the air is near 100 percent, there will be little
difference between the wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures. The wet-bulb
temperature is approximately equal to the adiabatic saturation temperature.
The wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures and the atmospheric pressure
uniquely determine the state of the atmospheric air.

Figure 2.5 Sling psychrometer

2.5 The Psychrometric Chart
The state of the atmospheric air at a specified pressure is completely specified by two independent intensive properties.
The rest of the properties can be calculated easily from the previous relations.

Graphical representations of several important properties of air are provided by psychrometric charts. A psychrometric
chart for a pressure of 1 atm (101.325 kPa) is given in fig (2.6)

Figure 2.6 Psychrometric chart at 1 atm

total pressure.

10 pages of 93
 The basic features of the psychrometric chart are illustrated in
Figure 2.7. The dry-bulb temperatures are shown on the horizontal
axis, and the specific humidity is shown on the vertical axis. On the
left end of the chart, there is a curve (called the saturation line)
instead of a straight line. All the saturated air states are located on
this curve. Therefore, it is also the curve of 100 percent relative
humidity. Other constant relative-humidity curves have the same
general shape.

Figure 2.7 Schematic for a psychrometric chart.

Lines of constant wet-bulb temperature have a downhill appearance to the right. Lines of constant specific volume (in
m3/kg dry air) look similar, except they are steeper. Lines of constant enthalpy (in kJ/kg dry air) lie very nearly parallel
to the lines of constant wet-bulb temperature. Therefore, the constant wet- bulb-temperature lines are used as constant-
enthalpy lines in some charts.

2.6 Air-Conditioning Processes

Maintaining a living space or an industrial facility at the desired temperature and humidity requires some processes
called air-conditioning processes. These processes include simple heating (raising the temperature), simple cooling
(lowering the temperature), humidifying (adding moisture), and dehumidifying (removing moisture). Sometimes two
or more of these processes are needed to bring the air to a desired temperature and humidity level.

Various air-conditioning processes are illustrated on the

psychrometric chart in Fig. 2.8. Notice that simple heating and cooling
processes appear as horizontal lines on this chart since the moisture
content of the air remains constant (  =constant) during these
processes. Air is commonly heated and humidified in winter and
cooled and dehumidified in summer.

Figure 2.8 Various air-conditioning

processes.
2.6.1 Simple Heating and Cooling ( = constant)

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The amount of moisture in the air remains constant during this process since no moisture is added to or removed from
the air. That is, the specific humidity of the air remains constant (  =constant) during a heating (or cooling) process
with no humidification or dehumidification. Such a heating process proceeds in the direction of increasing dry-bulb
temperature following a line of constant specific humidity on the psychrometric chart, which appears as a horizontal
line.

The relative humidity of air decreases during a heating process even if the specific humidity v remains constant. This
is because the relative humidity is the ratio of the moisture content to the moisture capacity of air at the same
temperature, and moisture capacity increases with temperature. Therefore, the relative humidity of heated air may be
well below comfortable levels, causing dry skin, respiratory difficulties, and an increase in static electricity.

A cooling process at constant specific humidity is similar to the heating process discussed above, except the dry-bulb
temperature decreases and the relative humidity increases during such a process. Cooling can be accomplished by
passing the air over some coils through which a refrigerant or chilled water flows.

Most air-conditioning processes can be modeled as steady-flow processes, and thus the mass balance relation

𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 Can be expressed for dry air and water as

Mass balance for dry air ∑𝑖𝑛 𝑚̇𝑎 = ∑𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑚̇𝑎 Mass balance for water ∑𝑖𝑛 𝑚̇𝑣 = ∑𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑚̇𝑣 𝑜𝑟 ∑𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑚̇𝑎 = ∑𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝜔𝑚̇𝑎

Disregarding the kinetic and potential energy changes, the steady-flow energy balance relation 𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡
can be expressed in this case as

̇ + 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 + 𝑊̇𝑖𝑛 = ∑𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑚̇ℎ + 𝑄̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊̇𝑜𝑢𝑡

∑𝑖𝑛 𝑚ℎ (2.15)

The work term usually consists of the fan work input, which is small relative to the other terms in
the energy balance relation. Next we examine some commonly encountered processes in air-conditioning. The
conservation of mass equations for a heating or cooling process that involves no humidification or dehumidification
reduce to

For dry air: 𝑚̇𝑎1 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 = 𝑚̇𝑎 For water vapor: 𝑚̇𝑣1 = 𝑚̇𝑣2 𝜔1 = 𝜔2 (2.16)
Neglecting any fan work that may be present, the conservation of energy equation in this case reduces to

𝑄̇ = 𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ1 − ℎ1 Or 𝑞̇ = (ℎ1 − ℎ1 ) (2.17)

Where h1 and h2 are enthalpies per unit mass of dry air at the inlet and the exit of the heating or cooling section,
respectively.

12 pages of 93
 2.6.2 Heating with Humidification
Problems associated with the low relative humidity resulting from simple heating can be eliminated by humidifying
the heated air. This is accomplished by passing the air first through a heating section (process 1-2) and then through a
humidifying section (process 2-3), as shown in Fig. (2.9).
The location of state 3 depends on how the humidification is
accomplished. If steam is introduced in the humidification
section, this will result in humidification with additional
heating (T3 > T2). If humidification is accomplished by
spraying water into the airstream instead, part of the latent heat
of vaporization comes from the air, which results in the
cooling of the heated airstream (T3 < T2). Air should be heated
to a higher temperature in the heating section in this case to
make up for the cooling effect during the humidification
process.
Figure 2.9 Heating with humidification.
2.6.3 Cooling with Dehumidification
The specific humidity of air remains constant during a simple cooling process, but its relative humidity increases. If
the relative humidity reaches undesirably high levels, it may be necessary to remove some moisture from the air, that
is, to dehumidify it. This requires cooling the air below its dew-point temperature.

Figure 2.10 Cooling with dehumidification. Figure 2.11 Cooling with dehumidification
process on psychrometric chart

Hot, moist air enters the cooling section at state 1. As it passes through the cooling coils, its temperature decreases and
its relative humidity increases at constant specific humidity. If the cooling section is sufficiently long, air reaches its
dew point (state x, saturated air). Further cooling of air results in the condensation of part of the moisture in the air.
Air remains saturated during the entire condensation process, which follows a line of 100 percent relative humidity
until the final state (state 2) is reached. The water vapor that condenses out of the air during this process is removed

13 pages of 93
from the cooling section through a separate channel. The condensate is usually assumed to leave the cooling section
at T2. The cool, saturated air at state 2 is usually routed directly to the room, where it mixes with the room air. In some
cases, however, the air at state 2 may be at the right specific humidity but at a very low temperature. In such cases, air
is passed through a heating section where its temperature is raised to a more comfortable level before it is routed to
the room.
2.6.4 Adiabatic Mixing of Airstreams
Many air-conditioning applications require the mixing of two airstreams. This is particularly true for large buildings,
most production and process plants, and hospitals, which require that the conditioned air be mixed with a certain
fraction of fresh outside air before it is routed into the living space. The mixing is accomplished by simply merging
the two airstreams, as shown in Fig.(2.12).

Figure 2.12 Adiabatic mixing of two airstreams

The heat transfer with the surroundings is usually small, and thus the mixing processes can be assumed to be
adiabatic. Then the mass and energy balances for the adiabatic mixing of two airstreams reduce to

Mass of dry air: 𝑚

˙ 𝑎1 + 𝑚 ˙ 𝑎2 = 𝑚 ˙ 𝑎3 (2.18)
𝜔˙1 𝑚˙ 𝑎1 + 𝜔2 𝑚 ˙ 𝑎2 = 𝜔3 𝑚 ˙ 𝑎3 (2.19)
Mass of water vapor:
𝑚
˙ 𝑎1 ℎ1 + 𝑚 ˙ 𝑎2 ℎ2 = 𝑚 ˙ 𝑎3 ℎ3 (2.20)
Energy

𝑚˙ 𝑎1
Eliminating 𝑚˙ 𝑎3 from the relations 𝜔 −𝜔 ℎ −ℎ
= 𝜔2 −𝜔3 = ℎ2 −ℎ3 (2.21)
𝑚˙ 𝑎2
above, we obtain 3 1 3 1

When two airstreams at two different states (states 1 and 2) are mixed adiabatically, the state of
the mixture (state 3) lies on the straight line connecting states 1 and 2 on the psychrometric chart,
and the ratio of the distances 2-3 and 3-1 is equal to the ratio of mass flow rates 𝑚
˙ 𝑎1 and 𝑚
˙ 𝑎2

14 pages of 93
 2.7 Cooling Towers
Power plants, large air-conditioning systems, and some industries generate large quantities of waste heat that is often
rejected to cooling water from nearby lakes or rivers. In some cases, however, the cooling water supply is limited or
thermal pollution is a serious concern. In such cases, a recirculating system is necessary. One of the most effective
methods of re-cooling the cooling water is to use the principle of evaporative cooling in a cooling tower.

2.7.1 Types of Cooling Tower

Two basic types of evaporative cooling devices are commonly used.
The first type involves direct contact between warm water and
atmospheric air, Fig. 2.15. The direct contact tower commonly
called cooling tower exposes warm water directly to the cooling
atmosphere, thereby transferring the source heat load directly to the
air.

Figure 2.14 Indirect-contact cooling tower

The second type involves indirect contact between warm

fluid and the atmospheric air, Fig 2.13 Indirect-contact
tower which is commonly called closed-circuit fluid cooler
contains two separate fluid circuits:
 the external circuit in which water is exposed to the incoming air
as it cascades over the tubes of a coil bundle and
 an internal circuit in which the fluid to be cooled circulates
inside the tubes of the coil bundle.

Figure 2.14 Indirect-contact cooling tower

In the operation, heat flows from the internal fluid circuit, through the tube walls of 1he coil, to the external water
circuit which is cooled evaporative. Since the internal fluid circuit never contacts the incoming air, this type of a unit
can be used to cool fluids other than water and/or to prevent contamination of the primary cooling circuit with airborne
dirt and impurities.

15 pages of 93
 2.7.2 Energy Analysis of a Cooling Tower
For the energy analysis of cooling towers, the basic type of
evaporative cooling tower, Fig.2.15, is selected. The warm water is
sprayed into the tower near the top and allowed to fall through a
current of air passing up the tower. The warm water is cooled,
mainly by evaporation, while the air is raised in temperature and
gets saturated or nearly saturated.

Figure 2.15 Energy Analysis of a Cooling Tower

Assuming an adiabatic process with negligible fan work and negligible kinetic and potential energy differences, the
energy balance for the cooling tower yields:

∑    𝑚
˙ ℎ = ∑    𝑚
˙ℎ (2.22)
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑚
˙ 𝑎1 (ℎ𝑎1 + 𝜔1 ℎ𝑣1 ) + 𝑚
˙ 𝑤3 ℎ𝑤3 = 𝑚
˙ 𝑎2 (ℎ𝑎2 + 𝜔2 ℎ𝑣2 ) + 𝑚
˙ 𝑤4 ℎ𝑤4 (2.23)
Where 𝑚˙𝑎1 = 𝑚
˙ 𝑎2 = 𝑚
˙𝑎
Or 𝑚
˙ 𝑎 (𝑐𝑝𝑎 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) + 𝜔1 ℎ𝑣1 − 𝜔2 ℎ𝑣2 ) = 𝑚
˙ 𝑤4 ℎ𝑤4 − 𝑚
˙ 𝑤3 ℎ𝑤3 (2.24)

In addition to the energy balance, the mass balance on water yields the relation:

𝑚
˙ 𝑤4 = 𝑚 ˙ 𝑎 (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 )
˙ 𝑤3 − 𝑚 (2.25)

16 pages of 93
 Chapter 3
Air-Standard Power Cycle
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter engines that utilized gas as working fluid are introduced. In gas power cycles, the working fluid remains
a gas throughout the entire cycle. Spark-ignition engines, diesel engines, and conventional gas turbines are familiar
examples of devices that operate on gas cycles. In all these engines, energy is provided by burning a fuel within the
system boundaries. That is, they are internal combustion engines. Because of this combustion process, the composition
of the working fluid changes from air and fuel to combustion products during the course of the cycle.

Even though internal combustion engines operate on a mechanical cycle (the piston returns to its starting position at
the end of each revolution), the working fluid does not undergo a complete thermodynamic cycle. It is thrown out of
the engine at some point in the cycle (as exhaust gases) instead of being returned to the initial state. Working on an
open cycle is the characteristic of all internal combustion engines.

The actual gas power cycles are rather complex. To reduce the analysis to a manageable level, we utilize the
following approximations, commonly known as the air-standard assumptions:
 The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates in a closed loop and always
behaves as an ideal gas.
 All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.
 The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection process that restores the working fluid to
its initial state.
 The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from an external source.

Figure 3.1 The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process in ideal cycles.

Another assumption that is often utilized to simplify the analysis even more is that air has constant specific heats whose
values are determined at room temperature (25°C, or 77°F). When this assumption is utilized, the air-standard
assumptions are called the cold-air-standard assumptions.

A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are applicable is frequently referred to as an air- standard cycle. The
air-standard assumptions previously stated provide considerable simplification in the analysis without significantly
deviating from the actual cycles. This simplified model enables us to study qualitatively the influence of major
parameters on the performance of the actual engines.

17 pages of 93
 3.2 An Overview of Reciprocating Engines
Despite its simplicity, the reciprocating engine (basically a piston–cylinder device) is one of the rare inventions that
has proved to be very versatile and to have a wide range of applications. It is the powerhouse of the vast majority of
automobiles, trucks, light aircraft, ships, and electric power generators, as well as many other devices.

The basic components of a reciprocating engine are shown in Figure (3.2). The piston reciprocates in the cylinder
between two fixed positions called the top dead center (TDC), the position of the piston when it forms the smallest
volume in the cylinder and the bottom dead center (BDC), the position of the piston when it forms the largest volume
in the cylinder. The distance between the TDC and the BDC is the largest distance that the piston can travel in one
direction, and it is called the stroke of the engine. The diameter of the piston is called the bore. The air or air–fuel
mixture is drawn into the cylinder through the intake valve, and the combustion products are expelled from the cylinder
through the exhaust valve.

 The minimum volume formed

in the cylinder when the piston is at
TDC is called the clearance volume
(Figure 3.3).

Figure 3.2 Nomenclature for Figure 3.3 Displacement and clearance volumes
reciprocating engines. of a reciprocating engine.

The volume displaced by the piston as it moves between TDC and BDC is called the displacement volume. The ratio
of the maximum volume formed in the cylinder to the minimum (clearance) volume is called the compression ratio r
of the engine.

𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑽𝑩𝑫𝑪
𝒓= = (3.1)
𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝑻𝑫𝑪

Another term frequently used in conjunction with reciprocating engines is the mean effective pressure (MEP). It is a
fictitious pressure that, if it acted on the piston during the entire power stroke, would produce the same amount of
network as that produced during the actual cycle (Figure 3.4). That is

18 pages of 93
 Wnet = MEP× Piston area× stroke

= MEP x Displacement volume

Or
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑀𝐸𝑃 = = (kpa) (3.2)
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛

Figure 3.4 The net work output of a cycle is equivalent to the

product of the mean effective pressure and the displacement volume.

The mean effective pressure can be used as a parameter to compare the performances of reciprocating engines of equal
size. The engine with a larger value of MEP delivers more net work per cycle and thus performs better.

Reciprocating engines are classified as spark-ignition (SI) engines or compression-ignition (CI) engines, depending
on how the combustion process in the cylinder is initiated. In SI engines, the combustion of the air-fuel mixture is
initiated by a spark plug. In CI engines, the air-fuel mixture is self-ignited as a result of compressing the mixture above
its self-ignition temperature. In the next two sections, we discuss the Otto and Diesel cycles, which are the ideal cycles
for the SI and CI reciprocating engines, respectively.

3.3 Air-Standard Otto Cycle

The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition reciprocating engines. In most spark-ignition engines, the piston
executes four complete strokes (two mechanical cycles) within the cylinder, and the crankshaft completes two
revolutions for each thermodynamic cycle. These engines are called four-stroke internal combustion engines. A
schematic of each stroke as well as a P-v diagram for an actual four-stroke spark-ignition engine is given in Figure
(3.5).

a ) Actual four-stroke spark-ignition engine

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Initially, both the intake and the exhaust b) Ideal Otto cycle valves are closed, and the piston is at its

Figure 3.5 Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition engines and their P-v diagrams. lowest
position (BDC). During the compression stroke, the piston moves upward, compressing the air-fuel mixture. Shortly
before the piston reaches its highest position (TDC), the spark plug fires and the mixture ignite, increasing the pressure
and temperature of the system. The high-pressure gases force the piston down, which in turn forces the crankshaft to
rotate, producing a useful work output during the expansion or power stroke. At the end of this stroke, the piston is at
its lowest position (the completion of the first mechanical cycle), and the cylinder is filled with combustion products.
Now the piston moves upward one more time, purging the exhaust gases through the exhaust valve (the exhaust stroke),
and down a second time, drawing in fresh air-fuel mixture through the intake valve (the intake stroke). Notice that the
pressure in the cylinder is slightly above the atmospheric value during the exhaust stroke and slightly below during the
intake stroke.

In two-stroke engines, all four functions described above are executed in just two strokes: the power stroke and the
compression stroke. In these engines, the crankcase is sealed, and the outward motion of the piston is used to slightly
pressurize the air–fuel mixture in the crankcase, as shown in Figure (3.6). Also,
the intake and exhaust valves are replaced by openings in the lower portion of the
cylinder wall. During the latter part of the power stroke, the piston uncovers first
the exhaust port, allowing the exhaust gases to be partially expelled, and then the
intake port, allowing the fresh air–fuel mixture to rush in and drive most of the
remaining exhaust gases out of the cylinder. This mixture is then compressed as
the piston moves upward during the compression stroke and is subsequently
ignited by a spark plug.

Figure 3.6 Schematic of a two-stroke reciprocating engine.

The two-stroke engines are generally less efficient than their four-stroke counterparts because of the incomplete
expulsion of the exhaust gases and the partial expulsion of the fresh air–fuel mixture with the exhaust gases. However,

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they are relatively simple and inexpensive, and they have high power-to-weight and power-to-volume ratios, which
make them suitable for applications requiring small size and weight such as for motorcycles, chain saws, and lawn
mowers.

The thermodynamic analysis of the actual four-stroke or two-stroke cycles described is not a simple task. However,
the analysis can be simplified significantly if the air-standard assumptions are utilized. The resulting cycle, which
closely resembles the actual operating conditions, is the ideal Otto cycle.

Figure 3.7 p–v and T–s diagrams of the air-standard Otto cycle.

It consists of four internally reversible processes:

 Process 1–2 is an isentropic compression of the air as the piston moves from bottom
dead center to top dead center.
 Process 2–3 is a constant-volume heat transfer to the air from an external source while
the piston is at top dead center. This process is intended to represent the ignition of the
fuel–air mixture and the subsequent rapid burning.
 Process 3–4 is an isentropic expansion (power stroke).
 Process 4–1 completes the cycle by a constant-volume process in which heat is rejected
from the air while the piston is at bottom dead center.
The Otto cycle is executed in a closed system, and disregarding the changes in kinetic and potential energies, the
energy balance for any of the processes is expressed, on a unit-mass basis, as

(qin  qout )  (win  wout )  u(kJ / kg) (3.3)

No work is involved during the two heat transfer processes since both take places at constant volume. Therefore, heat
transfer to and from the working fluid can be expressed as

qin  u3  u2  cv (T3  T2 ) (3.4)

and
qout  u4  u1  cv (T4  T1 ) (3.5)

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 Then the thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle under the cold air standard assumptions
becomes
𝑤net
𝜂th,Oto = (3.6)
𝑞in
𝑤net = 𝑞in − 𝑞out (3.7)
𝑞out 𝑇4 − 𝑇1 𝑇1 (𝑇4 /𝑇1 − 1)
𝜂th ,Oto = 1 − =1− =1− (3.8)
𝑞in 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 𝑇2 (𝑇3 /𝑇2 − 1)

Process 1 − 2 and 3-4 are isentropic, and 𝑣2 = 𝑣3 and 𝑣4 = 𝑣1 . Thus,

𝑇1 𝑣2 𝑘−1 𝑣3 𝑘−1 𝑇4 𝑇3 𝑇4 (3.9)

=( ) =( ) = thus =
𝑇2 𝑣1 𝑣4 𝑇3 𝑇2 𝑇1

Substituting these equations into the thermal efficiency relation and simplifying give
1 (3.10)
𝜂𝑡ℎ,𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜 = 1 −
𝑟 𝑘−1
𝑉 𝑉 𝑣
Where 𝑟 = 𝑉max = 𝑉1 = 𝑣1 (3.11)
min 2 2

is the compression ratio and k is the specific heat ratio cp /cv.

A plot of thermal efficiency versus the compression ratio is given in Figure (5.8) for k = 1.4, which is the specific heat
ratio value of air at room temperature. For a given compression ratio, the thermal efficiency of an actual spark-ignition
engine is less than that of an ideal Otto cycle because of the irreversibilities, such as friction, and other factors such as
incomplete combustion.

We can observe from Figure 3.8 that the thermal efficiency curve is rather steep at
low compression ratios but flattens out starting with a compression ratio value of
about 8. Therefore, the increase in thermal efficiency with the compression ratio is
not as pronounced at high compression ratios. Also, when high compression ratios
are used, the temperature of the air–fuel mixture rises above the autoignition
temperature of the fuel (the temperature at which the fuel ignites without the help
of a spark) during the combustion process, causing an early and rapid burn of the
fuel at some point or points ahead of the flame front, followed by almost
Figure 3.8 Thermal efficiency of
instantaneous inflammation of the end gas. This premature ignition of the fuel,
the ideal Otto cycle as a function
of compression ratio(k = 1.4). called auto ignition, produces an audible noise, which is called engine knock. Auto
ignition in spark- ignition engines cannot be tolerated because it hurts performance and can cause engine damage. The

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 requirement that auto ignition not be allowed places an upper limit on the compression ratios that can be used in spark
ignition internal combustion engines.

The second parameter affecting the thermal efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle is the specific heat ratio k. For a given
compression ratio, an ideal Otto cycle using a monatomic gas (such as argon or helium, k =1.667) as the working fluid
will have the highest thermal efficiency. The specific heat ratio k, and thus the thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto
cycle, decreases as the molecules of the working fluid get larger (Figure
5.9). At room temperature it is 1.4 for air, 1.3 for carbon dioxide, and 1.2
for ethane. The working fluid in actual engines contains larger molecules
such as carbon dioxide, and the specific heat ratio decreases with
temperature, which is one of the reasons that the actual cycles have lower
thermal efficiencies than the ideal Otto cycle. The thermal efficiencies of
actual spark-ignition engines range from about 25 to 30 percent.

Figure 3.9 The thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle

increases with the specific heat ratio k of the working
fluid.
3.4 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle
The Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for CI reciprocating engines. In CI engines (also known as diesel engines), the air
is compressed to a temperature that is above the auto ignition temperature of the fuel, and combustion starts on contact
as the fuel is injected into this hot air. From spark ignition engine, the spark
plug and carburetor are replaced by a fuel injector in diesel engines (Figure
3.10). In gasoline engines, a mixture of air and fuel is compressed during the
compression stroke, and the compression ratios are limited by the onset of
auto ignition or engine knock. In diesel engines, only air is compressed during
the compression stroke, eliminating the possibility of auto ignition. Therefore,
diesel engines can be designed to operate at much higher compression ratios,
typically between 12 and 24. Not having to deal with the problem of auto
ignition has another benefit: many of the stringent requirements placed on the
Figure 3.10 Gasoline and Diesel engine
ignition system gasoline can now be removed, and fuels that are less refined (thus less
expensive) can be used in diesel engines.

The fuel injection process in diesel engines starts when the piston approaches TDC and continues during the first part
of the power stroke. Therefore, the combustion process in these engines takes place over a longer interval. Because of

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this longer duration, the combustion process in the ideal Diesel cycle is approximated as a constant-pressure heat-
addition process. In fact, this is the only process where the Otto and the Diesel cycles differ. The remaining three
processes are the same for both ideal cycles. That is, process 1-2 is isentropic compression, 3-4 is isentropic expansion,
and 4-1 is constant-volume heat rejection. The similarity between the two cycles is also apparent from the P-v and T-
s diagrams of the Diesel cycle, shown in Figure (3.11).

Figure 3.11 T-s and P-v diagrams for the ideal Diesel cycle.

Noting that the Diesel cycle is executed in a piston-cylinder device, which forms a closed system, the amount of heat
transferred to the working fluid at constant pressure and rejected from it at constant volume can be expressed as
qin  wb,out  u3  u2 (3.12)
qin  P2 (v3  v2 )  (u3  u2 ) (3.13)
qin  h3  h2  cp (T3  T2 ) (3.14) and

qout  u4  u1  cv (T4  T1 ) (3.15)

Then the thermal efficiency of the ideal Diesel cycle under the cold-air standard assumptions becomes
𝑇
𝑤net 𝑞out 𝑇4 − 𝑇1 𝑇1 (𝑇4 − 1)
1
𝜂th,Diesel = =1− =1− =1− (3.16)
𝑞in 𝑞in 𝑘(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) 𝑇3
𝑘𝑇2 (𝑇 − 1)
2

We now define a new quantity, the cutoff ratio rc, as the ratio of the cylinder volumes after and before the
combustion process:
𝑉3 𝑣3
𝑟𝑐 = = (3.17)
𝑉2 𝑣2

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Utilizing this definition and the isentropic ideal-gas relations for processes 1-2 and 3-4, we see that the thermal
1 𝑟 𝑘 −1
efficiency relation reduces to 𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − 𝑟𝑘−1 [𝑘(𝑟𝑐 −1)] (3.18) the efficiency of a Diesel cycle differs from
𝑐
the efficiency of an Otto cycle by the quantity in the brackets. This quantity is always greater than 1. Therefore,
th,Otto  th,Diesel
3.5 Air-Standard Dual Cycle
Approximating the combustion process in internal combustion engines as a constant-volume or a constant-pressure
heat-addition process is overly simplistic and not quite realistic. Probably a better (but slightly more complex) approach
would be to model the combustion process in both gasoline and diesel engines as a combination of two heat-transfer
processes, one at constant volume and the other at constant pressure. The ideal cycle based on this concept is called
the dual cycle, and a P-v diagram for it is given in Figure (3.12).

Figure 3.12 p–v and T–s diagrams of the air-standard dual cycle.
As in the Otto and Diesel cycles, Process 1-2 is an isentropic compression. The heat addition occurs in two steps,
however: Process 2-3 is a constant-volume heat addition; Process 3-4 is aconstant pressure heat addition. Process 3-
4 also makes up the first part of the power stroke. The isentropic expansion from state 4 to state 5 is the remainder of
the power stroke. As in the Otto and Diesel cycles, the cycle is completed by a constant volume heat rejection
process, Process 5-1. Areas on the T–s and p–v diagrams can be interpreted as heat and work, respectively, as in the
cases of the Otto and Diesel cycles.

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 3.6 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles
Cycle which have efficiencies equal to the Carnot cycle
and called Stirling and Ericsson cycles have been
defined. Although these cycles are not extensively used
to model actual engines, they are presented here to
illustrate the effective use of a regenerator-a heat
exchanger which utilizes waste heat. In both the Stirling
cycles as well as the Ericsson cycles, compression and
expansion processes are isothermal. The Stirling and
Ericsson cycles are represented schematically figure
below.

Figure 3.13 Stirling and Ericsson cycle

For an ideal regenerator, the heat supplied to the working fluid, process2-3, is equal to the heat rejection from the
working fluid, process 4-1. The isothermal process 1-2 and 3-4 are connected by constant volume and constant pressure
process for the Stirling and Ericsson cycle, respectively.
1-2 T = constant expansion (heat addition from the external source)
2-3 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the working fluid to
the regenerator)
3-4 T = constant compression (heat rejection to the external sink)
3-1 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the regenerator back
to the working fluid)

Figure 3.14 T-s and P-v diagrams of Carnot, Stirling, and Ericsson cycles.

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Both the Stirling and Ericsson cycles are totally reversible, as is the Carnot cycle, and thus according to the Carnot
principle, all three cycles must have the same thermal efficiency when operating between the same temperatures limits:
𝑇𝐿
th,Strilingth,Ericsson= th, Carnot =1−
𝑇𝐻
3.7 Modeling Gas Turbine Power Plants
Gas turbine power plants may operate on either an open or closed basis. The open mode pictured in Fig. 5.13a is more
common. This is an engine in which atmospheric air is continuously drawn into the compressor, where it is compressed
to a high pressure. The air then enters a combustion chamber, or combustor, where it is mixed with fuel and combustion
occurs, resulting in combustion products at an elevated temperature. The combustion products expand through the
turbine and are subsequently discharged to the surroundings. Part of the turbine work developed is used to drive the
compressor; the remainder is available to generate electricity, to propel a vehicle, or for other purposes. In the system
pictured in Fig. 3.13b, the working fluid receives an energy input by heat transfer from an external source, for example
a gas-cooled nuclear reactor. The gas exiting the turbine is passed through a heat exchanger, where it is cooled prior
to reentering the compressor.

Figure 3.15 Simple gas turbine. (a) Open to the atmosphere. (b) Closed.

An idealization often used in the study of open gas turbine power plants is that of an air-
standard analysis. In an air-standard analysis two assumptions are always made:
 The working fluid is air, which behaves as an ideal gas.
 The temperature rise that would be brought about by combustion is accomplished by a
heat transfer from an external source.

3.8 Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle For Gas-Turbine Engines

Gas turbines usually operate on an open cycle, as shown in Fig. 3.13a. Fresh air at ambient conditions is drawn into
the compressor, where its temperature and pressure are raised. The high-pressure air proceeds into the combustion

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chamber, where the fuel is burned at constant pressure. The resulting high- temperature gases then enter the turbine,
where they expand to the atmospheric pressure while producing power. The exhaust gases leaving the turbine are
thrown out (not recirculated), causing the cycle to be classified as an open cycle.

The open gas-turbine cycle described above can be modeled as a closed cycle, as shown in Fig. 3.13b, by utilizing the
air-standard assumptions. Here the compression and expansion processes remain the same, but the combustion process
is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-addition process from an external source, and the exhaust process is replaced
by a constant pressure heat- rejection process to the ambient air. The ideal cycle that the working fluid undergoes in
this closed loop is the Brayton Cycle, which is made up of four internally reversible processes:

1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor) 2-3 Constant-Pressure heat addition 3-4 Isentropic
expansion (in a turbine) 4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection.

The T-s and P-v diagrams of an ideal Brayton cycle are shown in Fig. 3–14. Notice that all four processes of the
Brayton cycle are executed in steady flow devices; thus, they should be analyzed as steady-flow processes.

Figure 3.16 T-s and P-v diagrams for the ideal Brayton cycle.
When the changes in kinetic and potential energies are neglected, the energy balance for a steady-flow process
can be expressed, on a unit–mass basis, as

(qin  qout )  (win  wout )  hexit  hinlet

Therefore, heat transfers to and from the working fluid are

qin  h3  h2  cp (T3  T2 ) and

qout  h4  h1  cp (T4  T1 )
Then the thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle under the cold-air standard assumptions becomes
𝑤net 𝑞out 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 ) 𝑇1 (𝑇4 /𝑇1 − 1)
𝜂th, brayton = =1− =1− =1−
𝑞in 𝑞in 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) 𝑇2 (𝑇3 /𝑇2 − 1)

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 Process 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, and 𝑃2 = 𝑃3 and𝑃4 = 𝑃1 . Thus,

𝑇2 𝑃2 (𝑘−1)/𝑘 𝑃2 (𝑘−1)/𝑘 𝑇3
=( ) =( ) =
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑃1 𝑇4

Substituting these equations into the thermal efficiency relation and simplifying give
1
𝜂𝑡ℎ,𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 1 − (𝑘−1)/𝑘
𝑟𝑃

𝑃
Where 𝑟𝑃 = 𝑃2
1

Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones

The actual gas-turbine cycle differs from the ideal Brayton cycle on several accounts. For one thing, some pressure
drop during the heat-addition and heat rejection processes is inevitable. More importantly, the actual work input to the
compressor is more, and the actual work output from the turbine is less because of irreversibilities. The deviation of
actual compressor and turbine behavior from the idealized isentropic behavior can be accurately accounted for by
utilizing the isentropic efficiencies of the turbine and compressor as

𝑤𝑠 ℎ2𝑠 − ℎ1 𝑤𝑎 ℎ3 − ℎ4𝑎
𝜂𝑐 = ≅ And 𝜂𝑡 = ≅
𝑤𝑎 ℎ2𝑎 − ℎ1 𝑤𝑠 ℎ3 − ℎ4𝑠

Where states 2a and 4a are the actual exit states of the compressor and the
turbine, respectively, and 2s and 4s are the corresponding states for the
isentropic case, as illustrated in Fig. 3.17. The effect of the turbine and
compressor efficiencies on the thermal efficiency of the gas-turbine
engines is illustrated below with an example.

Figure 3.17 The deviation of an actual gas-turbine

cycle from the ideal Brayton cycle as a result of
irreversibilities.

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 3.9 The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration
In gas-turbine engines, the temperature of the exhaust gas leaving the turbine is often considerably higher than the
temperature of the air leaving the compressor. Therefore, the high- pressure air leaving the compressor can be heated
by transferring heat to it from the hot exhaust gases in a counter-flow heat exchanger, which is also known as a
regenerator or a recuperator. Note, however, that the use of a regenerator is recommended only when the turbine
exhaust temperature is higher than the compressor exit temperature.

Figure 3.18 A gas-turbine engine with Figure 3.19 T-s diagram of a Brayton cycle
regenerator. with regeneration
Assuming the regenerator to be well insulated and any
changes in kinetic and potential energies to be negligible, the actual and maximum heat transfers from the
exhaust gases to the air can be expressed as

qregen,act  h5  h2 and qregen,max  h5'  h2  h4  h2

The extent to which a regenerator approaches an ideal regenerator is called the effectiveness and is
defined as
𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑛, 𝑎𝑐𝑡 ℎ5 − ℎ2
∈= 𝑞 =
𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑛, max ℎ4 − ℎ2

When the cold-air-standard assumptions are utilized, it reduces to

𝑇5 − 𝑇2
∈=
𝑇4 − 𝑇2
Under the cold-air-standard assumptions, the thermal efficiency of an ideal Brayton cycle with
regeneration is

𝑇1 (𝑘−1)/𝑘
𝜂𝑡ℎ,𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 1 − ( ) (𝑟𝑝 )
𝑇3

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 3.10 The Brayton Cycle with Inter-cooling, Reheating, and Regeneration
The net work of a gas-turbine cycle is the difference between the turbine work
output and the compressor work input, and it can be increased by either decreasing
the compressor work or increasing the turbine work, or both. The work required to
compress a gas between two specified pressures can be decreased by carrying out
the compression process in stages and cooling the gas in between that is, using
multistage compression with inter-cooling.

As the number of stages is increased, the compression process becomes nearly

isothermal at the compressor inlet temperature, and the compression work
decreases.
Figure 3.20 Comparison of work inputs to a single-stage compressor
(1AC) and a two-stage compressor with inter-cooling (1ABD).

Figure 3.21 A gas-turbine engine with two-stage compression with intercooling, two-stage expansion with reheating, and regeneration.
3.11 Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles

Figure 3.23 Basic components of a turbojet engine and the T-s diagram for the ideal turbojet cycle.
A

schematic of a turbojet engine and the T-s diagram of the ideal turbojet cycle are shown in Fig.3. 23. The pressure of
air rises slightly as it is decelerated in the diffuser. Air is compressed by the compressor. It is mixed with fuel in the
combustion chamber, where the mixture is burned at constant pressure. The high-pressure and high-temperature

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combustion gases partially expand in the turbine, producing enough power to drive the compressor and other
equipment. Finally, the gases expand in a nozzle to the ambient pressure and leave the engine at a high velocity.

The thrust developed in a turbojet engine is the unbalanced force that is caused by the difference in the
momentum of the low-velocity air entering the engine and the high-velocity exhaust gases leaving the
engine, and it is determined from Newton’s second law. The pressures at the inlet and the exit of a turbojet
engine are identical (the ambient pressure); thus, the net thrust developed by the engine is
𝐹 = (𝑚̇𝑉)𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 − (𝑚̇𝑉)𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 (𝑁)
The power developed from the thrust of the engine is called the propulsive power (𝑾̇ 𝑷 )
𝑾̇ 𝑷 = 𝐹𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 (𝑘𝑊)

32 pages of 93
 Chapter 4
Vapor-Power Cycle
4.1 Introduction
Steam power plants are the major sources of power generation. They operate essentially on the principle that steam
generated in the boiler passes through steam turbine and the expansion process of steam in the steam turbine results in
work output. The steam exhausted from the turbine is passed through the steam condenser or process heaters. The
condensate collected is then supplied to the boiler at an elevated boiler pressure by means of a feed-pump, completing
the vapor-power cycle.

Figure 4.1 Components of a simple vapor power plant.

4.2 The Carnot Vapor Cycle

The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle operating between two
specified temperature limits. Thus it is natural to look at the Carnot
cycle first as a prospective ideal cycle for vapor power plants.
Consider a steady-flow Carnot cycle executed within the saturation
dome of a pure substance, as shown in Fig. 4.2 Heat is supplied to the
working fluid at constant temperature in a boiler (process 1-2), the fluid
expanded isentropically in a turbine (process 2-3), then condensed at
Constant temperature in the condenser (process 3-4), and compressed
isentropically by a compressor to the initial state (process 4-1).

Figure 4.2 T-s diagram of Carnot vapor cycle.

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The thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle,Carnot , which is the highest for any cycle operating between the source
temperature T1, and the sink temperature T3 is given by:

𝑇3
𝜂𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 = 1 − (4.1)
𝑇1

Limitations of Carnot Cycle

Though Carnot cycle is simple (thermodynamically) and has the highest thermal efficiency for given values of T1
following reasons:

 Limiting the heat transfer processes to two-phase systems, however, severely limits the
maximum temperature that can be used in the cycle (it has to remain under the critical-
point value, which is 374°C for water). Limiting the maximum temperature in the cycle
also limits the thermal efficiency. Any attempt to raise the maximum temperature in the
cycle involves heat transfer to the working fluid in a single phase, which is not easy to
accomplish isothermally.
 The isentropic expansion process (process 2-3) can be approximated closely by a well-
designed turbine. However, the quality of the steam decreases during this process, as shown
on the T-s diagram in Fig. 4.2. Thus the turbine has to handle steam with low quality, that
is, steam with a high moisture content. The impingement of liquid droplets on the turbine
blades causes erosion and is a major source of wear. Thus steam with qualities less than
about 90 percent cannot be tolerated in the operation of power plants.
 The isentropic compression process (process 4-1) involves the compression of a liquid–
vapor mixture to a saturated liquid. There are two difficulties associated with this process.
First, it is not easy to control the condensation process so precisely as to end up with the
desired quality at state 4. Second, it is not practical to design a compressor that handles two
phases.
 The cycle is still more difficult to operate in practice with superheated steam due to the
necessity of supplying the superheat at constant temperature instead of constant pressure.
Therefore, the Carnot cycle cannot be realized in practice, but sets the upper limit to which the cycle efficiency of
any thermal plan can be raised.

4.3 Rankine Cycle

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Many of the impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can be eliminated by superheating the steam in the boiler
and condensing it completely in the condenser, as shown schematically on a T-s diagram in Figure 4.3. The cycle that
results is the Rankine cycle, which is the ideal cycle for vapor power plants. The ideal Rankine cycle does not involve
any internal irreversibilities and consists of the following four processes: 1-2 isentropic compression in a pump, 2-3
Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler, 3-4 isentropic expansion in a turbine, 4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection
in a condenser

Figure 4.3 The simple ideal Rankine cycle

Water enters the pump at state 1as saturated liquid and is compressed isentropically to the operating pressure of the
boiler. The water temperature increases somewhat during this isentropic compression process due to a slight decrease
in the specific volume of water. The vertical distance between states 1 and 2 on the T-s diagram is greatly exaggerated
for clarity.

Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 2 and leaves as a superheated vapor at state 3. The boiler is
basically a large heat exchanger where the heat originating from combustion gases, nuclear reactors, or other sources
is transferred to the water essentially at constant pressure. The boiler, together with the section where the steam is
superheated (the super heater), is often called the steam generator.

The superheated vapor at state 3 enters the turbine, where it expands isentropically and produces work by rotating the
shaft connected to an electric generator. The pressure and the temperature of steam drop during this process to the
values at state 4, where steam enters the condenser. At this state, steam is usually a saturated liquid–vapor mixture
with a high quality.

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Steam is condensed at constant pressure in the condenser, which is basically a large heat exchanger, by rejecting heat
to a cooling medium such as a lake, a river, or the atmosphere. Steam leaves the condenser as saturated liquid and
enters the pump, completing the cycle. In areas where water is precious, the power plants are cooled by air instead of
water. This method of cooling, which is also used in car engines, is called dry cooling.

Remembering that the area under the process curve on a T-s diagram represents the heat transfer for internally
reversible processes, we see that the area under process curve 2-3 represents the heat transferred to the water in the
boiler and the area under the process curve 4-1 represents the heat rejected in the condenser. The difference between
these two (the area enclosed by the cycle curve) is the net work produced during the cycle.

Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle

The kinetic and potential energy changes of the steam are usually small relative to the work and heat transfer terms
and are therefore usually neglected. Then the steady-flow energy equation per unit mass of steam reduces to

(qin  qout )  (win  wout )  he  hi kJ / kg) (4.2)

The boiler and the condenser do not involve any work, and the pump and the turbine are assumed to be isentropic.
Then the conservation of energy relation for each device can be expressed as follows:
Pump (q= 0) wpump,in  h2  h1 Or wpump,in  v  P2  P1 (4.3)

h1  hf @ P and v  v1  v f @ P
1 1
Where
Boiler (w= 0) qin  h3  h2 (4.4)

Turbine (q= 0) wturb,out  h3  h4 (4.5)

Condenser (w= 0) qout  h4  h1 (4.6)
The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is determined from
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑡ℎ = = 1− (4.7)
𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑖𝑛

Where wnet  qin  qout  wturb,out  wpump,in (4.8)

Deviation of Actual Vapor Power Cycles from Idealized Ones

The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle, as illustrated in Figure 4.4, as a result of
irreversibilities in various components. Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings are the two common sources of
irreversibilities. Fluid friction causes pressure drops in the boiler, the condenser, and the piping between various
components. As a result, steam leaves the boiler at a somewhat lower pressure. Also, the pressure at the turbine inlet
is somewhat lower than that at the boiler exit due to the pressure drop in the connecting pipes. The pressure drop in

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the condenser is usually very small. To compensate for these pressure drops, the water must be pumped to a sufficiently
higher pressure than the ideal cycle calls for. This requires a larger pump and larger work input to the pump.
The other major source of irreversibility is the heat loss from the steam to the surroundings as the steam flows through
various components. To maintain the same level of net work output, more heat needs to be transferred to the steam in
the boiler to compensate for these undesired heat losses. As a result, cycle efficiency decreases.

Figure 4.4 (a) Deviation of actual vapor power cycle from the ideal Rankine cycle. (b) The effect
of pump and turbine irreversibilities on the ideal Rankine cycle.
The irreversibilities occurring within the pump and the turbine. A pump requires a greater work input, and a turbine
produces a smaller work output as a result of irreversibilities. Under ideal conditions, the flow through these devices
is isentropic. The deviation of actual pumps and turbines from the isentropic ones can be accounted for by utilizing
isentropic efficiencies, defined as

𝑤𝑠 ℎ2𝑠 − ℎ1
𝜂𝑝 = = (4.9)
𝑤𝑎 ℎ2𝑎 − ℎ1
𝑤𝑠 ℎ2𝑠 − ℎ1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂𝑝 = = (4.10)
𝑤𝑎 ℎ2𝑎 − ℎ1
Where states 2a and 4a are the actual exit states of the pump and the turbine, respectively, and 2s and 4s are the
corresponding states for the isentropic case (Figure 4.4 b).

Other factors also need to be considered in the analysis of actual vapor power cycles. In actual condensers, for example,
the liquid is usually subcooled to prevent the onset of cavitation, the rapid vaporization and condensation of the fluid
at the low-pressure side of the pump impeller, which may damage it.

4.4 Increase the Efficiency of the Rankine Cycle

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 The basic idea behind all the modifications to increase the thermal efficiency of a power cycle is the same: Increase
the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the working fluid in the boiler, or decrease the average
temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid in the condenser. That is, the average fluid temperature
should be as high as possible during heat addition and as low as possible during heat rejection. Next we discuss three
ways of accomplishing this for the simple ideal Rankine cycle.

Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)

Steam exists as a saturated mixture in the condenser at the saturation
temperature corresponding to the pressure inside the condenser.
Therefore, lowering the operating pressure of the condenser
automatically lowers the temperature of the steam, and thus the
temperature at which heat is rejected.
The effect of lowering the condenser pressure on the Rankine cycle
efficiency is illustrated on a T-s diagram in Figure (4.6). For comparison
purposes, the turbine inlet state is maintained the same. The colored
area on this diagram represents the increase in net work output as a
result of lowering the condenser pressure from P4 to P’4.The heat input
requirements also increase (represented by the area under curve 2’-2),
but this increase is very small.Thus the overall effect of lowering the
condenser pressure is an increase in the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

Figure 4.6 The effect of lowering the condenser pressure

on the ideal Rankine cycle.

To take advantage of the increased efficiencies at low pressures, the condensers of steam power plants usually operate
well below the atmospheric pressure. This does not present a major problem since the vapor power cycles operate in
a closed loop. However, there is a lower limit on the condenser pressure that can be used. It cannot be lower than
the saturation pressure corresponding to the temperature of the cooling medium. Consider, for example, a condenser
that is to be cooled by a nearby river at 15°C. Allowing a temperature difference of 10°C for effective heat transfer,
the steam temperature in the condenser must be above 25°C; thus the condenser pressure must be above 3.2 kPa, which
is the saturation pressure at 25°C.

Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increases Thigh,avg)

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 The average temperature at which heat is transferred to steam
can be increased without increasing the boiler pressure by
superheating the steam to high temperatures. The effect of
superheating on the performance of vapor power cycles is illustrated on
a T-s diagram in Figure (4.7). The colored area on this diagram
represents the increase in the net work. The total area under the
process curve 3-3’ represents the increase in the heat input.
Superheating the steam to higher temperatures has another very
desirable effect: It decreases the moisture content of the steam at
the turbine exit, as can be seen from the T-s diagram (the quality
Figure 4.7 The effect of superheating
the steam to higher temperatures on at state 4’ is higher than that at state 4).
the ideal Rankine cycle.
The temperature to which steam can be superheated is limited,
however, by metallurgical consideration. Presently the highest steam temperature allowed at the turbine
inlet is about 620°C (1150°F).

Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)

Increasing the operating pressure of the boiler automatically raises the

temperature at which boiling takes place. This, in turn, raises the average
temperature at which heat is transferred to the steam and thus raises the
thermal efficiency of the cycle. The effect of increasing the boiler
pressure on the performance of vapor power cycles is illustrated on a
T-s diagram in Figure (4.8). Notice that for a fixed turbine inlet
temperature, the cycle shifts to the left and the moisture content of steam

Figure 4.8 The effect of increasing the boiler

pressure on the ideal Rankine cycle.

4.5 The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle

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We noted in the last section that increasing the boiler pressure increases the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle, but
it also increases the moisture content of the steam to unacceptable levels. There is two possibilities to overcome this
problem:

 Superheat the steam to very high temperatures before it enters the turbine. This would be
the desirable solution since the average temperature at which heat is added would also
increase, thus increasing the cycle efficiency. This is not a practicable solution, however,
since it requires raising the steam temperature to metallurgically unsafe levels.
 Expand the steam in the turbine in two stages, and reheat it in between. In other words,
modify the simple ideal Rankine cycle with a reheat process. Reheating is a practical
solution to the excessive moisture modern steam power plants.

The T-s diagram of the ideal reheat Rankine cycle and the schematic of the power plant operating
on this cycle are shown in Figure (4.9). The incorporation of the single reheat in a modern power
plant improves the cycle efficiency by 4 to 5 percent by increasing the average temperature at
which heat is transferred to the steam.

Figure 4.9 The ideal reheat Rankine cycle.

The total heat input and the total turbine work output for a reheat cycle become:
qin  qprimary  qreheat  (h3  h2 )  (h5  h4 ) (4.11)

and wturb out  wturb,I  wturb,II  (h3  h4 )  (h5  h6 ) (4.12)

The average temperature during the reheat process can be increased by increasing the number of expansion and reheat stages. As
the number of stages is increased, the expansion and reheat processes approach an isothermal process at the maximum temperature.
The use of more than two reheat stages, however, is not practical. The theoretical improvement in efficiency from the

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second reheat is about half of that which results from a single reheat. If the turbine inlet pressure is not high enough,
double reheat would result in superheated exhaust. This is undesirable as it would cause the average temperature for
heat rejection to increase and thus the cycle efficiency to decrease. Therefore, double reheat is used only on
supercritical-pressure (P > 22.06 MPa) power plants.

4.6 The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle

Another commonly used method for increasing the thermal efficiency of vapor power plants is regenerative feedwater
heating, or simply regeneration.

A practical regeneration process in steam power plants is accomplished by extracting, or “bleeding,” steam from the
turbine at various points. This steam, which could have produced more work by expanding further in the turbine, is used
to heat the feedwater instead. The device where the feedwater is heated by regeneration is called a regenerator, or a
feedwater heater (FWH).

Open Feedwater Heaters

An open (or direct-contact) feedwater heater is basically a mixing chamber, where the steam extracted from the
turbine mixes with the feedwater exiting the pump. Ideally, the mixture leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the
heater pressure. The schematic of a steam power plant with one open feedwater heater (also called single-stage
regenerative cycle) and the T-s diagram of the cycle are shown in Figure 4.10.

In an ideal regenerative Rankine cycle, steam enters the turbine at the boiler pressure (state 5) and expands
isentropically to an intermediate pressure (state 6). Some steam is extracted at this state and routed to the feedwater
heater, while the remaining steam continues to expand isentropically to the condenser pressure (state 7). This steam
leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid at the condenser pressure (state 1). The condensed water, which is also
called the feedwater, then enters an isentropic pump, where it is compressed to the feedwater heater pressure (state
2) and is routed to the feedwater heater, where it mixes with the steam extracted from the turbine. The fraction of the
steam extracted is such that the mixture leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure (state 3). A second
pump raises the pressure of the water to the boiler pressure (state 4). The cycle is completed by heating the water in
the boiler to the turbine inlet state (state 5).

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 Figure 4.10 The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with an open feedwater heater.
In the analysis of steam power plants, it is more convenient to work with quantities expressed per unit mass of the
steam flowing through the boiler. For each 1 kg of steam leaving the boiler, y kg expands partially in the turbine and
is extracted at state 6. The remaining (1- y) kg expands completely to the condenser pressure. Therefore, the mass
flow rates are different in different components. If the mass flow rate through the boiler is 𝑚̇ for example, it is (1 -
y) 𝑚̇ through the condenser. This aspect of the regenerative Rankine cycle should be considered in the analysis of the
cycle as well as in the interpretation of the areas on the T-s diagram.

qin  h5  h4 (4.13)
Where
qout  (1 y)(h7  h1 ) (4.14)
𝑚̇6
𝑦 = 𝑚̇ (fraction of steam extracted)
5
wturb,out  (h5  h6 )  (1 y)(h6  h7 ) (4.15)

wpump,in  (1 y)wpumpI ,in  wpumpII ,in (4.16)

wpumpI ,in  v1 (P2  P1 ) (4.17)

wpumpII ,in  v3 (P4  P3 ) (4.18)

The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle increases as a result of regeneration. This is because regeneration raises
the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the steam in the boiler by raising the temperature of the water
before it enters the boiler. The cycle efficiency increases further as the number of feedwater heaters is increased. Many
large plants in operation today use as many as eight feedwater heaters. The optimum number of feedwater heaters is
determined from economical considerations. The use of an additional feedwater heater cannot be justified unless it
saves more from the fuel costs than its own cost.

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Closed Feedwater Heaters
Regenerative feedwater heating also can be accomplished with closed feedwater heaters. Closed heaters are shell-
and-tube-type recuperators in which the feedwater temperature increases as the extracted steam condenses on the
outside of the tubes carrying the feedwater. Since the two stream don’t mix, they can be at different pressures.

Figure 4.11 Examples of closed feedwater heaters.

The schematic of a steam power plant with one closed feedwater heater and the T-s diagram of the cycle are shown in
Figure (4.12). In an ideal closed feedwater heater, the feedwater is heated to the exit temperature of the extracted steam,
which ideally leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the extraction pressure. In actual power plants, the feedwater
leaves the heater below the exit temperature of the extracted steam because a temperature difference of at least a few
degrees is required for any effective heat transfer to take place.

Figure 4.12 The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with a closed feedwater heater.

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The condensed steam is then either pumped to the feedwater line or routed to another heater or to the condenser through
a device called a trap. A trap allows the liquid to be throttled to a lower pressure region but traps the vapor. The
enthalpy of steam remains constant during this throttling process.

Most steam power plants use a combination of open and closed feedwater heaters, as shown in Figure (4.13).

Figure 4.13 A steam power plant

with one open and three closed
feedwater heaters.

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 Chapter 5
Refrigeration cycles
5.1 Introduction
We all know from experience that heat flows in the direction of decreasing temperature, that is,
from high-temperature regions to low-temperature ones. This heat-transfer process occurs in
nature without requiring any devices. The reverse process, however, cannot occur by itself. The
transfer of heat from a low-temperature region to a high-temperature one requires special devices
called refrigerators. Refrigerators are cyclic devices, and the working fluids used in the
refrigeration cycles are called refrigerants.

A refrigerator is shown schematically in Fig. 5.1. Here QL is the magnitude of the heat removed
from the refrigerated space at temperature TL ,QH is the magnitude of the heat rejected to the
warm space at temperature TH , and Wnet,in is the net work input to the refrigerator.

Figure 5.1 Refrigeration cycle

Another device that transfers heat from a low-temperature medium to a high-temperature one is
the heat pump. Refrigerators and heat pumps are essentially the same devices; they differ in their
objectives only. The objective of a refrigerator is to maintain the refrigerated space at a low
temperature by removing heat from it. Discharging this heat to a higher-temperature medium is
merely a necessary part of the operation, not the purpose. The objective of a heat pump,

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however, is to maintain a heated space at a high temperature. This is accomplished by absorbing
heat from a low-temperature source, such as well water or cold outside air in winter, and
supplying this heat to a warmer medium such as a house (Fig. 5.2).

Figure 5.2 Heat pump cycle

The performance of refrigerators and heat pumps is expressed in terms of the coefficient of
performance (COP), defined as
Desired output Cooling effect Q
COPR = = = L (5.1)
Required input work input Wnet,in

Desired output Heating effect Q

COPHP = = = H (5.2)
Required input work input Wnet,in

These relations can also be expressed in the rate form by replacing the quantities QL, QH, and
Wnet,in by 𝑄𝑄̇ L, 𝑄𝑄̇ H, and 𝑊𝑊̇ net,in, respectively. Notice that both COPR and COPHP can be greater
than 1. A comparison of Eqs. 5.1 and 5.2 reveals that

=
COPHP COPR + 1 (5.3)

The cooling capacity of a refrigeration system, that is, the rate of heat removal from the
refrigerated space, is often expressed in terms of tons of refrigeration. The capacity of a
refrigeration system that can freeze 1 ton of liquid water at 0°C (32°F) into ice at 0°C in 24 h is
said to be 1 ton. One ton of refrigeration is equivalent to 211 kJ/min. The cooling load of a
typical 200 m2 residence is in the 3-ton (10-kW) range.

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 5.2 The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the most widely used cycle for refrigerators, air-
conditioning systems, and heat pumps. It consists of four processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression in a compressor
2-3 Constant-pressure heat rejection in a condenser
3-4 Throttling in an expansion device
4-1 Constant-pressure heat absorption in an evaporator
In an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant enters the compressor at state 1
as saturated vapor and is compressed isentropically to the condenser pressure. The temperature
of the refrigerant increases during this isentropic compression process to well above the
temperature of the surrounding medium. The refrigerant then enters the condenser as superheated
vapor at state 2 and leaves as saturated liquid at state 3 as a result of heat rejection to the
surroundings. The temperature of the refrigerant at this state is still above the temperature of the
surroundings.

Figure 5.3 Schematic and T-s diagram for the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.

The saturated liquid refrigerant at state 3 is throttled to the evaporator pressure by passing it
through an expansion valve or capillary tube. The temperature of the refrigerant drops below the
temperature of the refrigerated space during this process. The refrigerant enters the evaporator at
state 4 as a low-quality saturated mixture, and it completely evaporates by absorbing heat from

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the refrigerated space. The refrigerant leaves the evaporator as saturated vapor and reenters the
compressor, completing the cycle.

In a household refrigerator, the tubes in the freezer compartment where heat is absorbed by the
refrigerant serves as the evaporator. The coils behind the refrigerator, where heat is dissipated to
the kitchen air, serve as the condenser (Fig. 5.4).

Figure 5.4 An ordinary household refrigerator.

Remember that the area under the process curve on a T-s diagram represents the heat transfer for
internally reversible processes. The area under the process curve 4-1 represents the heat absorbed
by the refrigerant in the evaporator, and the area under the process curve 2-3 represents the heat
rejected in the condenser. A rule of thumb is that the COP improves by 2 to 4 percent for each
°C the evaporating temperature is raised or the condensing temperature is lowered.

Compression Process 1-2:

Isentropic compression process of the saturated water from state point l to state point 2 results in
rise of pressure from P1 to P2. The work of compression is

w=
c h2 − h1 (5.4)

Condensation Process 2 - 3:

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Superheated vapor at state 2 is cooled at constant pressure P2 in the condenser until saturated
liquid at state 3 is obtained. The heat removed from the refrigerant is:

q2−=
3 h3 − h2 (5.5)

Throttling Process 3-4:

Throttling, which is irreversible process, proceeds along the isenthalpic 3-4. The irreversible
constant enthalpy process is represented as a dotted line and for an adiabatic expansion process:

h3 = h4 (5.6)

Evaporating Process 4 - 1:
The evaporation process is assumed to be a constant pressure process. To make complete use of
the latent heat of the refrigerant, evaporation is continued until the vapor is saturated at state
point 1. The refrigeration effect is given by:

q4−=
1 h1 − h4 (5.7)

Another diagram frequently used in the analysis of vapor-compression refrigeration cycles is the
P-h diagram, as shown in Fig. 5.5. On this diagram, three of the four processes appear as straight
lines, and the heat transfer in the condenser and the evaporator is proportional to the lengths of
the corresponding process curves.

All four components associated with the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle are steady-flow
devices, and thus all four processes that make up the cycle can be analyzed as steady-flow
processes. The kinetic and potential energy changes of the refrigerant are usually small relative
to the work and heat transfer terms, and therefore they can be neglected. Then the steady-flow
energy equation on a unit–mass basis reduces to
(qin − qout ) + ( win − wout ) =he − hi (5.8)

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 Figure 5.5 The P-h diagram of an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.
The condenser and the evaporator do not involve any work, and the compressor can be
approximated as adiabatic. Then the COPs of refrigerators and heat pumps operating on the
vapor-compression refrigeration cycle can be expressed as
qL h1 − h4
=
COP = (5.9)
Wnet ,in h2 − h1
R

and
qH h2 − h3
=
COP = (5.10)
Wnet ,in h2 − h1
HP

Where h1=hg@P1 and h3=hf@P for the ideal case.

3

5.3 Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

An actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle differs from the ideal one in several ways,
owing mostly to the irreversibilities that occur in various components. Two common sources of
irreversibilities are fluid friction (causes pressure drops) and heat transfer to or from the
surroundings. The T-s diagram of an actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is shown in
Fig. 5.6.
In the ideal cycle, the refrigerant leaves the evaporator and enters the compressor as saturated
vapor. In practice, however, it may not be possible to control the state of the refrigerant so
precisely. Instead, it is easier to design the system so that the refrigerant is slightly superheated at
the compressor inlet. This slight overdesign ensures that the refrigerant is completely vaporized

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when it enters the compressor. Also, the line connecting the evaporator to the compressor is
usually very long; thus the pressure drop caused by fluid friction and heat transfer from the
surroundings to the refrigerant can be very significant. The result of superheating, heat gain in
the connecting line, and pressure drops in the evaporator and the connecting line is an increase in
the specific volume, thus an increase in the power input requirements to the compressor since
steady-flow work is proportional to the specific volume.

Figure 5.6 Schematic and T-s diagram for the actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.
The compression process in the ideal cycle is internally reversible and adiabatic, and thus
isentropic. The actual compression process, however, involves frictional effects, which increase
the entropy, and heat transfer, which may increase or decrease the entropy, depending on the
direction. Therefore, the entropy of the refrigerant may increase (process 1-2) or decrease
(process 1-2) during an actual compression process, depending on which effects dominate. The
compression process 1-2_ may be even more desirable than the isentropic compression process
since the specific volume of the refrigerant and thus the work input requirement are smaller in
this case. Therefore, the refrigerant should be cooled during the compression process whenever it
is practical and economical to do so.
In the ideal case, the refrigerant is assumed to leave the condenser as saturated liquid at the
compressor exit pressure. In reality, however, it is unavoidable to have some pressure drop in the
condenser as well as in the lines connecting the condenser to the compressor and to the throttling
valve. Also, it is not easy to execute the condensation process with such precision that the
refrigerant is a saturated liquid at the end, and it is undesirable to route the refrigerant to the

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throttling valve before the refrigerant is completely condensed. Therefore, the refrigerant is
subcooled somewhat before it enters the throttling valve. We do not mind this at all, however,
since the refrigerant in this case enters the evaporator with a lower enthalpy and thus can absorb
more heat from the refrigerated space. The throttling valve and the evaporator are usually located
very close to each other, so the pressure drop in the connecting line is small.

5.4 Innovative Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Systems

The simple vapor-compression refrigeration cycle discussed above is the most widely used
refrigeration cycle, and it is adequate for most refrigeration applications. The ordinary vapor-
compression refrigeration systems are simple, inexpensive, reliable, and practically maintenance-
free (when was the last time you serviced your household refrigerator?). However, for large
industrial applications efficiency, not simplicity, is the major concern. Also, for some
applications the simple vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is inadequate and needs to be
modified. We now discuss a few such modifications and refinements.

5.4.1 Effect of Sub-cooling the Refrigerant

A simple vapor-compression refrigeration cycle with sub-cooling shown in Fig. 5.4 When the
liquid refrigerant is sub-cooled from 3' -3, the expansion process takes place along 3 - 4 instead
of 3' - 4'. The refrigeration effect increases from (h1 - h4’), to (h1 - h4) by sub-cooling, the extra
refrigeration effect being (h4’- h4). The work of co compression is considered the same for both
the simple saturated cycle as well as the sub-cooled cycle. As no extra work is required by the
compressor, the net effect of sub-cooling the refrigerant is to increase the COP of the
refrigerator.

Figure 5.7 Sub cooling the Refrigerant

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Sub-cooling, that is increasing the refrigeration effect of the system, reduces the mass flow rate
of the refrigerant for a system having the same capacity as the simple vapor- compression
refrigeration system.

5.4.2 Effect of Superheating the Refrigerant

In the ideal simple saturated vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant leaves the
evaporator is assumed to be saturated. In practice, however, the evaporation process is continued
until the refrigerant is superheated by about 5 0C to 20 0C. The superheat may be created by any
of the following processes.
• If the evaporator load is large enough, the vapor may be superheated.
• If heat exchange occurs between liquid from the condenser and vapor leaving the
evaporator, then the vapor may be superheated.
• Heat transfer from the surroundings may superheat vapor leaving the evaporator.
Superheating the refrigerant increases the net mechanical work input to achieve the same
compression ratio and reduces the COP of the refrigerating plant for the same capacity of the
system.

Figure 5.8 Superheating the Refrigerant

5.4.3 Cascade Refrigeration Systems

Some industrial applications require moderately low temperatures, and the temperature range
they involve may be too large for a single vapor-compression refrigeration cycle to be practical.
A large temperature range also means a large pressure range in the cycle and a poor performance

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for a reciprocating compressor. One way of dealing with such situations is to perform the
refrigeration process in stages, that is, to have two or more refrigeration cycles that operate in
series. Such refrigeration cycles are called cascade refrigeration cycles.

A two-stage cascade refrigeration cycle is shown in Fig. 5.7. The two cycles are connected
through the heat exchanger in the middle, which serves as the evaporator for the topping cycle
(cycle A) and the condenser for the bottoming cycle (cycle B). Assuming the heat exchanger is
well insulated and the kinetic and potential energies are negligible, the heat transfer from the
fluid in the bottoming cycle should be equal to the heat transfer to the fluid in the topping cycle.
Thus, the ratio of mass flow rates through each cycle should be
 
m A (h5 − h8=
) m B (h2 − h3 ) (5.11)

mA h2 − h3

= (5.12)
mB h5 − h8

Also
 
QL mB (h1 − h4 )
COPR ,=
cascade =   
(5.13)
Wnet ,in mA (h6 − h5 ) + mB (h2 − h1 )

Figure 5.9 A two-stage cascade refrigeration system with the same refrigerant in both stages.

54 pages of 93
In the cascade system shown in the figure, the refrigerants in both cycles are assumed to be the
same. This is not necessary, however, since there is no mixing taking place in the heat
exchanger. Therefore, refrigerants with more desirable characteristics can be used in each cycle.
In this case, there would be a separate saturation dome for each fluid, and the T-s diagram for
one of the cycles would be different. Also, in actual cascade refrigeration systems, the two cycles
would overlap somewhat since a temperature difference between the two fluids is needed for any
heat transfer to take place.

It is evident from the T-s diagram in Fig. 5.7 that the compressor work decreases and the amount
of heat absorbed from the refrigerated space increases as a result of cascading. Therefore,
cascading improves the COP of a refrigeration system. Some refrigeration systems use three or
four stages of cascading.

5.4.4 Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems

When the fluid used throughout the cascade refrigeration system is the same, the heat exchanger
between the stages can be replaced by a mixing chamber (called a flash chamber) since it has
better heat transfer characteristics. Such systems are called multistage compression
refrigeration systems. A two stage compression refrigeration system is shown in Fig. 5.8.

Figure 5.10 A two-stage compression refrigeration system with a flash chamber.

In this system, the liquid refrigerant expands in the first expansion valve to the flash chamber
pressure, which is the same as the compressor interstage pressure. Part of the liquid vaporizes

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during this process. This saturated vapor (state 3) is mixed with the superheated vapor from the
low-pressure compressor (state 2), and the mixture enters the high-pressure compressor at state
9. This is, in essence, a regeneration process. The saturated liquid (state 7) expands through the
second expansion valve into the evaporator, where it picks up heat from the refrigerated space.
The compression process in this system resembles a two-stage compression with intercooling,
and the compressor work decreases. Care should be exercised in the interpretations of the areas
on the T-s diagram in this case since the mass flow rates are different in different parts of the
cycle.

5.4.5 Air Refrigeration cycle

Air refrigeration cycle is basically similar to the vapor-compression cycle, the exception being in
the expansion process. For air refrigeration cycles, the expansion process is provided by means
of a turbine which replaces the expansion valve of the - compression refrigeration cycles. When
air which is treated as an ideal gas expands through the turbine, its temperature is reduced.
In practice the air refrigeration cycle is commonly used for air conditioning aircraft in an open
cycle. The use of air refrigeration system has the following advantages.
• Air is easily available and is cheap compared with other refrigerants
• Air is non-flammable and no danger of fire
• The mass of air refrigeration system per ton of refrigeration is low compared with the
other refrigeration system.
A simple air refrigeration plant arrangement is represented as schematic diagram and on a T-s
diagram in Fig. 5.11.
The COP of the air refrigerant cycle,
qL qL
=
COP = (5.14)
wnet ,in wcomp ,in − wturb ,out
R

Where:-
qL= h1 − h4 (5.15)

wturb ,out= h3 − h4 (5.16)

wcomp ,in= h2 − h1 (5.17)

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Figure 5.11 Air Refrigeration cycle

57 pages of 93
 Chapter Six
Thermodynamic Property Relations
Introduction
• In Thermodynamics I & II, we discussed the meaning of various fluid properties and
how to use them in solving thermodynamics problems. Some properties (T, P, V, m)
can be measured directly, but others (u, h, s) must be derived. The purpose of this
chapter is to develop the tools necessary to derive the unknown quantities from the
measureable ones—i.e. thermodynamic property relations.
Mathematical Representation
• The states of simple compressible substances are normally specified by two
independent variables, and other properties are written as a function of those two.
In other words, for three properties x, y, and z, we can write
z = f (x, y)
From calculus, we know that we can write a change in the variable z as:
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑧
If we are evaluating a process where x=constant, then 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑁𝑑𝑦

For example, if we choose to express pressure as P=P(T, v)

𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃
𝑑𝑃 = ( 𝑑𝑇) + ( 𝑑𝑣)
𝜕𝑇 𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝑇

and if we evaluate the change in pressure during a constant temperature process,

then we have
𝜕𝑃
𝑑𝑃 = ( 𝑑𝑣)
𝜕𝑣 𝑇
Some Mathematical Theorems
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 … … … … … .6.1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Taking the partial derivative of M with respect to y and of N with respect to x yields:
𝜕𝑀 𝜕 2𝑧 𝜕𝑁
( ) = = ( ) … … … … .6.2
𝜕𝑦 𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝑦
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
( ) = ( ) … … … … … . … … 6.3
𝜕𝑦 𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑦

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In thermodynamics, this relation forms the basis for the development of the Maxwell
relations. For the function z=z(x,y) can also expressed as x=x(y,z)
If y and z are taken to be the independent variable. The total derivative of x becomes
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = ( ) 𝑑𝑦 + ( ) 𝑑𝑧 … … … … … .6.4
𝜕𝑦 𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑦

If y and x are taken to be the independent variable. The total derivative of z becomes
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑧 = ( ) 𝑑𝑥 + ( ) 𝑑𝑦 … … … . .6.5
𝜕𝑥 𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝑥

Eliminating dx using equ. 6.4 &6.5

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
[( ) ( ) + ( ) ] 𝑑𝑦 = [1 − ( ) ( ) ] 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝑦

The variables y and z are independent of each other and thus can be varied independently
For example, y can be held constant (dy=0) and z can be varied (dz≠ 0) Therefore, for
this equation to be valid at all times, the terms in the brackets must equal zero, regardless
of the values of y and z
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 1
1=( ) ( ) →( ) = 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝜕𝑧 𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑦 ( 𝜕𝑧 )
𝜕𝑥 𝑦
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
( ) ( ) = − ( ) → ( ) ( ) ( ) = −1 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝜕𝑥 𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑥

6. 1THE MAXWELL RELATIONS

The equations that relate the partial derivatives of properties P , v, T and s of a simple
compressible system to each other are called the Maxiwell relations. They are obtained
from the four Gibbs equations by exploiting the exactness of the differentials of
thermodynamic properties.
Two of the Gibbs relations are:
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑇𝑑𝑠 − 𝑃𝑑𝑣 … … … .6.6
𝑑ℎ = 𝑇𝑑𝑠 + 𝑣𝑑𝑝 … … … 6.7
The other two Gibbs relations are based on two new combination properties- the Helmholtz
function a and the gibbs function g, defined as:
𝑎 = 𝑢 − 𝑇𝑠

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 𝑔 = ℎ − 𝑇𝑠
Differentiating, we get
𝑑𝑎 = 𝑑𝑢 − 𝑇𝑑𝑠 − 𝑠𝑑𝑇 … … . .6.8
𝑑𝑔 = 𝑑ℎ − 𝑇𝑑𝑠 − 𝑠𝑑𝑇 … … 6.9
Simplifying equ.6.6, 6.7, 6.8 & 6.9
𝑑𝑎 = −𝑠𝑑𝑇 − 𝑝𝑑𝑣 … … … … .6.10
𝑑𝑔 = −𝑠𝑑𝑇 − 𝑣𝑑𝑝 … … … 6.11
Equations 6.10 and 6.11 are similar arrangement as equation 6.2 and 6.3 from this relation
we can have:
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑝
( ) = − ( ) … … … … .6.12
𝜕𝑣 𝑠 𝜕𝑠 𝑣
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑣
( ) = ( ) … … … … .6.13
𝜕𝑝 𝑠 𝜕𝑠 𝑝
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑝
( ) = ( ) … … … .6.14
𝜕𝑣 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑣
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑣
( ) = − ( ) … … .6.15
𝜕𝑝 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑝

These are called Maxwell relations. They are extremely valuable in thermodynamics
because they provide a means of determining the change in entropy, which cannot be
measured directly, by simply measuring in changes in properties p v and T.
6.2 THE CLAPEYRON EQUATION
The Clapeyron equation enables us to determine the enthalpy change associated with a
phase change (such as the enthalpy of vaporization hfg) from the knowledge of p, v, and T
data alone. Consider the third Maxwell relation

𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑝
( ) =( )
𝜕𝑣 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑣
During a phase-change process, the pressure is the saturation pressure, which depends on
the temperature only and is independent of the specific volume. Psat=f(Tsat) therefore
𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑝
(𝜕𝑇) = (𝑑𝑇) , which is the slope of the saturation curve on P-T diagram at specified
𝑣 𝑠𝑎𝑡
saturation state. For an isothermal liquid–vapor phase-change process, for example, the
integration yields

60 pages of 93
 𝑑𝑝
𝑠𝑓 − 𝑠𝑔 = ( ) 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑔
𝑑𝑇 𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑔
𝑑𝑝 𝑠𝑓𝑔
( ) =
𝑑𝑇 𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑓𝑔

During this process the pressure also remains constant. Therefore,

𝑑ℎ = 𝑇𝑑𝑠 + 𝑣𝑑𝑝 = 𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑇𝑠𝑓𝑔 = ℎ𝑓𝑔
𝑑𝑝 ℎ𝑓𝑔
( ) = 𝑪𝒍𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒚𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑑𝑇 𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑣𝑓𝑔

𝑪𝒍𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒚𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 Equation is an important thermodynamic relation since it enables

us to determine the enthalpy of vaporization ℎ𝑓𝑔 at given temperature by simply measuring
the slope of the saturation curve on a P-T diagram and the specific volume of saturated
liquid and saturated vapor at the given temperature. The Clapeyron equation is applicable
to any phase-change process that occurs at constant temperature and pressure. It can be
expressed in a general form as:
𝑑𝑝 ℎ12
( ) = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑡𝑠 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠.
𝑑𝑇 𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑣12
6.3 GENERAL RELATIONS (for du, dh, ds cv, and cp )
Internal Energy Changes (du)
Choose the internal energy is a function of u=f(T,v)
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑑𝑢 = ( ) 𝑑𝑇 + ( ) 𝑑𝑣 … … … … … … . .6.16
𝜕𝑇 𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝑇
Using the definition cv
𝜕𝑢
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑑𝑇 + ( ) 𝑑𝑣 … … … … … … . .6.17
𝜕𝑣 𝑇
Now we choose the entropy to be a function of T and v; s=s(T,v)
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
𝑑𝑠 = ( ) 𝑑𝑇 + ( ) 𝑑𝑣 … … … … … … .6.18
𝜕𝑇 𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝑇
Substituiting this equation into Tds relation 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑇𝑑𝑠 − 𝑝𝑑𝑣 yields
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑇 (( ) 𝑑𝑇 + ( ) 𝑑𝑣) − 𝑝𝑑𝑣 … … … . .6.19
𝜕𝑇 𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝑇
Equating equ 6.17 and 6.19

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 𝜕𝑠 𝑐𝑣
( ) = … … … … . .6.20
𝜕𝑇 𝑣 𝑇
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑠
( ) = 𝑇 ( ) − 𝑝 … … … 6.21
𝜕𝑣 𝑇 𝜕𝑣 𝑇
Using the third Maxwell relation, we get
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝
( ) = 𝑇 ( ) − 𝑝 … … … … .6.22
𝜕𝑣 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑣
Substituting this into Eq. 6.17, we obtain the desired relation for 𝑑𝑢
𝜕𝑝
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑑𝑇 + [𝑇 ( ) − 𝑝] 𝑑𝑣
𝜕𝑇 𝑣
Enthalpy Changes (dh)
Similarly Choose h=h(T,P)
𝜕𝑣
𝑑ℎ = 𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑇 + [𝑣 − 𝑇 ( ) ] 𝑑𝑝
𝜕𝑇 𝑝

Entropy Changes (ds)

𝑐𝑣 𝜕𝑝
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑇 + ( ) 𝑑𝑣
𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑣
𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑣
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑇 + ( ) 𝑑𝑝
𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑝

Specific Heats relations 𝑐𝑣 and 𝑐𝑝

𝜕𝑐𝑣 𝜕 2𝑝
( ) = 𝑇( 2 )𝑣
𝜕𝑣 𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑐𝑝 𝜕 2𝑣
( ) = −𝑇( 2 )𝑝
𝜕𝑝 𝑇 𝜕𝑇

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑣
𝑐𝑝 − 𝑐𝑣 = ( ) + ( )
𝜕𝑇 𝑣 𝜕𝑇 𝑝
𝑣𝑇𝛽 2
𝑐𝑝 − 𝑐𝑣 = Where compressibility b is the, defined as:
𝛼

𝟏 𝜕𝑣 𝟏 𝜕𝑣
𝜷= ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 = − ( )
𝒗 𝜕𝑇 𝑝 𝒗 𝜕𝑝 𝑇

 The difference 𝑐𝑝 − 𝑐𝑣 is equal to R for ideal gases and to zero for incompressible
substances.

62 pages of 93
6.4 THE JOULE-THOMSON COEFFICIENT
When a fluid passes through a restriction such as a porous plug, a capillary tube, or an
ordinary valve, its pressure decreases. The enthalpy of the fluid remains approximately
constant during such a throttling process. You will remember that a fluid may experience
a large drop in its temperature as a result of throttling, which forms the basis of operation
for refrigerators and air conditioners. This is not always the case, however. The
temperature of the fluid may remain unchanged, or it may even increase during a
throttling process (Fig. 6.1).
The temperature behavior of a fluid during a throttling (h = constant) process is
described by the Joule-Thomson coefficient, defined as
𝜕𝑇
𝜇𝐽𝑇 = ( )
𝜕𝑝 ℎ
< 0 temperature increases
𝜇𝐽𝑇 { = 0 temperature remain constant
> 0temperature decreases
The Joule-Thomson coefficient is a measure of the change in temperature of a substance
with pressure during a constant enthalpy process, and it can also be expressed as
1 𝜕𝑣
𝜇𝐽𝑇 = − [𝑣 − 𝑇 ( ) ]
𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑇 𝑝

>
T1 = 20C T 2 =< 20C

P2 = 200 kPa
P1 = 800 kPa

Figure 6.1 The temperature of a fluid may increase, decrease,

or remain constant during a throttling process.

The enthalpy, internal energy, and entropy changes of real gases can be determined
accurately by utilizing generalized enthalpy or entropy departure charts to account for
the deviation from the ideal-gas behavior by using the following relations:

where the values of Zh and Zs are

determined from the generalized
charts.

63 pages of 93
 Chapter 7
Combustion
7.1 Introduction
In the preceding chapters we limited our consideration to non reacting systems (systems whose
chemical composition remains unchanged during a process). In this chapter, we specifically deal
with systems whose chemical composition changes during a process, that is, systems that involve
chemical reactions.

When a chemical reaction occurs, the bonds within molecules of the reactants are broken, and
atoms and electrons rearrange to form products. In combustion reactions, rapid oxidation of
combustible elements of the fuel results in energy release as combustion products are formed.
The three major combustible chemical elements in most common fuels are carbon, hydrogen,
and sulfur. Sulfur is usually a relatively unimportant contributor to the energy released, but it can
be a significant cause of pollution and corrosion problems.

A chemical reaction during which a fuel is oxidized and a large quantity of energy is released is
called combustion. The oxidizer most often used in combustion processes is air, for obvious
reasons it is free and readily available. Pure oxygen O 2 is used as an oxidizer only in some
specialized applications, such as cutting and welding, where air cannot be used.

During combustion, nitrogen behaves as an inert gas and does not react with other elements,
other than forming a very small amount of nitric oxides. However, even then the presence of
nitrogen greatly affects the outcome of a combustion process since nitrogen usually enters a
combustion chamber in large quantities at low temperatures and exits at considerably higher
temperatures, absorbing a large proportion of the chemical energy released during combustion.
Throughout this chapter, nitrogen is assumed to remain perfectly inert. Keep in mind, however,
that at very high temperatures, such as those encountered in internal combustion engines, a small
fraction of nitrogen reacts with oxygen, forming hazardous gases such as nitric oxide.

Combustion is complete when all the carbon present in the fuel is burned to carbon dioxide, all
the hydrogen is burned to water, all the sulfur is burned to sulfur dioxide, and all other
combustible elements are fully oxidized. When these conditions are not fulfilled, combustion is

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incomplete, if the combustion products contain any unburned fuel or components such as C, H 2 ,
CO, or OH.

Insufficient oxygen is an obvious reason for incomplete combustion, but it is not the only one.
Incomplete combustion occurs even when more oxygen is present in the combustion chamber
than is needed for complete combustion. This may be attributed to insufficient mixing in the
combustion chamber during the limited time that the fuel and the oxygen are in contact. Another
cause of incomplete combustion is dissociation, which becomes important at high temperatures.

We should also mention that bringing a fuel into intimate contact with oxygen is not sufficient to
start a combustion process. (Thank goodness it is not. Otherwise, the whole world would be on
fire now.) The fuel must be brought above its ignition temperature to start the combustion. The
minimum ignition temperatures of various substances in atmospheric air are approximately
260°C for gasoline, 400°C for carbon, 580°C for hydrogen, 610°C for carbon monoxide, and
630°C for methane. Moreover, the proportions of the fuel and air must be in the proper range for
combustion to begin. For example, natural gas does not burn in air in concentrations less than 5
percent or greater than about 15 percent.

7.2 Fuels
Any substance that reacts chemically with an oxidizing agent s called a fuel. Most familiar fuels
consist primarily of hydrogen and carbon. They are called hydrocarbon fuels and are denoted by
the general formula C n H m . Hydrocarbon fuels exist in all phases, solid fuels (eg. coal), liquid
fuels (eg. petroleum) and gaseous fuels (eg. coal gas, natural gas).

The main constituent of coal is carbon. Coal also contains varying amounts of oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen, sulfur, moisture, and ash.

Most liquid hydrocarbon fuels are a mixture of numerous hydrocarbons and are obtained from
crude oil by distillation. The most volatile hydrocarbons vaporize first, forming what we know as
gasoline. The less volatile fuels obtained during distillation are kerosene, diesel fuel, and fuel oil.
The composition of a particular fuel depends on the source of the crude oil as well as on the
refinery.

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 Figure 7.1 Most liquid hydrocarbon fuels are obtained from crude oil by distillation.
Natural gas is produced from gas wells or oil wells rich in natural gas. It is composed mainly of
methane, but it also contains small amounts of ethane, propane, hydrogen, helium, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfate, and water vapor.

Source of thermal energy is an essential requirement of all heat engines. In steam power plants,
for instance, thermal energy is provided by the combustion of suitable fuels like coal or oil in the
boiler furnace. In internal combustion engines, the combustion of fuels which are grouped as
petrol or gas oil provides the required high temperature. In gas turbines, kerosene or natural
gases are used in providing high temperature.

7.3 Basic Chemistry

Before considering combustion problems it is necessary to understand the construction and use
of chemical formulae. This involves elementary concepts which are discussed below briefly.

Atoms:- It is not possible to divide the chemical elements indefinitely, and the smallest particle
which can take part in a chemical change is called an ‘atom’. If an atom is split as in nuclear
reaction, the divided atom does not retain the original chemical properties.

Molecules:- It is rare to find elements to exist naturally as single atom. Some elements have
atoms which exist in pairs, each pair forming a molecule (e.g. oxygen), and the atoms of each
molecule are held together by stronger inter-atomic forces. The isolation of a molecule of
oxygen would be tedious, but possible the isolation of an atom of oxygen would be a different
prospect. The molecules of some substances are formed by the mating up of atoms of different

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elements. For example, water has a molecule which consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one
atom of oxygen.

The atoms of different elements have different masses and these values are important when a
quantitative analysis is required. The actual masses are infinitesimally small, and the ratios of the
masses of atoms are used. These ratios are indicated by atomic weight quoted on a scale which
defines the atomic weight of oxygen as 16.
The symbols and molecular weights of some important elements, compounds and gases are given
in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1 Symbols and molecular weights of some important elements, compounds and gases

7.4 Combustion Equations

In a combustion chamber proportionate masses of air and fuel enter where the chemical reaction
takes place, and then the combustion products pass to the exhaust. By the conservation of mass
the mass flow remains constant (i.e., total mass of products = total mass of reactants), but the
reactants are chemically different from the products, and the products leave at a higher
temperature.
The oxygen supplied for combustion is usually provided by atmospheric air, and it is necessary
to use accurate and consistent analysis of air by mass and by volume. It is usual in combustion

67 pages of 93
calculations to take air as 23.3% O 2 , 76.7% N 2 by mass, and 21% O 2 , 79% N 2 by volume. The
small traces of other gases in dry air are included in nitrogen.

Reactants Products

Fuel + Oxidizer Products

Some important combustion equations are given below :

Combustion of hydrogen

2 H 2 + O2 → 2 H 2O (7.1)

The above equation of combustion of hydrogen tell us that :

(i) Hydrogen reacts with water to form steam or water.

(ii) Two molecules of hydrogen react with one molecule of oxygen to give two molecules
of steam or water,
i.e 2 volumes H 2 + 1 volume O 2 → 2 volumes H 2 O

The H 2 O may be liquid or a vapor depending on whether the product has been cooled
sufficiently to cause condensation.

The proportions by mass are obtained by using atomic weights as follows

2 H 2 + O2 → 2 H 2O

2(2x1)+2x16 → 2(2x1+16)
4kgH 2 + 32kgO2 → 36kgH 2O

1kgH 2 + 8kgO2 → 9kgH 2O

That the total volume of the reactants and product

2 volumes H 2 + 1 volume O 2 → 2 volumes H 2 O

2 volumes H 2 + 1 volume O 2 = 3 volumes

The total volume of the product is only 2 volumes. There is therefore a volumetric contraction
on combustion.

68 pages of 93
Since the oxygen is accompanied by nitrogen if air is supplied for the combustion, then this
nitrogen should be included in the equation. As nitrogen is inert as far as chemical reaction is
concerned, it will appear on both sides of the equation.

The oxygen supplied for combustion is usually provided by atmospheric air, and it is necessary
to use accurate and consistent analysis of air by mass and by volume. It is usual in combustion
calculations to take air as 23.3% O 2 , 76.7% N 2 by mass, and 21% O 2 , 79% N 2 by volume and it
leads to the conclusion that for each mole of oxygen, 79.0/21.0 = 3.76 moles of nitrogen are
involved.
Hence equation (7.1) becomes,

79 79
2H 2 +O 2 + N 2 → 2H 2 O + N2 (7.2)
21 21

Combustion of carbon

(i) Complete combustion of carbon to carbon dioxide

C + O 2 → CO 2

and including the nitrogen,

C + O 2 + 3.76N 2 → CO 2 + 3.76N 2
By volume :

0 volume C + 1 volume O 2 + 3.76 volumes N 2 → 1 volume CO 2 + 3.76 volumes N 2

The volume of carbon is written as zero since the volume of solid is negligible in comparison
with that of a gas.

By mass :

12kgC+(2 × 16)kgO 2 +3.76(2 × 14)kgN 2 → (12 + 2 × 16)kgCO 2 + 3.76(2 × 14)N 2

12kgC+32k O 2 +105.3kgN 2 → 44kgCO 2 +105.3kgN 2

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 8 105.3 11 105.3
1 kg C+ kgO 2 + kgN 2 → kgCO 2 + kgN 2
3 12 3 12

(ii) The incomplete combustion of carbon.

The incomplete combustion of carbon occurs when there is an insufficient supply of oxygen to
burn the carbon completely to carbon dioxide.

2C+O 2 → 2CO
and including the nitrogen,

2C+O 2 +3.76N 2 → 2CO+3.76N 2

By mass :

(2×12)kgC+(2×16)kgO 2 +3.76(2×14)kgN 2 → 2(12+16)kgCO+3.76(2×14)kgN 2

24kgC +32 kgO 2 +105.3kgN 2 → 56kgCO+105.3kgN 2

4 105.3 7 105.3
1kgC+ kgO 2 + kgN 2 → kgCO+ kgN 2
3 24 3 24

If a further supply of oxygen is available then the combustion can continue to completion,

2CO+O 2 +3.76N 2 → 2CO 2 + 3.76N 2

7.5 Theoretical Air and Excess Air

The minimum amount of air that supplies sufficient oxygen for the complete combustion of all
the carbon, hydrogen, and any other elements in the fuel that may oxidize is called the
theoretical air. When complete combustion is achieved with theoretical air, the products contain
no oxygen.

In practice, it is found that complete combustion is not likely to be achieved unless the amount of
air supplied is somewhat greater than the theoretical amount. Thus 150 per cent theoretical air
means that air actually supplied is 1.5 times the theoretical air.

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The complete combustion of methane with minimum amount of theoretical air and 150 per cent
theoretical air respectively is written as:
 79   79 
CH 4 +2O 2 +2   N 2 → CO 2 +2H 2 O+2   N 2 (7.3)
 21   21 

With 150 per cent theoretical air

 79   79 
CH 4 +2 (1.5 ) O 2 +2   (1.5 ) N 2 → CO 2 +2H 2 O+O 2 + 3   N 2 (7.4)
 21   21 
The amount of air actually supplied may also be expressed in terms of per cent excess air. The
excess air is the amount of air supplied over and above the theoretical air. Thus 150 per cent
theoretical air is equivalent to 50 per cent excess air.

7.6 Stoichiometric Air Fuel (AF) Ratio

Stoichiometric (or chemically correct) mixture of air and fuel is one that contains just sufficient
oxygen for complete combustion of the fuel.

A frequently used quantity in the analysis of combustion processes to quantify the amounts of
fuel and air is the air–fuel ratio AF. It is usually expressed on a mass basis and is defined as the
ratio of the mass of air to the mass of fuel for a combustion process.

mair
AF = (7.5)
m fuel

The mass m of a substance is related to the number of moles N through the relation m=NM,
where M is the molar mass. The air–fuel ratio can also be expressed on a mole basis as the ratio
of the mole numbers of air to the mole numbers of fuel. But we will use the former definition.
The reciprocal of air–fuel ratio is called the fuel–air ratio.
A weak mixture is one which has an excess of air.
A rich mixture is one which has a deficiency of air.

The percentage of excess air is given as:

Actural AF ratio Stoichiometric AF ratio

% excess air = (7.6)
Stoichiometric AF ratio

71 pages of 93
To determine whether a fuel is being burnt completely or not, analysis on the exhaust (flue) gas
is performed. If O 2 appears in a dry flue gas (exhaust free of water vapor) then it means excess
air has been supplied to the fuel over that required for complete combustion. The mass of excess
air supplied can be determined from the dry-flue gas analysis following the procedure indicated
below.

• If the volumetric analysis is given, then, first the mass of dry flue gas per kg of fuel burnt
.
is determined by converting the volumetric analysis of the flue gas into a mass analysis.
• The mass of carbon per kg of flue gas is then determined from the mass analysis and
comparison is made with the mass of carbon per kg of fuel supplied. The C in the fuel
ultimately appears in the flue gas combined with O 2 forming either CO 2 or CO or both
and must be the same quantity.
• Relative molecular mass or CO 2 = 44, made up of 12 parts of carbon and 32 parts of
oxygen. Therefore, in 1 kg of CO 2 there is 12/44 = 3/11 kg C.
• Relative molecular mass of CO = 28, made up of 12 parts of carbon and 16 parts of
oxygen. In 1 kg of CO there is 12/28 = 3/7 kg C.

Thus, in every kg dry flue gas, if CO 2 and CO are the masses of carbon dioxide and carbon
monoxide, (if present), respectively, then;

 3 3 
mass of C / kg flue gas=  CO2 + CO  (7.7)
 11 7 

If m = mass of carbon per kg fuel supplied, then:

m
mass of dry flue gas / kg fuel = (7.8)
 3 3 
 CO2 + CO 
 11 7 

The amount of oxygen per kg dry flue gas is also determined from the mass analysis of the dry
flue gas. Hence,

mass of excess O2 / kg fuel = (mass of O2 / kg dry flue gas) x (mass of dry flue gas / kg fue)

72 pages of 93
 mass of execss O2 / kg fuel
Mass of excess air / kg fuel = (7.9)
0.232

If the stoichiometric air is calculated for the fuel in the usual manner, then:

total mass of air / kg fuel = stoichiometric air + excess mass of air (7.10)

Molar Analysis of Combustion Problems

When using the mole method, the reaction and product equations of combustion are written .in
terms of the numbers of moles. The analysis is done by equating the number of moles of each
constituent before combustion to the number of moles of products of combustion.

7.7 Analysis of Exhaust and Flue Gas

In each of the illustrations given above, complete combustion is assumed. For a hydrocarbon
fuel, this means that the only allowed products are CO 2 , H 2 O, and N 2 , with O 2 also present
when excess air is supplied. If the fuel is specified and combustion is complete, the respective
amounts of the products can be determined by applying the conservation of mass principle to the
chemical equation. The procedure for obtaining the balanced reaction equation of an actual
reaction where combustion is incomplete is not always so straightforward.

Combustion is the result of a series of very complicated and rapid chemical reactions, and the
products formed depend on many factors. When fuel is burned in the cylinder of an internal
combustion engine, the products of the reaction vary with the temperature and pressure in the
cylinder. In combustion equipment of all kinds, the degree of mixing of the fuel and air is a
controlling factor in the reactions that occur once the fuel and air mixture is ignited. Although
the amount of air supplied in an actual combustion process may exceed the theoretical amount, it
is not uncommon for some carbon monoxide and unburned oxygen to appear in the products.
This can be due to incomplete mixing, insufficient time for complete combustion, and other
factors. When the amount of air supplied is less than the theoretical amount of air, the products
may include both CO 2 and CO, and there also may be unburned fuel in the products. Unlike the
complete combustion cases considered above, the products of combustion of an actual
combustion process and their relative amounts can be determined only by measurement.

73 pages of 93
Among several devices for measuring the composition of products of combustion are the Orsat
analyzer, gas chromatograph, infrared analyzer, and flame ionization detector. Data from these
devices can be used to determine the mole fractions of the gaseous products of combustion.

The analyses are often reported on a “dry” basis. In a dry product analysis, the mole fractions
are given for all gaseous products except the water vapor. Since water is formed when
hydrocarbon fuels are burned, the mole fraction of water vapor in the gaseous products of
combustion can be significant. If the gaseous products of combustion are cooled at constant
mixture pressure, the dew point temperature is reached when water vapor begins to condense.
Since water deposited on duct work, mufflers, and other metal parts can cause corrosion, knowledge of
the dew point temperature is important.

The orsat analyser is employed in the analysis of products of combustion. The apparatus in its
simplest form, consists of a measuring tube – the burrete surrounded by a water jacket to
maintain constant temperature, three vessels A, B and C containing the chemicals: Caustic soda
for the absorption of CO 2 , pyrogallic acid for the absorption of O 2 and a solution of cuprous
chloride for the absorption of CO, respectively, the leveling bottle, the sampling vessel, the three
way valve and stop valves or taps. The products of combustion are absorbed in the order indicated
above.

As the sample is collected over water in the sampling vessel, the water vapor in the flue gas is
condensed. Thus, using this method analysis of only dry products of combustion are given by the
method. The three way valve connects the apparatus either to the dry products of combustion
from the sampling vessel or to the atmosphere while in the third position it disconnects the
apparatus from the sampling vessel and the atmosphere. In the analysis of the products of
combustion the following procedure is followed.

The air tapped in the apparatus is removed by opening the three way valve to the atmosphere.
The valve is then closed and the leveling bottle lowered to produce a pressure below the
Atmospheric pressure in the apparatus. The taps on the vessels are opened and each of the levels
is brought to the mark on the stem of the respective vessel. The leveling bottle is then raised to
remove the air from the burrette. The three way valve is then connected to the sampling vessel
and the sample of the products of combustion induced in to the apparatus by slowly lowering the

74 pages of 93
leveling vessel. The three way valve is then closed and the pressure in the burrette is brought to
the atmospheric pressure by equalizing the liquid levels in the burrette and the leveling bottle.

The volume of the dry products of combustion is read on the scale of the burrette. The tap of the
vessel A is opened and the whole of the dry products of combustion is let enter the vessel. The
leveling vessel is lowered until the level of the chemical in vessel A rises to the original level.
The volume of CO 2 absorbed in this vessel is read to the scale of the burrette. To ensure that this
reading is taken at atmospheric pressure, the liquid levels in the burrette and leveling vessel are
held at the same level. The remaining sample is forced into the vessel B by opening its tap. The
O 2 present in the dry products of combustion is absorbed by the pyrogallic acid in vessel B. The
same procedure is followed as above to determine the volume of O 2 in the sample. The volume reading
indicated on the burrette is now the sum of the volume of CO 2 and O 2 in the sample. The difference of
this reading and the reading obtained above for the volume of CO 2 gives the volume of O 2 in the sample.

Finally the sample is forced into vessel C by opening its tap where CO is absorbed by the
cuprous chloride solution. The volume of CO in the sample is obtained from the difference of the
final reading on the burrette and the sum of the volumes of the CO 2 and O 2 obtained above. The
volume of N 2 in the sample is determined by subtracting the total volume of CO 2 , O 2 and CO
from the total of 100.

This experimental analysis of the dry products of combustion indicates whether or not a chemical
reaction is complete. The presence of CO in the analysis indicates that the combustion process is
incomplete while the presence of O 2 indicates that excess air has been supplied.

75 pages of 93
 Figure 7.2 Orsat Analayser

7.8 Enthalpy of Formation

A combustion reaction is a particular kind of chemical reaction in which products are formed
from reactants with the release or absorption of energy as heat is transferred to as from the
surroundings. In some substances like hydrocarbon fuels which are many in number and
complex in structure the heat of reaction or combustion may be calculated on the basis of
known values of the enthalpy of formation, ΔH f of the constituent of the reactants and products
at the temperature T 0 (reference temperature). The enthalpy of formation (ΔH f ) is the increase in
enthalpy when a compound is formed from its constituent elements in their natural form and in a
standard state. The standard state is 25°C, and 1 atm pressure, but it must be borne in mind that
not all substances can exist in natural form, e.g. H 2 O cannot be a vapor at 1 atm and 25°C.

Neglecting changes in kinetic energy, potential energy and the external work terms, the
conservation of energy principle reduces to:

Q12 = ∆H (7.11)

For a system undergoing chemical reactions, the term ∆H is given by:

76 pages of 93
 ∆H = ∆H prod − ∆H react (7.12)

∆H
= ∑ (n ∆h ) − ∑ (n ∆h )
prod
i i
react
i i (7.13)

Were ∆hi = specific enthalpy of any product or reactant and

ni = number of moles of the respective product or reactant of the

chemical reaction

Thermodynamic properties such as enthalpy and entropy are normally given relative to some
arbitrary reference state point where these values are set to zero. Evaluations of properties
involving differences in properties values can be satisfactorily worked out using this approach.
However, when chemical reactions occur and properties of reactants and products are at
completely different states, the approach of differences cannot be applied.

Unless a specific and known reference state is used in the determination of the specific enthalpy
∆h of any product or reactant, the result obtained for ∆H differs from one table to another. To
avoid this, the term enthalpy of formation, ∆h fo is introduced. The enthalpy of formation is
defined as the specific enthalpy change that occurs when a chemical compound is formed
isothermally from its constituents. In a steady-flow process, the enthalpy of formation is equal to
the quantity of heat absorbed or released during a chemical reaction. Some important expressions
related to the enthalpy of formation are stated below.

• The specific enthalpy of any compound at pressure and temperature of 1atm and 298 K
(the standard reference state) is the same as the enthalpy of formation at the same
temperature.

Δh
hcompound (at 1 atm and 298 K)= fo,298k

• The specific enthalpy of any stable element is zero.

• The difference between the enthalpy of formation of the gas phase and the liquid phase is
equal to the specific enthalpy of vaporization h fg the given temperature. That is:
h fg = (∆h fo ,298 k ) gas − (∆h fo ,298 k )liquid

77 pages of 93
 • The enthalpy of the products of combustion or reactants at a specified temperature T and
pressure, different from the standard temperature and pressure, is evaluated from the
relation:
∆hi ,T =(∆h fo ,298 ) + (hT − h298 ) (7.14)

Where ∆hi ,T = the specific enthalpy of product or reactant at a specified

temperature T,
hT = specific enthalpy at the temperature T,

h298 = specific enthalpy at the reference temperature of 298K.

In the absence of tables of the enthalpy change or the sensible enthalpy change of substance,
( hT - h 298 ) is evaluated from the integral of c p dT. Equation (7.15) indicates that the specific
enthalpy of a reactant or product of combustion is the sum of the enthalpy of formation at the
standard pressure and temperature and the sensible enthalpy change of the substance. The
quantity of heat absorbed or released in a chemical reaction may, therefore, be obtained from the
relation:
∆H=
O ∑ {n (∆h
prod
i fo ,298 + hT − h298 )} − ∑ {ni (∆h fo ,298 + hT − h298 )}
react
(7.15)

Table 7.2 Enthalpy of Formation of Enthalpy of Evaporation for Some Common Elements and
Compounds

78 pages of 93
Values of enthalpy of formation and enthalpy of evaporation for some common elements and
compounds are given in Table 7.2, with the subscripts s, g and l. indicating the solid, the gas and
liquid phases; respectively.

7.9 Adiabatic-Flame Temperature

The determination of the maximum attainable combustion temperature is an important aspect in
the selection and design of combustion equipment. The maximum temperature in a chemical
reaction can be obtained when the process occurs in the limit adiabatic operation. This maximum
temperature is known as the adiabatic flame temperature.
For an adiabatic process, Equation (7.15) reduces to:

∑ {n (∆h
prod
i fo ,298 + hT − h298=
)} ∑ {n (∆h
react
i fo ,298 + hT − h298 )} (7.16)

Normally in Equation (7.16):

• The composition and the initial temperature of the reactants are known.
• The number of moles of the reactants and the products of combustion can also be
determined from the chemical reaction.
• The values of the enthalpy of formation ∆h fo,298 and h 298 for the reactants as well as
'

products of combustion can be obtained from tables.

• The h T values of the reactants can also be obtained from tables at the respective reactant
temperature.

79 pages of 93
The only unknown in Equation (3.16) is the enthalpy h T of the products of combustion at the
flame temperature. The h T values can be determined from the flame temperature T f . This implies
that the evaluation of the adiabatic flame temperature T f requires an iterative procedure. That is,
an adiabatic flame temperature T f is assumed and the enthalpy h T for the various components of
product of combustion at this assumed temperature are read from tables. These values of h T are
then substituted in Equation (7.16) for the respective components of the products of combustion
and the left hand side of the equation evaluated and compared with the results of the right hand
side of the equation. The procedure of assuming a temperature T f , reading h T values for the
products of combustion from tables at the assumed temperature and evaluation of the left hand
side of the Equation (7.16) is continued until for a specific assumed temperature T f both the left-
hand side and right-hand side of Equation (7.16) are equal. The temperature for which both sides
of Equation (7.16) are the same is the adiabatic-flame or combustion temperature for the
particular chemical reaction process.

7.10 Heating Value of Fuels

Heating value is the amount of heat liberated by the complete combustion of a unit mass of a unit
mass of fuel. There are two cases to consider under the investigation of heating values of fuels
the higher heating value HHV and the lower heating value LHV of fuels.

Higher Heating Value of Fuels

The higher heating value of a fuel is the energy liberated when the products of combustion are
cooled to the original fuel temperature and the water vapor formed as a result of the
combustion process is in liquid phase. All fuels containing hydrogen combine with oxygen
forming water vapor during a chemical reaction. When the products of combustion are cooled to
the initial fuel temperature, the water vapor formed condenses liberating thermal energy. This
heat quantity is the higher heating value. The higher heating value (HHV) of fuels at standard
temperature and pressure may be determined from the relation:
O2
HHV =
34000 C + 144000 ( H - ) + 9290 S kJ / kg (7.17)
8

Where: C, H 2 , O 2 and S are the masses of the components per kg of the fuel.

80 pages of 93
Lower Heating Value of Fuels
When hydrogen present in a fuel is burnt, it forms water vapor and this, together with any
moisture in the fuel, appears as water vapor in the products of combustion. Lower heating value
of a fuel is the difference between the higher heating value of fuel and the heat absorbed by
water, due to the combustion of hydrogen and the moisture in the fuel, in having its phase
changed into vapor. The mass of steam products of combustion per kg of fuel burnt is (m + 9 H 2 )
kg where m and H 2 are the mass of moisture and hydrogen per kg of the fuel. The specific
enthalpy of evaporation per kg of vapor which is produced with the products of combustion at
standard temperature of 25 °C is 2442.3kJ/kg.

LHV =
HHV − 2442.3(m + 9 H 2 )kJ / kg (7.18)

Table 7.3 Heating Values of Some Common Fuels

7.11 Experimental Determination of Heating Values of Fuels

Depending on the type of fuel, the heating value of which is to be determined, either bomb
calorimetet or Boys' calorimeter can be utilized for solid & liquid fuels or gaseous fuels,

81 pages of 93
respectively. Here, the working principle and the determination of the heating value of solid fuel
using the bomb calorimeter is discussed, Fig. 7.3.

The water formed from the burning of the hydrogen of the fuel in the bomb calorimeter remains
in liquid form in as much as the temperature of the products at the end of the test is always below
the dew point of the mixture. The heating value as determined by the bomb calorimeter is,
therefore, the higher heating value.

The following procedure is followed in the determination of the higher heating value of solid
fuels using the bomb calorimeter.

• The fuel sample, that is formed into a pellet by pressing it, is weighed.
• The calorimeter is filled with a known weight of distilled water.
• The fuel sample is placed inside the bomb and the electrical connections are set.
• The bomb is filled with oxygen to a pressure of approximately 20 - 25 bar.
• The differential thermometer is set to a convenient scale.
• The stirrer is started and the differential thermometer reading is observed until steady
reading is observed. The pre-test is conducted by recording the temperature reading
every minute during stirring.

82 pages of 93
 • The main-test is then started by igniting the fuel during which period the temperature
reading is recorded until it reaches the maximum value.
• The after-test readings are recorded until the temperature reaches steady state again.

The higher heating value (HHV) of the fuel is determined from the following expression

1
HHV = {∆To (mw + Weq )C pw }kJ / kg
mf (7.19)
∆To =∆Tu + f

Where: m f = mass of fuel (g).

∆To = corrected temperature rise (K) ( ∆To =∆Tu + f ).
∆Tu = uncorrected temperature rise (K) ( ∆Tu = Tn − To ).
Tn = the first temperature reading of the after-test (K).
To = the last temperature reading of the pre-test (K).
f = correction factor (K).
mw = mass of water (g).
Weq = water equivalent of apparatus determined from a known fuel of pre-
determined heating value (g).
C pw = specific heat capacity of water (kJ/kg K).
The correction factor f is defined by:
 ∆v − ∆v   1 
f = n∆v +  1  ∑ tm + (to + tn ) − n∆t  (7.20)
 ∆t1 − ∆t   2 
Where:
n = the number of minutes between the last pre-test reading and the first after-test
reading [min],
∆v = the rate of temperature fall per minute during the pre-test period [K/min]
∆v1 = the rate of temperature fall per minute during the after-test period[K/min]

∆t1 = average temperature during the after-test period [°C]

∆t = average temperature during the pre-test period [°C],

∑t m = sum of temperature readings during the main test period [oC],

1/ 2(to + tn ) = the mean temperature of the last pre-test temperature and the first
after-test temperature [°C].

Page

83 pages of 93
7.12 Dissociation
All reaction equations discussed in the preceding sections are ideal reactions. In practice
products of combustion may break up in to the original reactants. The rate of breaking-up of the
products of combustion into the original reactants reduces the rate of formation of the products
of combustion from the reactants. Breaking up of products of combustion to their original
reactants is called Dissociation. Dissociation limits the maximum temperature reached in an
adiabatic combustion process. Consider the following reaction:

1
H2 + O2 → H 2 O (7.21)
2

When the process proceeds in the direction indicated energy is released. If sufficient energy is supplied to
the H 2 O molecules, the above exothermic process-Process accompanied by energy release can be made to
proceed in the reverse direction. At high temperature, then:

1
H 2O → H 2 + O2 (7.22)
2

More generally, from equation (7.20) and (7.21)

1 
H 2 + O2  H 2O
2

A stable chemical equilibrium state is said to exist when the rate of break-up of product molecules is
equal to their rate of formation. The reverse reaction which is accompanied by an absorption of energy is
termed as an endothermic reaction.

The preceding remarks apply equally to CO 2 molecules which dissociate to CO and O 2 .In these reactions,
the products of combustion contain an equilibrium mixture of H 2 O, H 2 and O 2 and an equilibrium
mixture of CO 2 , CO and O 2 .The presence of H 2 and CO in the products indicates that not all the chemical
energy in the fuel is released. Therefore, the maximum possible adiabatic combustion temperature
predicted on the basis of simple chemical equations would be lower with the presence of H 2 and CO.

The combustion reaction of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide may be written as:

1   2CO2

CO + O2  CO2 or 2CO + O2  (7.23)
2

With mole proportions for CO, O 2 and CO 2 of 1, 0.5,1 and 2, 1, 2, respectively

84 pages of 93
The forward reaction in equation (7.22)

1
CO + O2 → CO2
2

If ε is the mole of CO 2 dissociated to CO, then the backward reaction becomes:

ε
ε CO → ε CO + O2 (7.24)
2

The number of moles ε in the reaction varies during the course of the reaction. Equilibrium is established
when ε is constant. The chemical reaction involving the dissociation process is given by chemical
equation:

ε
O2 → (1 − ε )CO2 + ε CO + O2
1
CO + (7.25)
2 2

When equilibrium is established between the rate of breaking up of the products of combustion and the
rate of its formation, that is when ε is constant, the partial pressures of CO 2 ,CO and O 2 are related by the
equilibrium or dissociation constant K P. Given for the above combustion process by:

1
PCO2 − P 2 CO2
KP = 1
atm 2
or K ' P = 2
atm −1 (7.26)
PCO PO2 2
P CO PO2

Where the partial pressures are given in atm, from equation (7.25) it can be seen that

K 'P = KP
2

The equilibrium equation of the combustion reaction of H 2 may be written as:

1   2 H 2O
H 2 + O2  H 2O Or 2 H 2 + O2  (7.27)
2

With mole proportions for H 2 , O 2 and H 2 O of 1, 0.5, 1 and 2, 1, 2, respectively, the equilibrium constant
K P for the above combustion processes are:

1 2
PH 2O − P H 2O
KP = 1
atm 2
Or K '
P = 2
atm −1 (7.28)
PH 2 PO2 2
PH 2 PO2

Again K P = K P
' 2

85 pages of 93
In the combustion reaction of hydrocarbon fuels, both the above equations (7.23) and (7.27) may occur
simultaneously. For this reaction:

 CO + H 2O
CO2 + H 2  (7.29

And the equilibrium constant K P for the above combustion reaction is:

PCO PH 2O
KP = (7.30
PH 2 PCO2

86 pages of 93
 CHAPTER 8
Phase equilibrium
8.0 Phase equilibrium
A chemical reaction may reach a state of equilibrium before reaching completion even
when there is sufficient time and oxygen. a system is said to be in equilibrium if no changes
occur within the system when it is isolated from its surroundings. An isolated system is in
mechanical equilibrium if no changes occur in pressure, in thermal equilibrium if no
changes occur in temperature, in phase equilibrium if no transformations occur from one
phase to another, and in chemical equilibrium if no changes occur in the chemical
composition of the system. The conditions of mechanical and thermal equilibrium are
straightforward, but the conditions of chemical and phase equilibrium can be rather
involved.
8.1 CRITERION FOR CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
A reacting mixture, in general, has different equilibrium compositions at different pressures
and temperatures. Therefore, when developing a general criterion for chemical equilibrium,
we consider a reacting system at a fixed temperature and pressure.

Taking the positive direction of heat transfer to be to the system, the increase of entropy
principle for a reacting or non-reacting system was expressed as
𝛿𝑄
𝑑𝑠𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 ≥ ________________(8.1)
𝑇

A system and its surroundings form an adiabatic system, and for such systems equation 8.1
reduces to 𝑑𝑠𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 ≥ 0 that is, a chemical reaction in an adiabatic chamber proceeds
in the direction of increasing entropy. When the entropy reaches a maximum, the reaction
stops. Therefore, entropy is a very useful property in the analysis of reacting adiabatic
systems. When a reacting system involves heat transfer, the increase of entropy principle relation
(equation 8.1) becomes impractical to use, however, since it requires a knowledge of heat transfer
between the system and its surroundings. Consider a reacting (or non-reacting) simple
compressible system of fixed mass with only quasi-equilibrium work modes at a specified
temperature T and pressure P (Fig. 8–1). Combining the first- and the second-law relations
for this system gives

Figure 8-1 A control mass undergoing a

chemical reaction at a specified temperature
and pressure.

87 pages of 93
 𝑑𝑄 − 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑈
𝛿𝑄 } 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 − 𝑇𝑑𝑠 =≤ 0_________________________(8.2)
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑇

The differential of the Gibbs function (G =H -TS) at constant temperature and pressure is
(𝑑𝐺)𝑝,𝑇 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 − 𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝐻 − 𝑇𝑑𝑠_________________________ (8.3)

From Eqs. 82 and 8–3, we have 𝑑𝐺𝑇,𝑃 =≤ 0. Therefore, a chemical reaction at a specified
temperature and pressure proceeds in the direction of a decreasing Gibbs function. The
reaction stops and chemical equilibrium is established when the Gibbs function attains a
minimum value (Fig. 8.2). Therefore, the criterion for chemical equilibrium can be
expressed as
(𝑑𝐺)𝑝,𝑇 = 0________________________________(8.4)

Figure 8.3 Criteria for chemical equilibrium for a fixed mass at

a specified temperature and pressure.

A chemical reaction at a specified temperature and pressure cannot proceed in the direction of the
increasing Gibbs function since this will be a violation of the second law of thermodynamics.
Notice that if the temperature or the pressure is changed, the reacting system will assume a different
equilibrium state, which is the state of the minimum Gibbs function at the new temperature or
pressure.

Consider a mixture of four chemical components A, B, C, and D that exist in equilibrium

at a specified temperature and pressure. Let the number of moles of the respective
components be NA, NB, NC, and ND.
(𝑑𝑁𝐴 𝐴 + 𝑑𝑁𝐵 𝐵)𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔 → (𝑑𝑁𝐶 𝐶 + 𝑑𝑁𝐷 𝐷) 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒔 __________ (8.5) an infinitesimal
reaction in a chamber at constant temperature and pressure.
The equilibrium criterion (Eq. 8.4) requires that the change in the Gibbs function of the
mixture during this process be equal to zero.

(𝑑𝐺) 𝑇,𝑃 = ∑(𝑑𝐺𝑖 ) 𝑇,𝑃 = ∑(𝑔𝑖 𝑑𝑁𝑖 ) = 0________________________ (8.6)

𝑇,𝑃

88 pages of 93
𝑔𝐶 𝑑𝑁𝐶 + 𝑔𝐷 𝑑𝑁𝐷 + 𝑔𝐴 𝑑𝑁𝐴 + 𝑔𝐵 𝑑𝑁𝐵 = 0_______________________(8.7)

Where the 𝑔𝐶 ’s are the molar Gibbs functions (the chemical potentials) at the specified
temperature and pressure and the 𝑑𝑁’s are the differential changes in the number of moles
of the components. To find a relation between the dN’s, we write the corresponding
stoichiometric (theoretical) reaction
𝑣𝐴 𝐴 + 𝑣𝐵 𝐵 → 𝑣𝐷 𝐷 + 𝑣𝐶 𝐶 ________________________(8.8)
Where the v’s are the stoichiometric coefficients, which are evaluated easily once the
reaction is specified. The changes in the number of moles of the components are
proportional to the stoichiometric coefficients (Eq 8.5)
𝑑𝑁𝐴 = −𝜖𝑣𝐴 , 𝑑𝑁𝐵 = −𝜖𝑣𝐵 , 𝑑𝑁𝐶 = 𝜖𝑣𝐶 , 𝑑𝑁𝐷 = 𝜖𝑣𝐷 __________(8.9)
Where 𝜖 is the proportionality constant and represents the extent of a reaction. A minus sign is
added to the first two terms because the number of moles of the reactants A and B decreases as the
reaction progresses. Substituting the relations in Eq. 8.9 into Eq. 8.7 and canceling𝜖 , we
obtain

𝑔𝐶 𝑣𝐶 + 𝑔𝐷 𝑣𝐷 − 𝑔𝐴 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑔𝐵 𝑣𝐵 = 0_____________________________(8.10)

It is known as the criterion for chemical equilibrium. It is valid for any chemical reaction
regardless of the phases involved.
Example.

THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT FOR IDEAL-GAS MIXTURES

Standard free energies of formation (∆G*) is the change in free energy when 1mol of a
compound forms from its constituent elements in their standard state (at 25°𝐶and 1 atm).

d𝐺 ∗= 𝑑𝐻∗ + −𝑇𝑑𝑠∗ _________________________________(8.11)

(∆𝐺 ∗)𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (∆𝐻∗ )𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − (𝑇∆𝑠∗ )𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∑ 𝑛∆𝐺 ∗(𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡) − ∑ 𝑛∆𝐺 ∗(𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠) n
is the number of moles

Standard entropy change (∆𝑠 ∗) the entropy-change relation for isothermal processes

∆𝑆 ∗ = −𝑅𝑢 ln(𝑃2 ⁄𝑃1 )

∆𝑠 ∗ 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∑ 𝑛∆𝑠 ∗(𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡) − ∑ 𝑛∆𝑠 ∗(𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠)

Thus the Gibbs function of component i of an ideal-gas mixture at its partial pressure Pi and
mixture temperature T can be expressed as

g(T, Pi) = 𝑔∗ + 𝑇𝑅𝑢 ln(𝑃𝑖 )______________________(8.12)

89 pages of 93
Where 𝑔𝑖 ∗ represents the Gibbs function of component i at 1 atm pressure and temperature
T, and Pi represents the partial pressure of component i in atmospheres. Substituting the
Gibbs function expression for each component into Eq. 8.10, we obtain

∆𝐺 = 𝑣𝐶 [𝑔𝐶 ∗ +𝑇𝑅𝑢 ln 𝑃𝐶 ] + 𝑣𝐷 [𝑔𝐷 ∗ +𝑇𝑅𝑢 ln 𝑃𝐷 ] − 𝑣𝐴 [𝑔𝐴 ∗ +𝑇𝑅𝑢 ln 𝑃𝐴 ]

− 𝑣𝐵 [𝑔𝐵 ∗ +𝑇𝑅𝑢 ln 𝑃𝐵 ] = 0
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
And also ∆𝐺 ∗ = 𝑔𝐶 𝑣𝐶 + 𝑔𝐷 𝑣𝐷 − 𝑔𝐴 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑔𝐵 𝑣𝐵 = 0

Substituting, we get

𝑃 𝑣𝐶 𝑃𝑣𝐷 𝑃 𝑣𝐶 𝑃 𝑣𝐷
∆𝐺 ∗ = −RuT ln𝑃𝑣𝐴𝐶 𝑃𝑣𝐵𝐷 , 𝐾𝑝 = 𝑃𝑣𝐴𝐶 𝑃𝑣𝐵𝐷
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵

For reacting systems that consist of ideal gases only, the equilibrium constant KP can be
expressed as

𝐾𝑃 = 𝑒 −∆𝐺∗/𝑅𝑢𝑇

Here, Pi’s are the partial pressures of the components in atm. The KP of ideal-gas
mixtures can also be expressed in terms of the mole numbers of the components as

𝑁 𝑣𝐶 𝐶 𝑁 𝑣𝐷 𝐷 𝑃
𝐾𝑝 = 𝑣𝐴 𝑣𝐵
( )
𝑁 𝐴 𝑁 𝐵 𝑁𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

The equilibrium constant KP of ideal-gas mixtures depends on temperature only. It is

independent of the pressure of the equilibrium mixture, and it is not affected by the
presence of inert gases. The larger the KP, the more complete the reaction. Very small
values of KP indicate that a reaction does not proceed to any appreciable degree. A reaction
with KP 1000 is usually assumed to proceed to completion, and a reaction with KP 0.001
is assumed not to occur at all. The mixture pressure affects the equilibrium composition,
although it does not affect the equilibrium constant KP.

The variation of KP with temperature is expressed in terms of other thermochemical

Properties through the van’t Hoff equation

𝑑(𝑙𝑛𝐾𝑃 ) ℎ𝑅 (𝑇)
=
𝑑𝑇 𝑅𝑢 𝑇 2

Where ℎ𝑅 (𝑇) is the enthalpy of reaction at temperature𝑇. For small temperature intervals,
it can be integrated to yield

𝐾𝑃2 ℎ𝑅 1 1
𝑙𝑛 = ( − )
𝐾𝑃1 𝑅𝑢 𝑇1 𝑇2

90 pages of 93
This equation shows that combustion processes are less complete at higher temperatures
since KP decreases with temperature for exothermic reactions

Two phases are said to be in phase equilibrium when there is no transformation from one
phase to the other. Two phases of a pure substance are in equilibrium when each phase has
the same value of specific Gibbs function. That is, gf=gg

In general, the number of independent variables associated with a multicomponent,

multiphase system is given by the Gibbs phase rule, expressed as

IV=C-PH+2 where IV the number of independent variables, C the number of components,

and PH the number of phases present in equilibrium. A multicomponent, multiphase
system at a specified temperature and pressure is in phase equilibrium when the specific
Gibbs function of each component is the same in all phases. For a gas i that is weakly
soluble in a liquid (such as air in water), the mole fraction of the gas in the liquid yi,liquid
side is related to the partial pressure of the gas Pi,gas side by Henry’s law

𝑃𝑖 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑦𝑖 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 =
𝐻

Where H is Henry’s constant. When a gas is highly soluble in a liquid (such as ammonia
in water), the mole fractions of the species of a two-phase mixture in the liquid and gas
phases are given approximately by Raoult’s law, expressed as

𝑃𝑖 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 𝑦𝑖 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑦𝑖 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑃𝑖 𝑠𝑎𝑡 (𝑇)

where P total is the total pressure of the mixture, Pi,sat(T) is the saturation pressure of
species i at the mixture temperature, and yi,liquid side and yi,gas side are the mole fractions
of species i in the liquid and vapor phases, respectively.

91 pages of 93
Example 8.1 Calculate∆𝑠 ∗ (standard entropy change) for the reaction
2𝐻2(𝑔𝑎𝑠) + 𝑂2(𝑔𝑎𝑠) → 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔𝑎𝑠)
substance 𝐽
𝑠∗, .𝐾
∆𝑠 ∗ reaction = ∑ 𝑠 ∗ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − ∑ 𝑠 ∗ 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐻2(𝑔𝑎𝑠) 130.6
∆𝑠 ∗
reaction
∗ ∗ ∗
= [2( 𝑠 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔𝑎𝑠) )] − [2( 𝑠 𝐻2(𝑔𝑎𝑠) ) + (𝑠 𝑂2(𝑔𝑎𝑠) )] 𝑂2(𝑔𝑎𝑠) 205.2
𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔𝑎𝑠) 188.8
∆𝑠 ∗ reaction = [2(188.8)]𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾 − [2(130.6) + (205.2)]𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾
= -88.7 𝐽/𝐾
Example 8.2 the reaction 𝐶𝐶𝑙4(𝑔) → 𝐶(𝑆,𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒) + 2𝐶𝑙2(𝑔) has ∆𝐻 = 95.7𝑘𝐽 and ∆𝑠 =
142.2𝐽/𝐾 at a temperature of 25℃ calculate ∆𝐺 and determine if it is spontaneous reaction
Solution:
∆𝐺 = ∆𝐻 − 𝑇∆𝑆 = 95.7𝑘𝐽 − (298𝐾)(142.2)𝐽/𝐾 = 53.3𝑘𝐽
Because ∆𝐺 is positive the reaction is not spontaneous, we need to increase the
temperature.
1
Example 8.3 the reaction 𝑆𝑂2(𝑔) + 2 𝑂2(𝑔) → 𝑆𝑂3(𝑔) has ∆𝐻 ∗ = −98.9𝑘𝐽 and ∆𝑆 ∗ =
−94. 𝐽/𝐾 at 25℃. Calculate ∆𝐺 ∗ at 125℃ and determine if it is more or less spontaneous
than at 25℃ with ∆𝐺 ∗ = −70.9𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆𝑂3
Solution:
∆𝐺 ∗ (𝑎𝑡 125℃) = ∆𝐻 ∗ − 𝑇∆𝑆 ∗ = −98.9𝑘𝐽 − (398𝐾)(−94. 𝐽/𝐾) = −61.5𝑘𝐽

Because ∆𝐺 ∗ (𝑎𝑡 125℃) negative the reaction is spontaneous at this temperature, through
less so than at25℃.
Example 8.4 calculate the equilibrium constant kp at 298K for the reaction
∆𝐺 ∗ reaction at 298K substance ∆𝐺 ∗𝑓 , 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
∆𝐺 ∗ reaction at 298K = 𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛𝐾𝑃 𝑙𝑛𝐾𝑃 = =
𝑅𝑇 𝑁2 𝑂4(𝑔) 99.8
2800𝐽
8.314𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾(298𝐾)
= −1.13 𝑁𝑂2(𝑔) 51.3

𝐾𝑃 = 𝑒 −1.13 = 0.32 Since 𝐾𝑃 < 1 and positive the reaction is spontaneous in reverse
direction
Example 8.5

𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂4(𝑠) ↔ 𝐵𝑎+2 (𝑎𝑞𝑢) + 𝑆𝑂4 −2 (𝑎𝑞𝑢) for the given ∆𝐻 ∗ = 24.3𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝐾𝑃 = 1.1𝑥10−10 (at 25 ℃)
a) As temperature increases, does 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂4 become more or less soluble
b) What is the 𝐾𝑃 at 90 ℃)

92 pages of 93
Solution
𝐾𝑃1 ∆𝐻 ∗ 1 1 1.1𝑥10−10 24.3𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 1
𝑙𝑛 = ( − ) = 𝑙𝑛 = ( − )
𝐾𝑃2 𝑅 𝑇2 𝑇1 𝐾𝑃(@363𝐾) 8.314𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾 363𝐾 298𝐾

𝐾𝑃2 =6.4x 10−10

The solubility of 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂4(𝑠) at 90℃ is only slightly higher than that at 25℃

93 pages of 93
Next Course is Fluid Mechanics Prepared by Tsegaye Getachew
 Fluid Mechanics (MEng2113) Exit Exam Module

Tsegaye Getachew Alenka

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Wolaita Sodo University
[email protected]
February 26, 2023

Contents
1 Module Structure 1

2 Properties, Statics, kinematics, Dynamics and Scaling 1

2.1 Primary and Secondary properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.2 Flow Patterns: Stream/streak/pathlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2.1 Flow Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Fluid Statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4 Integral Relations for a Vontrol Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4.1 Flow Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4.2 Flow Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4.3 Bernoulli Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.5 Differential Relations for a Fluid Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.5.1 2D Potential Flow Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.6 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.6.1 Method 1: Exponential Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6.2 Method 2 & 1: Control Volume Analysis along with Functional Relation Analysis & Exponent
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6.3 Common Dimensionless Parameters for Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.6.4 Method 1: Step-by-Step Approach or Scaling-up Similarity and Model Testing . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7 Review Exercise Part I:Questions A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3 Boundary layer, Compressible and Incompressible Flow, and Losses in Pipe 19

3.1 Boundary Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Boundary Theories: Prandtl BL Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2.1 viscous Compressible BL-Velocity, Thermal & Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2.2 Relative Boundary Layer Thicknesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3 Incompressible Boundary Layer Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.4 Measures of the Boundary Layer Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.5 Pipe Flow: Head losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.5.1 Singular losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.5.2 Orifice meter or venna contracta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.6 Review Exercise B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

4 Objective Questions for Practice 27

List of Figures
1 Module content Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Flow Visualization: a. streamlines tangent to V ; b, streamtube: closed collection of streamlines; c,
steady smoke flow visual experiment over aerofoil & d, unsteady flow visual experiment of pathline &
streakline vs an abstract streamline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 Flow Instruments : a. Orific meter; b. Venturi meter c. Nozzle or pitot tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4 Barometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
5 system, surrounding and boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
6 CV Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1
 7 Polar Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
8 Stream Function Plot and Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
9 Hydraulic Jump: a. Dimensions; b, Control Volume analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
10 QuestionA3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
11 Exe5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
12 exe6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
13 a. Boundary Layer Schematic Diagram b. Estimating boundary layer velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
14 horizontal pipe flow regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
15 Moody Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

List of Tables
1 Fundamental and Derived Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Flow measurement instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4 Kolmogorov eddy scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5 Experimental Eddies Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6 Common Physical Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
7 Pipe Friction Factor for Different Flow Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
8 Singllar loss coefficient and Basic momentum correlation coeffcient for various flow regime . . . . . . 23
9 Common Fluid Properties at 20o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

I
1 Module Structure
This document categorized in two parts as shown in figure 1: part 1 describes fluid mechanics application, fluid
properties, fluid statics and dynamics, and dimensional analysis and similitude. Part 2 contains boundary layer
theories, compressible flow, and potential flow theory.

->Understand Fluid at rest and in motion: ch-ce,

functional interaction, laws, observation

->Understand fluid behavior for engineering

design and control of fluid systems

->Able to determine resultant fluid principles in

flows, engineering and nature using mass,
momentum and energy

->Develop the basis for experiment, design

procedures, and able to use scale models of
fluids, -Newtonian and non-Newtonian

1. Course ->Comprehend rotation, circulation, resistance

goals (viscous, turbulent), boundary layers, and
Practice Review tutorials separation with application to drag and lift on
independently classes, revisit solved objects

problems, and attempt ->Learn Methods of computing head losses

Attempt excercises in the (major and minor) and flows in simple pipes,
problems textbook channels,

->Identify, formulate and solve engineering

5. Module problems involving compressible flows

purpose: Exit ->Understand principles flow instruments,

Read and repeat
Exams ^ conduct measurements, evaluate data and draw
module notes and
conclusions

practice solved
Examples Module
Fluid Mechanics Fluid Properties, Statics
and Dynamics, Scaling
Attempt review questions
Module Structure
Boundary Layer,
Compressible flow and
Potential Flow Theory

Student centered Style Introduction, Statics,

integral/differential
4. Teaching methods 2. Course relations of a cv,
tutorials Method and tools dimensional analysis
content
and similitude
List of main
Module Tools
topics

boundary layer,
Textbook: Frank M. White,2017, Fluid compressible flow,
Mechanics, McGraw-Hill Series in introduction to 2d
Mechanical Engineerin potential flow
theory

Figure 1: Module content Organization

2 Properties, Statics, kinematics, Dynamics and Scaling

Fluids can have two distinct definitions: in unlike to solids which deform until their characteristic limits under ap-
plied shear stress, fluids includes water cannot sustain but move under very small applied shear. The alternative
definition widely used in engineering application is from the continuum hypothesis treats fluids as continuum where
the properties of the fluid are considered as a continuous (smooth) function of the space variables and time. Fluid
mechanics therefore comprise judicious compromise b/n theoretical and experimental study Fluids engineering ap-
plications is enormous: breathing, blood flow, swimming, pumps, fans, turbines, airplanes, ships, rivers, windmills,
pipes, missiles, icebergs, engines, filters, jets, and sprinklers, to name a few.

2.1 Primary and Secondary properties

Fluid properties measured by dimensions, numbers attached to units of measurements to express physical variables
corresponding to fluids. Different units of measurements practiced by engineers varying from country to country. The
following table 1 summarizes fundamental and derived quantities in British system and standard system. For instance,
Specific heat L2 T −2 theta−3 measured in SI unit system in m2 /s2 .K and Imperial/BI unit system in f t2 /s2 R, where
1m2 /s2 K = 5.980f t2 /s2 R. [1].
An unusual units in fluid mechanics need immediately to converted to SI/BI systems in order to obtain dimensional
consistency and professional convenience. Example 1: The empirical formula in BG system also known as Manning

1
 Table 1: Fundamental and Derived Quantities
Primary Properties SI Units BG Unit to SI Conversion Factor Derived properties SI Units BG Unit Coversion Factor
M assM Kilogramkg Slug, 1slug = 14.5939kg AreaL2 m2 f t2 , 1m2 = 10.764f t2
LengthL M eter(m) F oot(f t), 1f t = 0.3048m V olumeL3 m3 f t3 , 1m3 = 35.315f t3
T imeT Second(s) Second(s), 1s = 1s V elocityLT −1 m/s f t/s, 1f t/s = 0.3048m/s
[1] T emperatureT Kelvin(K) Rankine(R), 1K = 1.8R AccelerationLT −2 m/s2 f t/s2 , 1f t/s2 = 0.3048m/s2

Derived Properties SI Units BG Unit to SI Conversion Factor Derived properties SI Units BG Unit Coversion Factor
Pressure or stress M L−1 T −2 P a = N/m2 lbf /f t2 , 1lbf /f t2 = 47.88P a Angular velocity T −1 s−1 s−1 , 1s−1 = 1s−1
Energy, heat, work M L2 T −2 J = Nm f t.lbf, 1f t.lbf = 1.3558J P owerM L2 T −3 W = J/s f t.lbf /s, 1f t.lbf /s = 1.3558W
Density M L−3 kg/m−3 slugs/f t−3 , 1slug/f t−3 = 515.4kg/m3 Viscosity M L−1 T −1 kg/m.s slugs/f t.s, 1slug/f t.s = 47.88kg/m.s

equation (R. Manning, 1890) for the average velocity V in uniform flow doe to gravity down an open channel (BG unis)
√
given, express the equation in basic dimensions in BI units and Rewrite the expression in SI form: v = 1.49/π×R2/3 s
where R= hydruulic radius of channel, S = channel slope (tangent of angle that bottom makes with horizontal) n=
Manning’s roughness factor, and n is a constant for a given surface condition for the walls and bottom of the channel.
Solution Introduce dimensions for each term. The slope S, being a tangent or ratio, is dimensionless, Equation
in dimensional form is L/T = 1.49/π × L2/5 . This formula cannot be consistent unless 1.49/n = L1/3 /T . If n is
dimensionless, then the numerical value 1.49 must have units. This challenges in a different unit system unless the
discrepancy is properly documented. In fact, Manning’s formula, though popular, is inconsistent both dimensionally
and physically and does not properly account for channel-roughness effects except in a narrow range of parameters,
for water only. (b), the number 1.49 must have dimensions L1/3 /T and thus in BG units equals 1.49f t( 108/s). By
the SI conversion factor for √length we have 1.49f t1/3 /s×(0.3045m/f t)1/3 = 1.00m1/3 /s Therefore Manning’s formula
2/3
in SI becomes v = 1/nR s

2.2 Flow Patterns: Stream/streak/pathlines

There are four basic types of line patterns are used to visualize flows: A streamline is a line everywhere tangent
to the velocity vector at a given instant. It is is the most convenient to calculate mathematically as well as for
computational flow analysis and the most commonly used in engineering, while the other three are easier to generate
experimentally. A pathline is the actual path traversed by a given fluid particle. A streakline is the locus of particles
which have earlier passed through a prescribed point. Timeline is a set of fluid particles that form a line at a given
instant. A streamline and a timeline are instantaneous lines, while the pathline and the streakline are generated
by the passage of time. With the given velocities (u, v, w) along (x, y, z) directions respectively and flow position
r = xi + yj + zk . [1]. The streamline formula is given in Equation 1.

dx/u = dy/v = dz/z = dr/V (1)

where v = ui + vj + wk , and pathline is given by

Z Z Z
x = u, dt , y = v, dt & z = w, dt (2)

The following distinguishes flow visualizations in computational and experimental contexts.

Example 2. Given flow velocities along (x, y&z) and give u = x/(t + t0 ), v = v0 &w = 0, determine
a Determine equation of streamline at x0 , y0 , z0 &t0
b Equation a colored line that is visible due to dye injection at x0 , y0 , z0 ,die injected continues up to t = 2t0 (we
don’t know when the injection began). Assume u = up

c The Locus of a fluid particle that is injected at x0 , y0 , z0 . Assume u = up

Solution: a. The equation of streamline at x0 , y0 , z0 from equation 1. b. The equation a colored line that is visible
due to dye injection at x0 , y0 , z0 ,die injected continues up to t = 2t0 (we don’t know when the injection began) can
be found from Equation 2.

a. The equation of streamline at x0 , y0 , z0 from equa- found from Equation 2. X-axis u = dx dt for u = up Substi-
tion 1. tuting u from the given
dx/u = dy/v
dx x dx dt
Substituting u = x/(t + t0 ), v = v0 , t = t0 & w = 0 = rearranging =
dt t + t0 x t + t0
dx/x × (t0 + t0 ) = dy/v0 Rx dx
R 2t0 1
Integrating both sides x0 x
= ti t+t0 dt Gives ln xx0 =
2t0 dx/x = dy/v0 ln 2tti0+t
+t0
0

x 2t0 + t0
Integrating both sides and rearranging gives v0 t0 ln x+c = =
x0 tl + t0
y Ans b. The equation a colored line that is visible due
to dye injection at x0 , y0 , z0 die injected continues up to (2t0 + t0 ) x0
t = 2t0 we don’t know when the injection began can be ti = − t0
x

2
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 2: Flow Visualization: a. streamlines tangent to V ; b, streamtube: closed collection of streamlines; c, steady smoke flow visual
experiment over aerofoil & d, unsteady flow visual experiment of pathline & streakline vs an abstract streamline
[1]

Y-axis: v = dy dy y − y0
dt for v = vp as well as given dt = v0 Solving this yields 2t0 − t0 =
Integrating all sides v0
(2t0 − ti )
2t0 t0 = − t0 Answer
Z
dx 1
intxx0 dt x
x ti t + t0
c. The Locus of a fluid particle that is injected at
x 2t0 + t0 (x0 , y0 , z0 )
ln = ln dy
x0 ti + t0 v= forv = vp
dt
x 2t0 + t0 considering f racdydt = v0 and by integrating both sides
=
x0 ti + t0
Z y Z t
(2t0 + t0 ) x0 dy = v0 dt
t1 = − t0
x y0 ta

dy dy 
y − y0

v= forv = vp and From = v0 We obtain t = t0 +
dt dt v0
Z y Z 2t0
dy = v0 dt y − y0 x
Rearranging gives + 1 = 2 − 1 ANSWER
yi ti v0 x0

2.2.1 Flow Measurement

Flow measurements can be carried out using the Table 2 with an obstruction technique depending on efficiency (head
loss) that you will see in section 30 suit and cost.

Table 2: Flow measurement instruments

Type of meter Net head loss Cost

Orifice Large Small
[2]
Nozzle Medium Medium
Venturi Small Large

Solved examples on flow measurement instruments will be discussed in section in page 30.

3
 (a) (b) (c)

Figure 3: Flow Instruments : a. Orific meter; b. Venturi meter c. Nozzle or pitot tube
[3]

2.3 Fluid Statics

Fluid statics deals with fluids at equilibrium (at rest and at constant velocities, accel-
eration=0) and ∇2 V = 0 in a hydro-static condition where the pressure distribution
∇P = W/v = mg/V = ρV g/V = γg Fluid statics studies of floating and submerged
bodies. The Equation3. [4] relates between the three pressures.In the expression that
pressure gradient taken positive conventionally ∇P is limited to fluid weight for fluids
at rest.
P = Pa + Pguage if P > Pa ,P = Patm − Pvacuum ifP < Pa (3)
Pressure measurements practiced in a total magnitude P total pressure and relative
guage pressure which is a pressure relative to an ambient ambient or atmospheric pres-
sure. Mercury Hg barometer shown in the Figure 4 where a. Mercury and b Portable
digital, the former works in the principle of hydro-static pressure where change in
γ
pressure expressed in-terms of rise/fall in mercury level in the tube ∆P = Deltah for
incompressible fluids. This assumption is reasonable for many contexts because den-
Figure 4: Barometer sity of water for example increases ¡5 in the deepest ocean. The hydrostatic pressure
. [1] formula is given in Equation 4
γ
∆P = (4)
Deltah
The hydrostatic pressure widely applied in pressure measurement employing Equation 4. This associates change in
pressure with difference in fluid elevation head in an equipment setup or instrument called manometer.
Example 4: Typical setup is shown in inclined tube manometer consists of a vertical cylinder 35mm diameter. At
the bottom of this is connected a tube 5mm in diameter inclined upward at an angle of 15 to the horizontal, the
top of this tube is connected to an air duct. The vertical cylinder is open to the air and the manometric fluid has
relative density 0.785.

a. Determine the pressure in the air duct if the manometric fluid moved 50mm along the inclined tube b. What is
the error if the movement of the fluid in the vertical cylinder is ignored?
Solution Use the equation derived in Equation 4

p1 − p2 = ρgh = ρg(z1 + z2 ) for a manometer where And x = −50mm = −0.05m, −p2 = 0.785 × 103 × 9.81 ×
ρm > ρ. Where: z2 = xsinθ, and (−0.05)(sin15 + (f rac0.0050.035)2 ) Results
a1 z1 = a2 x p2 = 107.2N
z1 = x(d/D)2
If the movement in the large cylinder is ignored the
where x is the reading on the manometer scale. P1 is term (d/D)2 will disappear:p1 − p2 = ρgxsinθ Therefore,
d 2
atmospheric i.e. P1 = 0=0, P2 = −ρgxt(sinθ + ( D ) ) p2 = 0.785 × 103 × 9.81 × 0.05 × sin15 =99.66N

Specific gravity of common fluids given in Table 2 at 1 atm and 20o C. The specific gravity γ is an important
weight parameter tabulated in Table 3 independent of volume with dimensions of Weight per unit volume.

4
 Table 3: Specific Gravity

. [5]
Fluids γ in N/m3 Fluids γ in N/m3 Fluids γ in N/m3 Fluids γ in N/m3
Mercury 133.1 Glycerin 12.36 Seawater 10.05 SAE 30 Alcohol 11.8
Carbon Tetrachloride 15.57 Air 11.8 Water 9.79 Ethyl Alcohol 7.733

2.4 Integral Relations for a Vontrol Volume

This chapter presents: Classification of Fluid Flow, Fluid Flow Analysis Methods, Basic Physical Laws of Fluid
Mechanics, The Continuity Equation, The Bernoulli Equation and its application, The Linear Momentum equation
and its application, The Angular Momentum equation and its application, and The Energy Equation.

2.4.1 Flow Classification

Uniform flow; steady flow : non-uniform flow: If the conditions at one point vary as tune passes, then we have
unsteady flow. Uniform flow: If the flow velocity is the same magnitude and direction at every point in the flow
it is said to be uniform. That is, the flow conditions DO NOT change with position. Non-uniform: If at a given
instant, the velocity is not the same at every point the flow is non-uniform. Steady: A steady flow is one in which
the conditions (velocity, pressure and cross-section) may differ from point to point but DO NOT change with time.
Unsteady: If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change with time, the flow is described as unsteady. Combining
the above we can classify any flow in to one of four types: Steady uniform flow: Conditions do not change with
position in the stream or with time. An example is the flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at constant
velocity. Steady non-uniform flow: Conditions change from point to point in the stream but do not change with
time. An example of steady-non-uniform is flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity at the inlet - velocity will
change as you move along the length of the pipe toward the exit. Unsteady uniform flow: At a given instant
in time the conditions at every point are the same, but will change with time. An example is a pipe of constant
diameter connected to a pump pumping at a constant rate which is then switched off. Unsteady non-uniform
flow: Every condition of the flow 1nay change from point to point and with time at every point. An example is
surface waves in an open channel.
One-, two-, and three-dimensional flows. A three-dimensional flow with V = ui + vj + wk problem will have the
most complex characters and is the most difficult to solve. As defined above, the flow will be uniform if the velocity
components are independent of spatial position and will be steady if the velocity components are independent of
time t. Fortunately, in many engineering applications, the flow can be considered as two-dimensional with two
spatial flow components V = ui + vj . In such a situation, one of the velocity components (say, w) is either identically
zero or much smaller than the other two components, and the flow conditions vary essentially only in two directions
(say, x and y). Hence, the velocity is reduced to V = ui + vwhere(u, v) are functions of (x, y) (and possibly t). It is
sometimes possible to further simplify a flow analysis by assuming that two of the velocity components are negligible,
leaving the velocity field to be approximated as a one dimensional flow field with V = ui .
Viscous and inviscid flows An inviscid flow is one in which viscous effects do not significantly influence the flow
and are thus neglected. If the shear stresses in a flow are sn1all and act over such small areas that they do not
significantly affect the flow field the flow can be assigned as inviscid flow. In a viscous flow the effects of viscosity
are Important and cannot be ignored. Based on experience, it has been found that the primary class of flows, which
can be modeled as inviscid flows, is external flows, that is, flows of an unbounded fluid which exist exterior to a
body. Any viscous effects that may exist are confined to a thin layer, called a boundary layer, which is attached to
the boundary. Viscous flows include the broad class of internal flows, such as flows in pipes, hydraulic machines, and
conduits and in open channels. The no-slip condition results in zero velocity at the wall, and the resulting shear
stresses, lead directly to these losses.
Incompressible and compressible flows: All fluids are compressible - even water - their density will change as pressure
changes. Under steady conditions, and provided that the changes in pressure are small, it is usually possible to
simplify analysis of the flow by assuming it is incompressibleand has constant density. As you will appreciate,
liquids are quite difficult to compress - so under most steady conditions they are treated as incompressible. ln
some unsteady conditions very high pressure differences can occur and it is necessary to take these into account -
even for liquids. Gases, on the contrary, are very easily compressed, it is essential in cases of high-speed flow to treat
these as compressible, taking changes in pressure into account.
Under many other engineering applications such as aerospace, further classification based on Mach Number M a
which compares flow velocity to speed of sound practiced as subsonic (if M a < 1), sonic (if M a = 1) and
supersonic if M a > 1. Low-speed gas flows, such as the atmospheric flow referred to above, are also considered to
be incompressible if M a < 0.3flows. An expression of Mach number is given in Equation 5 where v is flow velocity
and c is the speed of sound.
v
Ma = (5)
c

5
The last crucial category of classification for flow analysis is based on another important dimensionless number
Reinhold’s number, Re that relates fluid properties with flow velocity and geometry of the container or guide. Pipe
flows assigned as laminar if Re < 2000, transitional if 2000 ≤ Re ≤ 4000 and turbulent if Re > 4000. The expression
for Re < 2000 given in Equation 6 where ρ is density, V is velocity, L is characteristic length L = diameterD for
pipe flow, and mu is viscosity.
ρV L
Re = (6)
µ

2.4.2 Flow Analysis

A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen.for study.
The mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings, which can be
real or imaginary. The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from
its surroundings is called the boundary see Fig. 5. The boundary of a system
can be fixed or movable. Note that the boundary is the contact surface shared by
both the system and the surroundings. Mathematically speaking, the boundary has
zero thickness, and thus it can neither contain any mass nor occupy any volume
in space.Systems and Control Volumes Systems may be considered to be closed
or open, depending on whether a fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen
for study. A closed system (also known as a control mass) consists of a fixed
amount of mass, add no mass can cross its boundary. That is, no mass can enter
Figure 5: system, surrounding and or leave a closed system. But energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross the
boundary
boundary; and the volume of a closed system does not have to be fixed
If as a special case, even energy is not allowed to cross the boundary, that system
is called an isolated system. In open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a properly selected
region in space. A control volume usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or
nozzle. Flow through these devices is best studied by selecting the region within the device as the control volume.
Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
A large number of engineering problems involve mass flow in and out of a system and, therefore, are modeled as
control volumes. A water heater, a car radiator, a turbine, and a compressor all involve mass flow and should be
analyzed as control volumes (open systems) instead of as control masses (closed systems). In general, any arbitrary
region in space can be selected as a control volume. There are no concrete rules for the selection of control volumes,
but the proper choice certainly makes the analysis much convenient.
Basic physical laws of fluid mechanics:The purpose of this chapter is to put the four basic laws derived from Reynolds
transport theorem into the control volume form suitable for arbitrary regions in a flow
The four basic laws are:

Conservation of mass in Equation 7 also known as The angular momentum relation in terms of mass
continuity equation that relates inlet and outlet given in flow rate X
X X X X X ∆H = ⃗ri × Vi ∆mi (9)
ṁ = ṁi − ṁi = ρ i A1 V i − ρo A2 Vo (7)
The energy Conservation equation given in equa-
tion 10. This can also be the first law of thermodynamics
The linear momentum relation, qi = Qo +W if simplified heat and mechanical shaft works
X X X X X are under consideration.
F = ṁi V⃗i − ṁo V⃗o = ⃗i −
ρ i Ai V ⃗o
ρ0 Ao V X X
(8) ∆E = Ei − Eo (10)

Subscripts i and o are for inlet and exit respectively. Moreover, further necessary relations introduced to analyse
a state relation such as the perfect gas law. Example 5: A fixed control volume has three one dimensional boundary
sections.
As shown in the figure E5. Consider the flow within the control volume is steady.
The flow properties at each section are tabulated below. Find the velocity inlet at
section 2 and the rate of change of energy that occupies the control volume at this
instant. Solution using equation 7 , ρ1 A − 1v1 + ρ2 A2 v2 = ρ3 A3 v3 . The values
are given in the table below, 800kg/m3 ∗ 2m2 ∗ 5m/s ∗ +800kg/m3 ∗ 3m2 ∗ v2 ∗ =
800kg/m1 7 ∗ 2m2 ∗ 2m/s∗ Solving for v2 gives v2 = 8m/s. And the rate of energy
occupied can be computed by using Equation 10
X X
Figure 6: CV Example
∆E = Ei − Eo

1
1/2ρ1 A1 v1 2 + e1 × ρ1 A1 v1 + 1/2ρ2 A2 v2 2 + e2 × ρ2 A1 v2 − ρ3 A3 v3 2 e3 × ρ3 A3 v3
2
1/2 × ρ(v1 2 + v2 2 − v3 2 + e1 × A1 v1 + e2 × A2 v2 − e3 × A3 v3 )

6
 2 2 2
1/2 × 800kg/m3 (2 × 5m/s + 3 × 8m/s − 2 × 17m/s ) + 300J/kg × 2m2 × 5m/s + 100J/kg × 3m2 × 8m/s
150J/kg × 2m2 × 17m/s/ = −254.15kJ

Control surface type ρ, kg/m3 V , m/s A, m2 e, J/kg

1 inlet 800 5.0 2.0 300
2 inlet 800 8.0 3.0 100
3 outlet 800 17.0 2.0 150

2.4.3 Bernoulli Equation

Assumptions: inviscid flow (ideal fluid, frictionless), Steady flow, Along a strean1line, Constant density (incom-
pressible flow), and No shaft work or heat transfer. Care must be exercised when applying the Bernoulli equation
since it is an approxi1nation that applies only to inviscid regions of flow.

P1 v1 2 P2 v2 2
+ + z1 = + + z2 (11)
ρg 2g ρg 2g
The Bernoulli approximation in Equation 11 is typically useful in flow regions outside of boundary layers and wakes,
where the fluid motion is governed by the combined effects of pressure and gravity forces.
Example 6: The liquid in Figure is kerosine at 20o C. Estimate the flow rate from the tank for (a) no losses and
2
(b) pipe losses hf = 4.5V 3
2g . Take kerosine, let γ = 50.3lbf /f t . Let (1) be the surface and (2) the exit jet:

Solution Using Bernoulli equation,

p1 v2 p2 v2 v2
+ 1 + z1 = + 2 + z2 + hf with z2 = 0 and v1 = 0, hf = K 2
γ 2g γ 2g 2g

v22 p1 − p2 (20 − 14.7)(144)

Solve for (1 + K) = z1 + =5+ = 20.2f t
2g γ 50.3
We are asked to compute two cases (a) no losses; and (b) substantial losses, K = 4.5 : (a) q
q K = 0 : v2 =
2(32.2)(20.2) π 1 2 3 2(32.2)(23.0)
( 1+0 ) = 36.0f t/s, Q = 36.0 4 ( 12 ) = 0.197f t /s Ans. (a) (b) K = 4.5 : V2 = 1+4.5 =
1 2
16.4f t/s, and Q = 16.4 π4 ( 12 ) = 0.089f t3 /s Ans. (b)
Example 7 An open water jet exits from a nozzle into sea-level air, as shown, and strikes a stagnation tube. If the
centerline pressure at section (1) is 110kP a and losses are neglected, estimate (a) the mass flow in kg/s; and (b) the
height H of the fluid in the tube.

Solution: Writing Bernoulli and continuity between pipe and jet yields jet velocity:
"  4 # "  4 #
ρ 2 Djet 998 2 4
p1 − pa = Vjet 1 − = 110000 − 101350 = V 1− ,
2 D1 2 jet 12
m
solve Vjet = 4.19
s
Then the mass flow is ṁ = ρAjet Vjet = 998 π4 (0.04)2 (4.19) = 5.25kg/s Ans. (a) (b) The water in the stagnation tube
will rise above the jet surface by an amount equal to the stagnation pressure head of the jet:
2
Vjet (4.19)2
H = Rjet + = 0.02m + = 0.02 + 0.89 = 0.91m Ans. (b)
2g 2(9.81)

7
2.5 Differential Relations for a Fluid Particle
The modern study of the motion of fluids constitute (in general liquids and gases) and the forces acting on them in
mathematical form, was first well formulated in 1755 by Euler for ideal fluids. Although, the laws of fluid mechanics
cover more materials than standard liquid and gases, such as strongly interacting nuclear matter as proposed in 1953
by Landau. The Eulerian description of the fluid defines quantities at given fixed points x, y, z in space and at a given
time t; or fluid quantities described associated to a (moving) particle of fluid, followed along its trajectory, from the
the Lagrangian point of view.This section incorporates mathematical description of an infinitesimal control volume to
derive the basic partial differential equations of mass, momentum, and energy for a fluid. These equations, together
with thermodynamic state relations for the fluid and appropriate boundary conditions, in principle can be solved for
the complete inviscid incompressible flow field problem. Furthermore, ideas such as the stream function, vorticity,
irrotationality, and the velocity potential discussed with solved problems. Newton’s second law for an infinitesimal
fluid system incorporates the acceleration vector field a of the flow.
dv du dv dw
a= =i +j +k
dt dt dt dt
Since each scalar component (u, v, w) is a function of the four variables (x, y, z, t), we use the chain rule to obtain
each scalar time derivative. For example,
du(x, y, z, t) ∂u ∂u dx ∂u dy ∂u dz
= + + +
dt ∂t ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
But, by definition, dx/dt is the local velocity component u, and dy/dt = v, and dz/dt = w. The total derivative of
u may thus be written in the compact form
du ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
= +u +v +w = + (V · ∇)u
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t

Exactly similar expressions, with u replaced by v or w, hold for dv dw

dt or dt . Summing these into a vector, we obtain
the total acceleration:
a = dV ∂V ∂V ∂V
dt = ∂t + u ∂x + v ∂y + w ∂w
∂V

dV ∂V
a= = + (V · ∇)V (12)
dt ∂t
∂V
The term tialt is called the local acceleration, which vanishes if the flow is steady, i.e., independent of time. The three
terms in parentheses are called the convective acceleration, which arises when the particle moves through regions of
spatially varying velocity, as in a nozzle or diffuser. Flows which are nominally ”steady” may have large accelerations
due to the convective terms. Note our use of the compact dot product involving V and the gradient operator ∇ :
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
u +v +w = V · ∇ where ∇ = i +j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
The total time derivative-sometimes called the substantial or material derivative concept may be applied to any
variable, e.g., the pressure:
dp ∂p ∂p ∂p ∂p ∂p
= +u +v +w = + (V · ∇)p
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
Wherever convective effects occur in the basic laws involving mass, momentum, or energy, the basic differential
equations become nonlinear and are usually more complicated than flows which do not involve convective changes.
The vector-gradient operator ∇
∂ ∂ ∂
∇=i +j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
enables us to rewrite the equation of continuity in a compact form. so that the compact form of the continuity re-
lation for Steady Compressible Flow is: ∂ρ
∂t +∇·(ρV ) = 0 Example 7: Write the divergence in cylindrical coordinates
∇(r, θ, z)
The alternative to the cartesian system is the cylindrical polar
coordinate system shown in the Figure 7. The velocity com-
ponents are an axial velocity vz , a radial velocity vr , and a cir-
cumferential velocity vθ , which is positive counterclockwise. The
divergence of any vector function (r, θ, z, t) is found by making
the transformation of coordinates Solution: r, θ, z, and t can be
transformed from x, y, and z as follows,

1/2 y
r = x2 + y 2 θ = tan−1 z=z
x
1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
∇·V = (rar ) + (aθ ) + (az )
r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z

8
 .
Exercise 2: Show the derivation of Example 7. The general
continuity equation in cylindrical polar coordinates is thus
∂ρ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
+ (rρvr ) + (ρvθ ) + (ρvz ) = 0
∂t r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z
There are other orthogonal curvilinear coordinate systems, notably spherical polar coordinates, which occasionally
merit use in a fluid-mechanics problem. Example 8 Write the continuity equation in simplified form If the flow is a.
∂
steady compressible, b. steady incompressible flow, and c. unsteady compressible flow. solution: tialt ≡ 0 and all
∂ρ ∂ρ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
properties are functions of position only. Equation ∂t + ∇ · (ρV ) = 0 and ∂t + r ∂r (rρvr ) + r ∂θ (ρvθ ) + ∂z (ρvz ) = 0
∂ ∂ ∂
reduced respectively to Cartesian: ∂x (ρu) + ∂y (ρv) + ∂z (ρw) = 0 Cylindrical: 1r ∂r
∂
(rρvr ) + 1r ∂θ
∂ ∂
(ρvθ ) + ∂z (ρvz ) = 0
b. & c. For incompressible flow,∇ · V = 0 This equation holds valid for incompressible flow, where the density
changes are negligible, tialρ/tialt = 0 regardless of whether the flow is steady or unsteady Cartesian:

∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
Cylindrical: r ∂r (rvr ) + r ∂θ (vθ ) + ∂z (vz ) = 0
To summarize all differential relations for a fluid particle, the following equations can be derived from
Reynolds Transport Theorem.

Continuity: Momentum: also known as Navier- Energy:

Stokes Equation
∂ρ dV dû
+ ∇ · (ρV ) = 0 (13) ρ = ρg − ∇p + ∇ · τij (14) ρ +p(∇·V ) = ∇·(k∇T )+Φ (15)
∂t dt dt
where the new term Φ is given by called velocity potential that will be briefed in section 2.5.1. In general, the
density is variable, so that these three equations contain five unknowns, ρ, V, p, û, and T are provided by data or
algebraic expressions for the state relations of the thermodynamic properties

ρ = ρ(p, T ) û = û(p, T )

For example, for a perfect gas with constant specific heats, we complete the system with
Z
p
ρ= û = cv dT = cv T + const.
RT

2.5.1 2D Potential Flow Theory

Stream Function Stream function ψ is mathematical tool to solve the conservation equations: Coninuity, Navier-
Stokes, and Energy equations directly from single higher order function ψ as:
∂ψ ∂ψ
dx + dy = 0 = dψ (16)
∂x ∂y
Example 8: Recall the definition of a streamline in two-dimensional flow from Equation 1 and combine with stream
function from Equation 16 to determine flow direction. Solution
dx dy
=
u v
or
udy − vdx = 0 streamline
Thus the change in ψ is zero along a streamline, or

ψ = const along a streamline

Having found a given solution ψ(x, y), we can plot lines of constant ψ to give the streamlines of the flow. There is
also a physical interpretation which relates ψ to volume flow. From Fig. 8, we can compute the volume flow dQ
through an element ds of control surface of unit depth
   
∂ψ ∂ψ dy dx
dQ = (V · n)dA = i −j · i −i ds
∂y ∂x ds ds
∂ψ ∂ψ
= dx + dy = dψ
∂x ∂y

9
 Figure 8: Stream Function Plot and Flow
[1]

Fig. 8 Sign convention for flow in terms of change in stream function: (a) flow to the right if ψU is greater; (b) flow
to the left if ψL is greater. (a) (b) Thus the change in ψ across the element is numerically equal to the volume flow
through the element. The volume flow between any two points in the flow field is equal to the change in stream
function between those points: Z 2 Z 2
Q1→2 = (V · n)dA = dψ = ψ2 − ψ1
1 1
Further, the direction of the flow can be ascertained by noting whether ψ increases or decreases. As sketched in
Fig. 8, the flow is to the right if ψU is greater than ψL , where the subscripts stand for upper and lower, as before;
otherwise the flow is to the left.
Velocity Potential Irrotationality gives rise to a scalar function ϕ similar and complementary to the stream function
ψ. From a theorem in vector analysis [11], a vector with zero curl must be the gradient of a scalar function
If ∇ × V ≡ 0 then V = ∇ϕ
where ϕ = ϕ(x, y, z, t) is called the velocity potential function. Knowledge of ϕ thus immediately gives the velocity
components
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
u= v= w=
∂x ∂y ∂z
Lines of constant ϕ are called the potential lines of the flow. Note that ϕ, unlike the stream function, is fully three-
dimensional and not limited to two coordinates. It reduces a velocity problem with three unknowns u, v, and w to a
single unknown potential ϕ; if ϕ exists, we obtain
 
∂V ∂ ∂ϕ
· dr = (∇ϕ) · dr = d
∂t ∂t ∂t
Then becomes a relation between ϕ and p
Z
∂ϕ dp 1
+ + ∇π 2 + gz = const
∂t ρ 2
The velocity potential also simplifies the unsteady Bernoulli equation thou this section will be in for steady
flow Orthogonality of Streamlines and Potential Lines Generation of Rotationality If a flow is both irrotational
and described by only two coordinates, ψ and ϕ both exist and the streamlines and potential lines are everywhere
mutually perpendicular except at a stagnation point. For example, for incompressible flow in the xy plane, we would
have
∂ψ ∂ϕ
u= =
∂y ∂x
∂ψ ∂ϕ
v=− =
∂x ∂y
Can you tell by inspection not only that these relations imply orthogonality but also that ϕ and ψ satisfy Laplace’s
equation? A line of constant ϕ would be such that the change in ϕ is zero
∂ϕ ∂ϕ
dϕ = dx + dy = 0 = udx + vdy
∂x ∂y
Solving, we have  
dy u 1
=− =−
dx ϕ= const v (dy/dx)ψ= const

10
The flow may or may not be irrotational, the latter being an easier condition, allowing a universal Bernoulli constant.
The only remaining question is: When is a flow irrotational? In other words, when does a flow have negligible angular
velocity? The exact analysis of fluid rotationality under arbitrary conditions is a topic for advanced study. A fluid
flow which is initially irrotational may become rotational if
1. There are significant viscous forces induced by jets, wakes, or solid boundaries. In this case Bernoulli’s equation
will not be valid in such viscous regions.
∇ · V = V · (∇ϕ) = 0
∂2ϕ ∂2ϕ ∂2ϕ
∇2 ϕ = 0 = + 2 + 2
∂x2 ∂y ∂z
This is Laplace’s equation in three dimensions, there being no restraint on the number of coordinates in potential
flow. Both the stream function and the velocity potential were invented by the French mathematician Joseph Louis
Lagrange and published in his treatise on fluid mechanics in 1781.
Example 9: If a stream function exists for the velocity field of Example 7

u = a x2 − y 2


v = −2axy w = 0

Solution Since this flow field was shown expressly to satisfy the equation of continuity, we are pretty sure that a
stream function does exist. We can check again to see if
∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
Substitute:
2ax + (−2ax) = 0 checks
Therefore we are certain that a stream function exists. To find ψ, we simply set
∂ψ
u= = ax2 − ay 2
∂y
∂ψ
v=− = −2axy
∂x
and work from either one toward the other. Integrate (1) partially

ay 3
ψ = ax2 y − + f (x)
3
Differentiate (3) with respect to x and compare with (2)
∂ψ
= 2axy + f ′ (x) = 2axy
∂x
Therefore f ′ (x) = 0, or f = constant. The complete stream function is thus found

y3
 
ψ = a x2 y − +C
3

Ans. Set C = 0 for convenience and the function

3ψ
3x2 y − y 3 =
a
for constant values of ψ. This would be a rather unrealistic yet exact solution to the Navier-Stokes equation,
as we showed in Example 7. A stream function also exists in a variety of other physical situations where only two
coordinates are needed to define the flow. Three examples are illustrated here. a flow is termed axisymmetric, and
the flow pattern is the same when viewed on any sectional plane through the axis of revolution z. For incompressible
flow Eq. becomes
1 ∂ ∂
(rvr ) + (vz ) = 0
r ∂r ∂z
This doesn’t seem to work: Can’t we get rid of the one r outside? But when we realize that r and z are independent
coordinates, Eq. can be rewritten as
∂ ∂
(rvr ) + (rvz ) = 0
∂r ∂z
By analogy, this has the form
∂ ∂ψ ∂ ∂ψ
(− )+ ( )=0
∂r ∂z ∂z ∂r

11
By comparing th two equations, we deduce the form of an incompressible axisymmetric stream function ψ(r, z)
1 ∂ψ 1 ∂ψ
vr = − vz =
r ∂z r ∂r
Here again lines of constant ψ are streamlines, but there is a factor (2π) in the volume flow: Q1→2 = 2π(ψ2 − ψ1 ).
EXAMPLE 10 Investigate the stream function in polar coordinates
R2
 
ψ = U sin θ r −
r
where U and R are constants, a velocity and a length, respectively. Plot the streamlines. What does the flow
represent? Is it a realistic solution to the basic equations? Solution The streamlines are lines of constant ψ, which
has units of square meters per second. Note that ψ/(U R) is dimensionless. Rewrite Eq. in dimensionless form
 
ψ 1 r
= sin θ η − where η =
UR η R
Of particular interest is the special line ψ = 0, where this occurs when (a) θ = 0 or 180◦ and (b)r = R. Case (a) is
the x-axis, and case (b) is a circle of radius R. For any other nonzero value of ψ it is easiest to pick a value of r and
solve for θ :
ψ/(U R)
sin θ =
r/R − R/r
In general, there will be two solutions for θ because of the symmetry about the y-axis. For example take ψ/(U R) =
+1.0 : This will be true under various conditions:
1. V is zero; trivial, no flow (hydrostatics).
2. ζ is zero; irrotational flow.
3. dr is perpendicular to ζ × V ; this is rather specialized and rare.
4. dr is parallel to V ; we integrate along a streamline.
Condition 4 is the common assumption. If we integrate along a streamline in frictionless compressible flow and take,
for convenience, g = −gk, the above equation reduces to
 
∂V 1 2 dp
· dr + d V + + gdz = 0
∂t 2 ρ
Except for the first term, these are exact differentials. Integrate between any two points 1 and 2 along the streamline:
Z 2 Z 2
∂V dp 1
V22 − V12 + g (z2 − z1 ) = 0


ds + +
1 ∂t 1 ρ 2
where ds is the arc length along the streamline. This quation is Bernoulli’s equation in eq. 17 [4] for frictionless
unsteady flow along a streamline. For incompressible steady flow, it reduces to
p 1 2
+ V + gz = constant along streamline (17)
ρ 2
The constant may vary from streamline to streamline unless the flow is also irrotational (assumption 2). For irrota-
tional flow ζ = 0, the offending term ∇ × V vanishes regardless of the direction of dr, and Eq. 17 then holds all over
the flow field with the same constant.
EXAMPLE 11 If a velocity potential exists for the velocity field, compute the curl and check whether irrotational
∇ × V = ∂u ∂v
∂x − ∂y = 0, find it
u = a x2 − y 2


v = −2axy w = 0
Solution Since w = 0, the curl of V has only one z component, and we must show that it is zero:
∂v ∂u ∂ ∂
ax2 − ay 2


(∇ × V )z = 2ωz = − = (−2axy) −
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
= −2ay + 2ay = 0 checks

Ans. The flow is indeed irrotational. A potential exists. To find ϕ(x, y), set
∂ϕ
u= = ax2 − ay 2
∂x
∂ϕ
v= = −2axy
∂y

12
2.6 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude
The global parameters: mass flow, force, torque, total heat transfer etc discussed in fluid properties,static pressure,
flow patterns, overall integral and infinitesmal differential relation of fluid phenomena can only be handled analytically
with simple geometric flows and well defined boundaries. Dimensional analysis is a process of formulating fluid
mechanics problems in terms of non-dimensional variables for the purpose of reducing number of experiments or
analysis required and complexity to extend fluid mechanics studied so far to study effects of complex geometry and
flow, reduce data to understand fluid physics, and simplifying analysis. The dimensionless parameters study primarily
benefits in enabling scaling for different physical dimensions and fluid properties, and useful in similarity
and model testing. In a physical problem including n dimensional variables in which there are m dimensions, the
variables can be arranged into r = n–m independent dimensionless parameters with help of Buckingham π theorem
18 [7].
F (A1 , A2 , . . . , An ) = 0; f (π1 , π2 , . . . , πr ) = 0 (18)
Where Ai ’s are dimensional variables required to formulate problem (i = 1, n) and πj s = dimensionless parameters
consisting of groupings of Ai’s where j = 1, . . . , r and F, f represent functional relationships between Ai s and πr s,
respectively ñ rank of dimensional matrix = m̃ (number of dimensions) usually
Methods to determine πi s are two types: the first one step-wise functional process while the other is making the
governing equations and/or initial and boundary conditions dimensionless. These two are distinguished as follows

Method 1: functional Relation Method: This method sions: Mass, Length and Time M, L&T respectively, the
applied when establish empirical relationship among subsequent πj terms can be obtained by:
the experimental parameters and involves identifying
functional relationships F (Ai ) and f (πj ) by first deter- π1 = Ax1 1 + Ay21 + Az31 + A4
mining Ai ’s and then evaluating πj ’s. The Functional
Relations can be identified in either or combinations of π2 = Ax1 2 + Ay22 + Az32 + A5
the following strategies x y z
πn = A1 n−m + A2n−m + A3n−m + An
(a) Inspection Intuition
Dimensional analysis is a procedure whereby the func- And these followed by equating the sum of the exponents
tional relationship can be expressed in terms of dimen- of M, L, &t in each of the Ai ’s in the equations to zero so
sionless r parameters in which r < n = number of vari- as to the exponents are determined so that each πj ’s is
ables. Such a reduction is significant since in an exper- dimensionless.
imental or numerical investigation a reduced number of Method 2: Making the governing equations dimension-
experiments or calculations is extremely beneficial less such as differential equations, initial conditions and
(b) Step-by-step approach boundary conditions using (i) Continuity: ∇ · V = 0, (ii)
Used in model studies to express Ai ’s in-terms of selected Momentum ρ DV 2
Dt = −∇(p + γz) + µ∇ V and (iii) bound-
few coefficient pij terms such as drag and lift coefficients ary conditions such as a. Fixed solid surface boundary
(ratios of smallest to largest), for vertical or horizontal where V = 0 b. inlet or outlet where v = v0 or p = p0
scaling used, but the challenge of arise when there is and
lack of similarity can cause problems. (c) Exponent ap- c. free surface boundaries like w = ∂z ∂t and p = pa −
proach In exponent approach, suppose dimensional vari- γ( R1x + R1y ) All variables are now nondimensionalized in
ables f (Ai )’s in Equation 18 contain basic dimensions or- terms of ρ and with U reference velocity and L reference
p+ρgz
dered in descending order of exponents of basic dimen- length, V ∗ = VU , x∗ = L x
, t∗ = tU
L , and p∗ = ρU 2

13
2.6.1 Method 1: Exponential Method
Example 12: Using Dimensional Analysis, determine eddies scaling based on Kolmogorov scale, use the following
useful symbols. [8]. Assumptions

Table 4: Kolmogorov eddy scale

[8] and [1]

l0 is length scales of the largest eddies uη is velocity associated with the smallest eddies
η is length scales of the smallest eddies (Kolmogorov scale) τ0 is time scales of the largest eddies
u0 is velocity associated with the largest eddies τη is time scales of the smallest eddies

1. Large Reynolds numbers, the small-scales of motion (small eddies) are statistically steady, isotropic (no sense
of directionality), and independent of the detailed structure of the large-scales of motion.
2. The large eddies are not affected by viscous dissipation, but transfer energy to smaller eddies by inertial forces.
3. In every turbulent flow at sufficiently high Reynolds number, the statistics of the small-scale motions have a
universal form that is uniquely determined by viscosity v and dissipation rate ϵ.
Kolmogrov’s considerations or facts 1. Dissipation of energy through the action of molecular viscosity occurs at
the smallest eddies, i.e., Kolmogrov scales of motion η. The Reynolds number (Reη ) of these scales are of order(1).
2. Experimental Fluid Dynamics confirms that most eddies break-up on a timescale of their turn-over time, where
the turnover time depends on the local velocity and length scales. Thus at Kolmogrov scale η/uη = τη . 3. The rate
of dissipation of energy at the smallest scale is,
ε ≡ vSij Sij
 
∂u ∂u
where Sij = 21 ∂xη,ij
+ ∂xη,ji
is the rate of strain associated with the smallest eddies, Sij ≡ uη /η. This yields,

ε ≡ ν u2η /η 2

4. Kolmogrov scales of motion η, uη , τη can be expressed as a function of v, ε only.

Solution/Derivation:
Based on Kolmogorov’s first similarity hypothesis, the small scales of motion are function of F (η, uη , τη , v, ε) and
determined by v and ε only. Thus v and ε are repeating variables. The dimensions for v and ε are L2 T −1 and L2 T −3 ,
respectively. Herein, the exponential method is used: where η = z and
 
η, uη , τη , V ϵ Π2 = uη /(εv)1/4
2 2 F = 0 where n=5 use v and
L TL T LT , TL3 Y
ε as repeating variables, m = 2 ⇒ r = n − m = 3 = v x3 εy3 τη
3
Y
= v x1 εy1 η = L T 2 −1 x3


L2 T −3

y 3
(T )
1
L 2x3 + 2y3 = 0
⇒ (L2 T −1 )x1 (L2 T −3 )y1 L
T − x3 − 3y3 + 1 = 0
L 2x1 + 2y1 + 1 = 0
x3 = −1/2 and y3 = 1/2
T − x1 − 3y1 = 0 Y  ε 1/2
= τη
x1 = −3/4 and y1 = 1/4 3
v
 ε 1/4
Analysis of the π parameters gives,
Π1 = η 3
v uη η
Y Π1 × Π2 = = Reη ≡ 1 → Fact 1
= v x2 εy2 uη v
2

x 2
y 2 Π2 uη
= L2 T −1 L2 T −3 LT −1 × Π3 = τη = 1 → Fact 2


Π1 η
L 2x2 + 2y2 + 1 = 0 Π2 uη  ε 1/2
= ≡1
T − x2 − 3y2 − 1 = 0 Π1 η v
x2 = y2 = −1/4 → Fact 3

14
 yields Π1 = Π2 = Π3 ≡ 1
Thus Kolmogrov scales are:

1/4
η ≡ v 3 /ε ,
uη ≡ (εv)1/4 ,
τη ≡ (v/ε)1/2 → Fact 4
Ratios of the smallest to largest scales: Based on Fact 2, the rate at which energy (per unit mass) is passed
down the energy cascade from the largest eddies is,

τ0 = l0 /u0 ,
Π ≡ u20 / (l0 /u0 ) = u30 /l0 η/l0 ≡ Re−3/4 ,
Based on Kolmogorov’s universal equilibrium theory, uη /u0 ≡ Re−1/4
ε = u30 /l0 ≡ v u2η /η 2


τη /τ0 ≡ Re−1/2
Replace ε in Eqn. (16) using Eqn. (18) and note where Re = u0 l0 /v How large’s η ?

Table 5: Experimental Eddies Scaling

Cases Re η/lo lo η
Educational experiments 103 5.6 × 10−3 1cm 5.6 × 10−3 cm
Model-scale experiments 106 3.2 × 10−5 3cm 9.5 × 10−5 m
Full-scale experiments 109 1.8 × 10−7 100m 1.8 × 10−5 m

2.6.2 Method 2 & 1: Control Volume Analysis along with Functional Relation Analysis & Exponent
Method
Example 13 FIGURE 9 shows a Hydraulic jump Assumptions Say we assume that

(a) (b)

Figure 9: Hydraulic Jump: a. Dimensions; b, Control Volume analysis

V1 = V1 (ρ, g, µ, y1 , y2 ) or V2 = V1 y1 /y2
| {z }

15
 Method 1: Functional Relationship
the functional relationship approach can be expressed in terms of r dimensionless parameters in which r < n number
of variables.

Experiments can be done in one of the following ways Fr = Fr (y2 /y1 ) do not need to know both y2 and y1 ,
only ratio to get Fr Also, shows in an experiment it
1. Fixing or controlling ρ & g varying µ
is not necessary to vary γ, y1 , y2 , V 1 , and V2 , but only
2. Fixing or controlling ρ & µ varying g Fr and y2 /y1 Next, can get an estimate of hL from the
energy equation (along free surface from 1 → 2 )
3. Fixing or controlling µ & g varying ρ
In general F (A1 , A2 , . . . , An ) = 0 dimensional form V12 V2
+ y1 = 2 + y2 + hL
 2g 2g
f (Π1 , Π2 , . . . , Πr ) = 0 Dimensionless πs 3
Π1 = Π2 , . . . , Πr Variables (y2 − y1 )
hL =
4y1 y2
This can also be shown that
Method 1: Exponent Method
 
V1 y2
Fr = √ = Fr ̸= f (µ) due to assumptions made in deriving 1-D steady
gy 1 y1
flow energy equations Exponent method to deter-
neglect µ ( ρ drops out as will be shown) thus only need mine Πj ’s for Hydraulic jump
one experiment to determine the functional relationship
1
x − x2


x Fr use V = V1 , y1 , ρ as
2
0 0 repeating variables
1/2 .61
1/2
Fr = 12 x(1 + x)

1 1 Π1 = V x1 y1y1 ρz1 µ
2 1.7
5 3.9
x1
= LT −1
Method 2: Control Volume Analysis
For this particular application we can determine the func- F (g, V1 , y1 , y2 , ρ, µ) = 0 n = 6
L L M M
tional relationship through the use of a control volume T 2 T LL L3 LT
analysis: (neglecting Pµ and bottom friction) x-momentum
P
z1
equation: Fx = Vx ρV · A M L−3 M L−1 T −1
Note: each term in equation must have some units: prin-
ciple of dimensional homogeneity, continuity equation: m=3⇒r =n−m=3
V1 y1 = V2 y2 i.e., in this case, force per unit width N/m
y1 = 3z1 + 1 − x1 = −1
y2 y2 L x1 + y1 − 3z1 − 1 = 0
γ 1 − γ 2 = V1 ρ (−V1 y1 ) + V2 ρ (V2 y2 )
2 2 T − x1
γ 2
γ
y1 − y22 = V22 y2 − V12 y1


−1=0
2 g
+1=0
V1 y1
V2 = x1 = −1
y2
"  2 #
2
  µ
γy1 y2 2γ y1 M z 1 Π1 = ρy1 V
1− = V1 y1 −1
2 y1 g y2 or
| {z } | {z }
inertial forces
pressure forces Π2 = V x2 y1y2 ρz2 g
due to gravity

x2
= LT −1
 
y
1− y2 y13 V2
1
now divide equation by gy 2
1
gy 1 =
z2
1 y2

y2
 (L)y2 M L−3 LT −2
2 y1 1 + y1 ←− dimensionless equation ratio of in-
ρy1 V

2
ertia forces/gravity forces = (Froude number 2 note: Π−1
1 = = Reynolds number = Re
µ

Assume m̂ = m to avoid evaluating rank of 6 × 6 dimensional matrix L x2 + y2 − 3z2 + 1 = 0 y2 = −1 − x2 = 1

−1/2
T −x2 − 2 = 0 x2 = −2 M z2 = 0 Π2 = V −2 y1 g = gy V2
1
Π2 = √Vgy = Froude number = F r Π3 =
1
x3 z3
LT −1 ( L)y3 M L−3 y2 L x3 +y3 + 3z3 + 1 = 0 y3 = −1 T −x3 = 0 M −3z3 = 0 Π3 = yy12 Π−1 y1



3 = y2 =
depth ratio f (Π1 , Π2 , Π3 ) = 0 or, Π2 = Π2 (Π1 , Π3 ) i.e., Fr = Fr (Re, y2 /y1 )

2.6.3 Common Dimensionless Parameters for Fluid

Most common physical quantities of importance in fluid flow problems are: (without heat transfer)

16
 Table 6: Common Physical Quantities

S Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Properties V ρ g µ σ K ∆P L

2
inertia forces ρV /L
1. Reynolds number Re = ρLL µ = viscous forces µV /L2 Re, Rcrit distinguishes among flow regions: laminar or
turbulent value varies depending upon flow situation
ρV 2 /L
2. Froude number F r = √V = inertia forces
gL gravity force γ

F r Important parameter in free-surface flows

2 2
ρV /L
3. Weber number W e = ρV σ L = surfaceinertia force
tension force σ/L2 W e important parameter at gas-liquid or liquid-liquid
interfaces and when these surfaces are in contact with a boundary
q
4. Mach number M a = √V = Va = inertia force
compressibility force
k/ρ

Ma has Paramount importance in high speed flow (V ≥ c)

∆p pressure force ∆p/L
5. Pressure Coefficient CP = ρV 2 = inertia force ρV 2 /L is also known as pressure coefficient Cp or EulorN umber

All equations can be put in nondimensional form by making the substitution

DV ∗ ∇∗2
V =V U ∗ = −∇ ∗ P 8 +
Dt Re
∂ ∂ ∂t∗ U ∂
= ∗ = 1. V ∗ = 0
∂t ∂t ∂t L ∂t∗
∂ ∂ ∂
∇= î + ĵ + k̂ Vo
∂x ∂y ∂z 2. V ∗ = U p∗ = po
ρV 2
∂ ∂x∗ ∂ ∂y ∗ ∂ ∂z ∗
= î + ĵ + k̂ ∂η ∗
∂x∗ ∂x ∂y ∗ ∂y ∂z ∗ ∂z 3. w∗ = ∂t∗
1 ∗
= ∇
L po gL γ
p∗ = + 2 z∗ + Rx∗−1 + Ry∗−1


∂u∗
and ∂u
∂x = 1L x∂∗ (U u∗ ) = U L ∂x∗ etc. Result: ∇∗ · V ∗ = 0 ρV 2 U ρV 2 L
DV ∗ µ 1
= −∇ ∗ P 8 + ∇ ∗2 V ∗ p∗ = Cp + Fr2 Z ∗ +
Dt ρV L We (Rx ∗ +Ry ∗)

2.6.4 Method 1: Step-by-Step Approach or Scaling-up Similarity and Model Testing

Flow conditions for a model test are completely similar if all relevant dimensionless parameters have the same
corresponding values for model and prototype

Πi model = Πi prototype i = 1, r = n − m̂(m)

Enables extrapolation from model to full scale However, complete similarity usually not possible
Therefore, often it is necessary to use Re, or Fr, or Ma scaling, i.e., select most important Π and accommodate
others as best possible Types of Similarity:
1. Geometric Similarity (similar length scales): A model and prototype are geometrically similar if and only if all
body dimensions in all three coordinates have the same linear-scale ratios
α = Lm /Lp (α < 1)
2. Kinematic Similarity (similar length and time scales): The motions of two systems are kinematically similar
if homologous (same relative position) particles lie at homologous points at homologous times 3) Dynamic
Similarity (similar length, time and force (or mass) scales):
In addition to the requirements for kinematic similarity, the model and prototype forces must be in a constant ratio.
Example 14 Consider the following dimensional parameters F (D, L, V, g, ρ, v) = f (CD , F r, Re) = 0 where n = 6
and m = 3 thus r = n − m = 3 pi terms in dimensionless form as we derived earlier. Use similarity of the model and
prototype forces to maintain a constant ratio in terms of dimensionless coefficients such as: a. Froude Scaling Fr ,
b. Reinhold’s scaling Re , and a. drag coefficient Scaling CD , for the Model Testing in Water (with a free surface) if
α = 1/10, check the possibilities using intuition and values from standard properties table like Table 3.

In a dimensionless form,
CD = f (F r, Re) 17
 D Vm = Vp /α
CD = 1 2 2
2 ρV L
V But if α = 1/10, Vm = 10Vp High speed testing is difficult
Fr = √
gL and expensive. In other words, one could alternatively
VL maintain Re similarity and obtain the prototype test at
Re =
v Vp = 31.63Vm times that of the model or a requires a high
Solution a. Using the ratio of model to prototype and speed expensive test and difficult to achieve. c.
substituting the values for the corresponding parameters
in the dimensionless Dm Dp
Vm Vp CDm = CDp or =
If F rm = F rp or √ =p ρm Vm2 L2m ρp Vp2 L2p
gLm gLp
√
gLm √
Vm = p Vp = αVp
gLp Vm2 Vp2
=
The prototype can be intended tested √1α Froude scaling gm Lm gp Lp
which means vp = 3.163vm . It is practically impossible gm V 2 Lp
= m2
to find such a super-fluid. The fluid with least friction in gp Vp Lm
the table 3 is mercury for which ν = 1.2 × 10−7 m2 /s. b. 1 1 1
gm = gp 2 = gp 3
Vm Lm Vp Lp α α α
and Rem = Rep or =
vm vp
vm Vm Lm The similarity test with CD with gm = gp α12 impossible
= = α1/2 × α = α3/2 to achieve because substituting for α gives gm = 1000gp
vp Vp Lp

2.7 Review Exercise Part I:Questions A

1. Distinguish between solids and fluids, and enumerate fluid mechanics applications
dv
2. Consider viscosity among fluid properties. Newtonian fluids are those that exhibit τ = µ dy where τ is applied
dv
shear and dy is velocity gradient along the depth. Applied shear is not proportional to flow gradient for Non-
dv n
Newtonian fluids such as plastics τ = τy + µ dy , dialatants ( µ increases with y ), and pseudoplastics ( µ
decreases with y ). Draw graph mu − y to demonstrate fluids types based on their viscous properties µ and
convert between SI and BI system units of µ. Additionally reason-out consistency of Manning formula
3. The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure is measured by a multifluid manometer as shown
in figure below. The tank is located on a mountain at an altitude of 1400m where the atmospheric pressure is
85.6 kP a. Determine the air pressure in the tank if h1 = 0.1m, h2 = 0.2m, and h3 = 0.35m. take the densities
of water, oil, and mercury to be 1000kg/m3 , 850 kg/m3 , and 13600kg/m3 , respectively.

Figure 10: QuestionA3

4. At 60°C the surface tension of mercury and water is 0.47 and 0.0662 N/m, respectively. What capillary height
changes will occur in these two fluids when they are in contact with air in a clean glass tube of diameter 0.4
mm? Hint: Equate vertical component of surface tension force to gravity (2πr2 σ)y = γπr2 h
5. Three pipes steadily deliver water at 20o C to a large exit pipe in Figure 11. The velocity V 2 = 5m/s, and the
exit flow rate Q4 = 120m3 /h. Find (a) V1 ; (b) V3 ; and (c) V 4 if it is known that increasing Q3 by 20% would
increase Q4 by 10%.
6. In Fig.12 the fluid is gasoline at 20o C at a weight flux of 120N/s. Assuming no losses, estimate the gauge
pressure at section 2. For gasoline, ρ = 680kg/m3 . Compute the velocities from the given flow rate:

18
 Figure 11: Exe5

Figure 12: exe6

7. The velocity field near a stagnation point in 1 may be written in the form u = uL0 , and v = uL0 . where u0 and L
are constants, Show that the acceleration vector is purely radial. (b) For the particular case L = 1.5m, if the
acceleration at (x, y) = (1m, 1m) is 25m/s2 , what is the value of u0 ?
8. An incompressible flow in polar coordinates is given by vr = kcosθ(1 − f racbr2 ) and vθ = ksinθ(1 + f racbr2 .
Evaluate whether the continuity equation is satisfied.
9. A two-dimensional incompressible flow is defined by u = − x2ky +y 2 and u =
ky
x2 +y 2 where k is constant. Is this
flow irrotational? If so, find its velocity potential ϕ(x, y).
10. A two-dimensional incompressible flow is given by the velocity field V = 3yi + 2xj, in arbitrary units. Does
this flow satisfy continuity? If so, find the stream function ψ(x, y).
v12 1 y2 y2
11. Use control volume dimensional analysis method to drive gy1 = 2 y1 (1 + y1

12. Consider the following dimensional parameters F (D, L, V, g, ρ, v, a) = f (CD , F r, Re) = 0 where n = 6 and
m = 3 and r = n − m = 3 π terms in dimensionless form as we derived earlier. Use similarity of the model and
prototype forces to maintain a constant ratio in terms of dimensionless coefficients such as: a. Froude Scaling
Fr , b. Reinhold’s scaling Re , and c. drag coefficient Scaling CD = f (Fr , M a), for the wind tunnel testing, and
show that the scaling violates the similarity criteria.

3 Boundary layer, Compressible and Incompressible Flow, and Losses

in Pipe
In engineering we are interested in calculating friction, heat and mass transfer within a fluid. Most of these processes
take place at interfaces.

3.1 Boundary Layer

Boundary layers are of vital importance for transport phenomena. The boundary layer is the area around an interface
(solid/fluid, fluid/fluid) where there exist large property gradients in the direction across the interface, giving rise to
the processes of friction, heat transfer and mass transfer. They are thin areas within the fluid, with large property
gradients, that appear in solid/fluid and fluid/fluid interfaces. Despite being a small area of the fluid flow, most
of the transport processes of momentum, heat and mass take place there. Thus, they are decisive in the design of
equipment that involves transport phenomena. There exist two types of fluid interfaces:

19
 ˆ Those in which the fluid is in contact with a solid wall, called solid/f luidinterf aces.

ˆ Those where fluids with different properties meet, which are called f luid/f luidinterf aces. These canbe of
various types, i.e. gas/gas, gas/liquidorliquid/liquid.

According to the transported property involved, boundary layers can be classified as follows.
ˆ Viscous boundary layer (for the velocity or momentum), with thickness δ.

ˆ Thermal boundary layer (for the temperature or energy), with thickness δT

ˆ Mass boundary layer (for the chemical concentrations), with thickness delta.

As for the flow field, boundary layers can be laminar or turbulent. It is very important to distinguish these
two types of flows, because transport phenomena at interfaces depend heavily on this trait. For each kind of flow
regime, different correlations are applicable to quantify the transport coefficients. The number that governs
the transition from laminar to turbulent flow is the transition Reynolds number Re , which depends on the geometry
of the flow among other factors such as the free-stream turbulence and surface roughness.

3.2 Boundary Theories: Prandtl BL Theory

3.2.1 viscous Compressible BL-Velocity, Thermal & Mass
A. Prandtl Theory: states that for high Reynolds numbers, the boundary layer thickness δ at a position x = L
from the beginning of the boundary layer is much smaller than L, i.e., δ << L The coordinate axis shown in Fig.

(a) (b)

Figure 13: a. Boundary Layer Schematic Diagram b. Estimating boundary layer velocities

13. The x axis is aligned to the boundary layer along the interface; the y axis is set perpendicularly to the interface.
For viscous boundary layer
∂u ∂u ∂2u ∂2u
<< && << (19)
∂x ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2
The approximation velocity derivatives as 13 b. shows are
∂u Ue −0 ∂u Ue −0
∂x = L & ∂y = δ
2
∂ u Ue −0 ∂2u Ue −0 (20)
∂x2 = L2 & ∂y 2 = δ2

The boundary layer the convective term is of the same order of magnitude as the viscous term, the two components
in Equation 20 can relate the equations.
∂2u ∂2u
= v (21)
∂x2 ∂y 2
Ue UeL−0 = v Ueδ−0
2 Approximating the above derivatives in Eq.21
δ2 Ue −0
L = Ue L Simiplifying and (22)
δ √1
L = R
for the Characteristic Reynolds No. ReL
eL

For Eq. 22 and a given position x = L, if the Reynolds number increases, the boundary layer thickness decreases.
For instance, for a given free-stream velocity Ue and length L, the fluid with the smallest kinematic viscosity v will
have the smallest boundary layer thickness δ.

20
The thermal boundary layer distinguished according to Prandtl theory as: P r << 1 or δ << δT with Ue boundary
velocity scale and P r >> 1
2
u ∂T ∂ T
∂x ≡ α ∂y 2 thermal boundary layer, the convective term
2
Ue ∆T
L = α ∆T
2
δT
∆T is the temperature difference across the thermal boundary layer (23)
δT √1
L = PeL
Simplifying

For P r >> 1, which implies δ >> δT In this case, since the viscous boundary layer is much thicker than the thermal
layer, the characteristic velocity within the thermal boundary layer in Figure 13 can be taken as the velocity at
y = δT . Assuming a linear near-wall velocity profile in the viscous boundary layer, the characteristic velocity can be
taken as
∆T
u(y = ∆T ) ≡ δU e
the characteristic velocity
2
∂T ∂ T
u ∂x ≡ α ∂y2 thermal boundary layer, the convective term (24)
δT ∂2
u ∂x = α P
√ Simplifying
eL

Mass Boundary Layer

For the mass boundary layer, similar conclusions as for the thermal boundary layer are reached, but substituting PeL
by PeIIL and Pr by Sc also known as Schmidt number:
δc √ 1
L = PeIIL
if Sc < 1
−1 −1 −1
1
δc
≡ ReL Sc = PeIIL Sc
2 3 2 6 if Sc > 1 (25)
L 1 1 1 √
δ ≡ L 2 ,δT ≡ L 2 &δc ≡ L 2 Laminar boundary layers grow with L

3.2.2 Relative Boundary Layer Thicknesses

Combining the above approximations for the boundary layer thicknesses, the following conclusions are reached.

Temperature BL Mass BL
−1 −1
P r << 1 , δδT ≡ P r 2 Sc << 1text, δδc ≡ Sc 2 (26)
−1 −1
P r >> 1 , δδT ≡ P r 3 Sc >> 1text, δδc ≡ Sc 3
2
αϕ ∂∂yϕ2 = αϕ ∆ϕL2 the characteristic velocity
∂2T
u ∂T
∂x ≡ α ∂y 2 thermal boundary layer, the convective term (27)
∂2T
u δT
∂x = α √
P
Simplifying
eL

3.3 Incompressible Boundary Layer Equations

Consider two-dimensional, incompressible, steady, with constant fluid properties (ρ, µ, κ, DAB , Cp etc.), negligible
viscous dissipation (small Mach number) and without chemical reaction (ωA = 0). Under the above hypothesis, the
equations of continuity, momentum, temperature and chemical concentration become
∂u ∂v
∂x + ∂y = 0 Continuity Equation
1 ∂p ∂2u ∂2u
u ∂u ∂u
∂x + v ∂y = − ρ ∂x + ν( ∂x2 + ∂y 2 ) x Momentum Equation
∂v ∂v ∂p ∂2v ∂2v
u ∂x + v ∂y = − ρ1 ∂y + ν( ∂x 2 + ∂y 2 ) y Momentum Equation
2 2
u ∂T ∂T ∂ T ∂ T
∂x + v ∂y = α( ∂x2 + ∂y 2 ) Temperature/Energy Equation
2
∂ 2 CA
u ∂C ∂CA ∂ CA
∂x + v ∂y = DA ( ∂x2 + ∂y 2 )
A
Concentration/Mass Equation
Where ν = µρ and α = ρC κ
p
κ, ν both have dimensions L2 T −1

These transport equations can be simplified studying the orders of magnitude of all the terms, as in Equation 27, to
finally yield the boundary layer equations.

Simplified BL Equations Simplifications and Terms Neglected Name of BL Equation and Justi
∂u ∂v
∂x + ∂y = 0 Ve ≡ Lδ Ue vertical Velocity inside BL Continuity E
∂p 2 2 2 2 2
u ∂u ∂u
∂x + v ∂y = − ρ1 ∂x + ν( ∂∂yu2 ) since ∂∂xu2 ≡ ∂∂yu2 Lδ 2 ≡ 0 x Momentum Equation since δ << L, Lδ 2 term n
∂p ∂2v Ue δ δ2 2
similarly ,0 = − ρ1 ∂y since ∂x ∂P
2 ≡ L L2 ≡ 0, ∂y = Px L2 ≡ 0 y Momentum Equation since δ << L, Lδ 2 term n
∂2T 2 2
similarly ,u ∂T ∂T
∂x + v ∂y = α ∂y 2 because αϕ ∂∂xT2 << αϕ ∂∂yT2 Temperature/Energy E
2 2 2
u ∂C ∂CA ∂ CA
∂x + v ∂y = DA ∂y 2
A
because αϕ ∂∂xT2 << αϕ ∂∂yT2 Concentration/Mass E
(28)

21
3.4 Measures of the Boundary Layer Thickness
The neighborhood of the interfaces, where the fluid variables evolve from the interface to the free-stream values
denoted by the BL thickness, or alternatively linked to other different physical phenomena. The following equation
summarizes boundary layer variables, conditions in relation to free stream values

BL Vel. . u(x, y = δ(x)) = Ue (x) Defined δ

BL Temp. . T (x, y = δT (x)) = Te (x) Defined δT
BL Concent./Mass . CA (x, y = δC (x)) = CAe (x) Defined δC
BL Vel. . u(x, y = δ99 (x)) = 0.99Ue (x) BL Approx. 99% free stream
BL Temp. . T (x, y = δ99 (x)) − T0 = 0.99(Te − T0 ) Approx. BL 99% Free stream
BL Concent. . CA (x, y = δ99 (x)) − CA0 = 0.99(CAe − CA0 ) Approx. Mass BL 99% Free stream
(29)
Example15: A researcher is interested in the aerodynamic resistance FD of spheres. He conducts several experiments
kg −5 kg
in an aerodynamic tunnel at atmospheric conditions ρ = 1.2 m 3 and µ = 1.8 × 10 ms with a sphere of a diameter
1
D = 10cm, concluding that FD = 0.0015V .92 where V is the uniform upstream air velocity. a. Determine the
correlation between CD = 1 ρVFD2 D2 and Re = ρVµD with potential correlation CD = KRem by determining m. b.
2
Determine the resistance of a D = 2cm sphere at an air speed of V = 1m/s. Solution a Expanding the dimensionless
equation, CD = KRem
FD ρV D m 1 ρV D m
1 2 D2
= C( ) F = C ρV 2 D2 ( )
2 ρV µ 2 µ
Maintaining consistency with the empirical relation taking out V,
1 ρD m (2+m)
FD = 0.0015V 1 .92 = C ρD2 ( ) V
2 µ

Collecting like terms, 0.0015 = C 12 ρD2 ( ρD m

µ ) and 2 + m = 1.92 that the later one gives m = −0.08 while substituting
the value yields
0.0015
C= 1.2kg/m3 10cm −0.08
( 12 1.2kg/m3 × (10cm)2 ( 1.8x10−5 kg/ms )

C = 0.306 b Therefore, the correlation is CD = 0.306Re−0.08 and if sphere diameter is 2cm, and air speed 1m/s,
Re = ρVµD = 1.2×1m/s×2cm
1.8×10−5 = 1333 and CD = 0.306Re−0.08 = 0.2846 with FD = 21 CD ρ(V D)2 = 6.83 × 10−5 N

3.5 Pipe Flow: Head losses

This section involves an important practical fluids engineering problem: flow in ducts with various velocities, various
fluids, and various duct shapes. Piping systems are encountered in almost every engineering design and thus have
been studied extensively. There is a small amount of theory plus a large amount of experimentation. The head losses
for a steady incompressible flow in a constant section pipe could be expressed by the Darcy Weisbach equation

∆P ϵ L u2
hf = = λ( , ReD ) (30)
ρg D D 2g
Where D is pipe diameter, L the pipe length U the mean velocity and the ϵ characteristic length of the roughness.
The equation can also be determined by dimensional analysis and similitude Exercise 3 Drive the expression in
Equation 30 with the help of dimensional analysis. Correlations for the friction factor in circular cross-section pipes
as presented in the table below. Some correlations for λ. Also, the Moody Diagram 15 depicts graphically the friction

Table 7: Pipe Friction Factor for Different Flow Regime

Flow Regime . Friction Factor λ

64
Laminar ReD ¡2300 ReD
Turbulent ReD > 2300 √1
λ
Colebrook = −2.0log( ϵ/D
3.7 +
Re
√D )
λ
√
ϵ/D
Fully rough Reϵ/D
D λ
> 70 √1 Nikuradse = −2.0log( 3.7 )
λ √
smooth Pipes √1 Prandtl = −2.0log(ReD λ) − 0.8
λ

factor as a function of the Reynolds number based on the pipe diameter and the relative roughness as shown in the
figure below

22
 Figure 14: horizontal pipe flow regions

3.5.1 Singular losses

Besides constant section straight pipes, one can find components such as bends, valves, Tees, expansions and so on.
In these elements, the viscous dissipation gives rise to energy losses, which are called singular or local head losses
from Moody diagram based on The Reynolds number is based on the pipe diameter D. The pressure loss given by
the Darcy-Weisbach equation and τ0 as a function of friction coefficient cf
2
L 1 2 πD 1 2
λD 2 ρU 4 = Cf 2 ρU π
λ (31)
where Cf = 4

The where Ks is the dimensionless singular head loss coefficient. The constant Ks depends on the element type and
its geometry given in 8. Therefore, for each new design,it has to be experimentally determined. Typically, for high
Reynolds numbers,Ks is considered independent of Re and so, can be taken as a constant. The reference velocity U
can be the upstream or downstream mean velocity. The basic momentum correlations coefficient of Table 8 are for
constant property boundary layers.
Example 16: As you could see from 8, the accepted transition Reynolds number for flow in a circular pipe is

Table 8: Singular loss coefficient and Basic momentum correlation coeffcient for various flow regime

Geometry Regime Correlation Ks

flat plate Laminar Rex < 3 × 10 5
Cfx = 0.664Rex −1/2
Laminar Rex < 3 × 10 5
CfL = 1.328ReL −1/2
[4]
Turbulent Rex > 3 × 10 5
Cfx = 0.664Rex −1/5
16
Pipe Laminar ReD < 2300 Cf = Re D
−1/5
Turbulent 3 × 104 < ReD < 106 Cf = 0.046ReD
Elements Ks
Outlet off tank into pipe 0.05-1
A1 2
Sudden expansion (1 − A 2
)
A1
Sudden Contraction 0.42(1 − A2 ) if D2/D1 ≤ 0.76
(1 − A 1 2
A2 ) if D2/D1 ≤ 0.76
Long Radius 90o Elbow 0.4
Long Radius 90o Elbow 0.9
Valve Fully Open 0.03-14
Get Valve Fully Open 0.1
Globe Valve Fully Open 8.0

Red, crit = 2300. For flow through a 5cm diameter pipe, at what velocity will this occur at 20o C for (a) airflow and
(b) water flow?
Solution Almost all pipe flow formulas are based on the average velocity V = Q/A, not centerline or any other
point velocity. Therefore, the transition is specified at ρVµD = 300. With D known, we introduce the appropriate
fluid properties at 20o C from Standard Table as shown below:

Table 9: Common Fluid Properties at 20o C

[1] Common Fluids properties/parameters

23
Figure 15: Moody Diagram
[9][10]

24
 Bulk modulus, Viscosity
Liquid ρ, kg/m3 µ, kg/(m · s) Y, N/m∗ pv , N/m2
N2 parameter C∗
Ammonia 608 2.20 × 10−4 2.13 × 10−2 9.10 × 10+ 5 − 1.05
Benzene 881 6.51 × 10−4 2.88 × 10−2 1.01 × 104 1.4 × 109 4.34
Carbon tetrachloride 1, 590 9.67 × 10−4 2.70 × 10−2 1.20 × 104 9.65 × 108 4.45
Ethanol 789 1.20 × 10−3 2.28 × 10−2 5.7 × 103 9.0 × 108 5.72
−2 −2
Ethylene glycol 1, 117 2.14 × 10 4.84 × 10 1.2 × 101 − 11.7
−4
Freon 12 1, 327 2.62 × 10 − − − 1.76
Gasoline 680 2.92 × 10−4 2.16 × 10−2 5.51 × 104 9.58 × 108 3.68
Glycerin 1, 260 1.49 6.33 × 10− 2 1.4 × 10−2 4.34 × 109 28.0
−3
Kerosine 804 1.92 × 10 2.8 × 10− 2 3.11 × 103 1.6 × 109 5.56
− −1
Mercury 13, 550 1.56 × 10 3 4.84 × 10 1.1 × 10−3 2.55 × 101 0 1.07
−4 −
Methanol 791 5.98 × 10 2.25 × 10 2 1.34 × 104 8.3 × 108 4.63
SAE oil 10W 30 870 1.04 × 10 1∗ 3.6 × 10−2
−
− 1.31 × 109 15.7
SAE oil 876 1.7 × 10−1 ∗ − − − 14.0
SAE 30W oil 891 2.9 × 10−1 ∗ 3.5 × 10−2 − 1.38 × 109 18.3
SAE 50W oil 902 8.6 × 10−1 ∗ − − − 20.2
Water 998 1.00 × 10− 3 7.28 × 10−2 2.34 × 103 2.19 × 109 Table A.1
Seawater (30%) 1, 025 1.07 × 10− 3 7.28 × 10− 2 2.34 × 10+ 3 2.33 × 10+ 9 7.28
Selecting relevant properties from 9,
ρV d (1.205 kg/m3 )V (0.05 m)
(a) Air: µ = 1.80×10− 5 kg/(m·s) = 2300 or V ≈ 0.7 m s
ρV d (998 kg/m3 )V (0.05 m)
(b) Water: µ = 0.001 kg/(m·s) = 2300 or V = 0.046 m s
Example 17: Work Moody’s problem in Figure 15 backward to find the unknown 6in diameter if the flow rate
Q = 1.18f t3 /s is known. Recall L = 200f t, ϵ = 0.0004f t, and ν = 1.1 × 10− 5f t2 /s.
Solution
Write f, Red , and ϵ/d in terms of the diameter:


π 2 ghf d5 π 2 32.2f t/s2 (4.5f t)d5
f= = = 0.642d5 or d ≈ 1.093f 1/5
8 LQ2 8 (200f t) (1.18f t3 /s)2


4 1.18f t3 /s 136, 600
Red = =
π (1.1 × 10r − 5f t2 /s) d d
ϵ 0.0004f t
=
d d
with everything in BG units, of course. Guess f ; compute d , Red , and ϵ/d ; and then compute a better f from the
Moody chart. Repeat until convergence. With an an initial f ≈ 0.03 guess:

f ≈ 0.03 d ≈ 1.093(0.03)1/5 ≈ 0.542f t

136, 600 ϵ
Red = ≈ 252, 000 ≈ 7.38 × 10−4
0.542 d
ϵ
fnew ≈ 0.0196 dnew ≈ 0.498f t Red ≈ 274, 000 ≈ 8.03 × 10−4
d
fbetter ≈ 0.0198 d ≈ 0.499f t

Convergence is rapid, and the predicted diameter is correct, about 6 in. The slight discrepancy (0.499 rather than
0.500f t) arises because hf was rounded to 4.5f t.
Example 18 Consider to measure the volume flow of water ρ = 1000kg 3 /m3 , ν = 1.02 × 10−6 m2 /s moving through

a 200mm diameter pipe at an average velocity of 2.0m/s. If the differential pressure gage selected reads accurately
at p1 − p2 = 50, 000P a, what size meter should be selected for installing (a) an orifice with D : 21 D taps, (b) a
long-radius flow nozzle, or (c) a venturi nozzle? What would be the nonrecoverable head loss for each design?
Solution Here the unknown is the β ratio of the meter. Since the discharge coefficient is a complicated function of
β, iteration will be necessary. We are given D = 0.2m and V1 = 2.0m/s. The pipeapproach Reynolds number is thus

V1 D (2.0)(0.2)
ReD = = = 392, 000
y 1.02 × 10−6

For all three cases [(a) to (c)] the generalized formula 3.5 holds:
 1/2
V1 2 (p1 − p2 ) Cd
Vt = = α α=
β2 ρ (1 − β 4 )
1/2

25
where the given data are V1 = 2.0m/s, ρ = 1000kg/m3 , and ∆p = 50, 000P a. Inserting these known values into
above Eq. gives a relation between β and α :
 1/2
2.0 2(50, 000) 0.2
2
= α or β 2 =
β 1000 α
The unknowns are β (or α ) and Cd . Parts (a) to (c) depend upon the particular chart or formula needed for
Cd = f (ReD , β). We can make an initial guess β = 0.5 and iterate to convergence. Part (a) For the orifice with
D : 12 D taps, use Eq the given above and Table 30. The iterative sequence is
β1 = 0.5, Cd1 = 0.604, α1 = 0.624, β2 = 0.566, Cd2 ∼ 0.606, α2 m0.640, β3 = 0.559
We have converged to three figures. The proper orifice diameter is
d = βD = 112mm
Ans. (a) Part (b) For the long radius flow nozzle, Fig.15 or iteration. The iterative sequence is
β1 ≈ 0.5, Cd1 ≈ 0.9891, α1 = 1.022, β2 ≈ 0.442, Cd2 = 0.9896, α2 n1.009, β3 = 0.445
We have converged to three figures. The proper nozzle diameter is
d = βD = 89mm
Part (c) For the venturi nozzle, use or . The iterative sequence is
β1 ≈ 0.5, Cd1 ≈ 0.977, α1 ≈ 1.009, β2 = 0.445, Cd2 ≈ 0.9807, α2 = 1.0004, β3 = 0.447
We have converged to three figures. The proper venturi diameter is
d = βD = 89mm
Ans. (c)

3.5.2 Orifice meter or venna contracta

As demonstrated in figure 3, the solution can be attained alternatively, the velocity of the fluid flow on the vena
contracta is defined according to [2] by
1 p
V2 = r  4 2g∆h
1− D 2
D1

and the actual flow rate is determined by

c O AO p
Qact = r  4 2g∆h
1− D O
D1

where: Qact = actual flow rate CO = coefficient of discharge for orifice AO = cross section area of the orifice D1 =
pipe diameter, (29mm) Do = orifice diameter, (20mm) ∆h = difference in pressure head
subsubsectionVenturimeter The venturi meter also exploits pressure difference between flow at inlet and flow at
throat by applying the Bernoulli’s equation. The equation In this equipment, the flow rate is defined by
cV A2 p
Qact = r  4 2g∆h
D2
1− D 1

where: Qact = actual flow rate CV = coefficient of discharge for venturi A2 = cross section area of the throat D1 =
pipe diameter, (29mm) D2 = throat diameter, (17mm) ∆h = difference in pressure head
subsubsectionPitot tube and Rotameter Pitot Tube is a kind of flow meter instrument that applies the pressure
difference of the stagnation point and another place on fluid flow. In this case, the velocitiy of fluid flow on the
stagnation point is assumed as zero. The equation to calculate the actual flow rate of flowing liquid is
p
Qact = CP A1 2g∆h
where : Qact = actual flow rate CP = coefficient of discharge for pitot tube A1 = cross section area of the pipe
(D1=19 mm) ∆h = difference in pressure head Rotameter This kind of flowing instrument is applying the force
balance on the floater for measuring the flow rate. The equation for determining the velocity of the fluid is where
: Vf = velocity of the fluid flow Vfloater = volume of the floater CD = coefficient of the discharge Afloater = Cross
section area of the floater
g = 9.81m/s2
For solved problems on flow measurement, please visit the website [11]

26
3.6 Review Exercise B
1. Verify the order of magnitude of δ, δT , δC for laminar flow.
2. Drive the the expressions derived for the relative boundary layer thicknesses at Section 26
3. Are low-speed, small-scale air and water boundary layers really thin? Consider flow at U1 = f t/s past a flat
plate 1f t long. Compute the boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge for (a) air and (b) water at 20o C.

4 Objective Questions for Practice

Practice questions with free feedback can be accessed online via [12], more questions at [13], further at [14] and [15]

1. Free surface of a liquid tends to contract to the smallest possible area due to force of
(a) Surface tension
(b) Viscosity
(c) Friction
(d) Cohesion
2. The Metacentric heights of two floating bodies A and B are 1m and 1.5m respectively. Select the correct
statement.
(a) The bodies A and B have equal stability
(b) The body A is more stable than body B
(c) The body B is more stable than body A
(d) The bodies A and B are unstable
3. The rise or depression of liquid in a tube due to surface tension will increase in size of tube will
(a) Increase
(b) Remain unaffected
(c) May increase or decrease depending on the characteristics of liquid
4. A body floats in stable equilibrium
(a) When its meatcentric height is zero
(b) When the metacentre is above e.g.
(c) When its e.g. is below its center of buoyancy
(d) Metacentre has nothing to do with position of e.g. for determining stability
5. The total pressure on a horizontally immersed surface is (where w = Specific weight of the liquid, A = Area of
the immersed surface, and x = Depth of the centre of gravity of the immersed surface from the liquid surface)
(a) wA
(b) wx
(c) wAx
(d) wA/x
6. The discharge of a depressed nappe is 6 to 7 percent that of a free nappe.
(a) Less than
(b) More than
(c) Equal to
(d) None of these
7. The line of action of the buoyant force acts through the Centroid of the
(a) Submerged body
(b) Volume of the floating body
(c) Volume of the fluid vertically above the body

27
 (d) Displaced volume of the fluid
8. The intensity of pressure at any point, in a liquid, is
(a) Directly proportional to the area of the vessel containing liquid
(b) Directly proportional to the depth of liquid from the surface
(c) Directly proportional to the length of the vessel containing liquid
(d) Inversely proportional to the depth of liquid from the surface
9. During the opening of a valve in a pipe line, the flow is
(a) Steady
(b) Unsteady
(c) Uniform
(d) Laminar
10. A manometer is used to measure
(a) pressure
(b) temperature
(c) flow rate
(d) density
11. For hypersonic flow, the Mach number is
(a) Unity
(b) M a < 1
(c) M a > 1
(d) M a > 2
12. The theoretical velocity of jet at vena contracta is (where H = Head of water at vena contracta)
(a) 2gH
√
(b) H × (2g)
√
(c) 2g × H
√
(d) (2gh)
13. For pipes, laminar flow occurs when Reynolds number is
(a) Less than 2000
(b) Between 2000 and 4000
(c) More than 4000
(d) Less than 4000
14. When the flow in an open channel is gradually varied, the flow is said to be
(a) Steady uniform flow
(b) Steady non-uniform flow
(c) Unsteady uniform flow
(d) Unsteady non-uniform flow
15. Property of a fluid by which molecules of different kinds of fluids are attracted to each other is called
(a) Adhesion
(b) Cohesion
(c) Viscosity
(d) Compressibility
16. What is fluid mechanics?
(a) Study of fluid behaviour at rest

28
 (b) Study of fluid behaviour in motion
(c) Study of fluid behaviour at rest and in motion
(d) Study of fluid behaviour at rest and in motion
17. Which of the following is the basic principle of fluid mechanics?
(a) Momentum principle
(b) Energy equation
(c) Continuity equation
(d) All of the mentioned
18. What is fluid mechanics used for?
(a) Fluid mechanics enables to comprehend the behaviour of solid fluids under pressure
(b) Fluid mechanics enables to comprehend the behaviour of fluids under a variety of forces & atmospheric
conditions
(c) Fluid mechanics enables to comprehend the behaviour of fluids under various temperatures only
(d) None of the mentioned
19. Stagnation point is the point in fluid mechanics where the velocity of the fluid at that point is
(a) unity
(b) constant
(c) infinite
(d) zero
20. Eddy viscosity is a turbulent transfer of
(a) Fluid
(b) Heat
(c) Momentum
(d) Pressure
21. Which among the following is the equation for Bernoulli?
(a) T ds = dh − vdp
(b) T ds = dh
(c) T ds = dh + vdp
(d) T ds = dh/vdp
22. For an isentropic flow
(a) Enthalpy = 0
(b) Entropy = 0
(c) Pressure = 0
(d) Temperature = 0
23. Which one of the following is a major loss?
(a) frictional loss
(b) shock loss
(c) entry loss
(d) exit loss
24. Which property of the fluid accounts for the major losses in pipes?
(a) density
(b) specific gravity
(c) viscosity
(d) compressibility

29
References
[1] Y. Cengel, J. Cimbala, Fluid mechanics fundamentsls and applications (in si units), Tata McGraw Hill, 2006.
[2] T. H. Williamson, A. Harris, The British Journal of Ophthalmology 1994, 78, 939.
[3] R. De Leeuw, Liquid correction of Venturi meter readings in wet gas flow, 1997.
[4] G. Hauke, R Moreau, An introduction to fluid mechanics and transport phenomena, Vol. 86, Springer, 2008.
[5] B. R. Munson, T. H. Okiishi, W. W. Huebsch, A. P. Rothmayer, Fluid mechanics, Wiley Singapore, 2013.
[6] H. Lomax, T. H. Pulliam, D. W. Zingg, T. Kowalewski, Appl. Mech. Rev. 2002, 55, B61–B61.
[7] G. I. Barenblatt, B. G. Isaakovich, Scaling, self-similarity, and intermediate asymptotics: dimensional analysis
and intermediate asymptotics, Cambridge University Press, 1996.
[8] J. Schumacher, EPL (Europhysics Letters) 2007, 80, 54001.
[9] E. F. Adiutori, Open Mechanical Engineering Journal 2009, 3, 43–48.
[10] J. M. C. yunus A. Cengel, Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, 2006.
[11] M. Selamat, M. Rahim, International Journal of Information Management 1996, 16, 299–313.
[12] Fluid Mechanics Multiple Choice Questions and Answers, https : / / www . objectivebooks . com / fluid -
mechanics-multiple-choice/, MCQ Fluid Mechanics, Accessed January 25, 2025.
[13] Fluid Mechanics MCQ Questions, https : / / testbook . com / objective - questions / mcq - on - fluid -
mechanics -- 5eea6a0c39140f30f369e136/, Objectivebooks MCQ Fluid Mechanics, Accessed January 25,
2025, 2023.
[14] M. Bhojasia, Fluid Mechanics Multiple Choice Questions and Answers, https://www.sanfoundry.com/1000-
fluid-mechanics-questions-answers/, sanfoundry Fluid Mechanics, Accessed January 25, 2025.
[15] Fluid Mechanics Interview Questions and Answers, https://engineeringinterviewquestions.com/fluid-
mechanics-interview-questions-and-answers//, sanfoundry Fluid Mechanics, Accessed January 25, 2025.

30
Next Course is Heat Transfer Prepared by Tsegaye Getachew
 Heat Transfer (MEng 3121) Exit-Exam Module

Tsegaye Getachew Alenka

February 14, 2023

Contents
1 Course objectives and Learning Outcome 1

2 Introduction 1
2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.2 Application of Heat/mass transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.3 Modes of Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.4 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 1D Steady Heat Conduction 4

3.0.1 Heat Transfer from Finned Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4 2D Steady Heat Conduction 9

4.1 Analytic Method: The Method of Separation of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2 Graphical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3 Numerical Method: Finite-Difference Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3.1 Nodal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3.2 Finite Difference Method FDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.4 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

5 Unsteady-State Heat Transfer: Conductive and Convective BL 13

5.1 Lumped Capacitance Method: No Internal Resistance, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5.2 Significant Internal Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.2.1 Heat Transfer in an Infinite Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.2.2 Heisler chart: Infinite (slab, cylinder and spherical) geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.3 Large Body: Finite and Semi-infinite Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.3.1 transient Heat Transfer in a Semi-Infinite Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.4 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

6 Convection Heat Transfer 18

6.1 Forced Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.1.1 Types of Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.2 Natural Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.3 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

7 Radiation Heat Transfer 24

7.1 Cause of Radiation, Radiation as a Form of Electromagnetic Wave Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.2 Absorptivity, Reflectivity, Emissivity, and Transmissivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7.3 Radiation Heat Transfer Between Two Infinite Plates and Radiation Shields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.4 View Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.4.1 View factor Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.5 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

8 Heat Exchangers 28
8.1 Types of Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.1.1 Double pipe – Parallel flow heat exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.1.2 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.1.3 Plate Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
8.2 Heat Exchanger Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
8.3 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

I
9 Condensation and Boiling Heat Transfer 31
9.1 Boiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
9.1.1 Pool Boiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
9.1.2 Pool Boiling Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
9.1.3 External and Internal Forced Convection Boiling (Flow Boiling) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
9.2 Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
9.3 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

10 Objective Questions 34

11 References 37

List of Figures
1 Some applications of Heat and Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Modes of Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3 Resistance Network b. Series b. Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4 a. Maximum temperature with heat generation b. Max.Temp. Thickness Symmetry with Imaginary
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
5 Boundary Condition Problem of Two dimensional Conduction and Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6 Shape factor S for various selected geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7 isothermal and heat flow lines in 2d conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
8 Nodal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
9 Finite Difference Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
10 FDM Steady State Cond. Worked Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
11 Lumped Capacitance Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
12 Hiesler Chart:Unsteady state diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
13 Semi-Infinite Graphical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
14 Convection configuration in various flow scheme: a. various flow layer scheme b. boundary layer . . . 18
15 External flows boundary regions a. Flow over Plate b. Flow Over Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
16 various flow boundary regions in internal flow convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
17 Isothermal wall heating, exponential Temp. Decay a. Mean surface Temp. b. Log Mean Temp. . . . . 21
18 natural Convection Over surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
19 Electromagnetic Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
20 Thermodynamics of Radiation a. Radiation Causes b. absorption, reflection, and transmission of
irradiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
21 Combined Radiation Convection Furnace Model a. Radiation Model b. Furnace C. Resistance model 25
22 View Factor for Various Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
23 a. Comb. Radiation-Conv Heat Transfer between Parallel Plates b. Equivalent Resistance Network
Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
24 a. Double pipe Heat Exchanger b. Parallel & Counter Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
25 Shell & Tube - Counter flow heat exchanger a. single & double Shell b. baffles & flow configuration . 29
26 compact Plate Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
27 Pool Boiling with different forms depending on the temperature ∆Excess = Ts − Tsat . . . . . . . . . 31
28 Film Condensation Vert. Wall Model: a. Hydrodynamics b. Flow Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
29 Film condensation in radial coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

List of Tables
1 Conduction, Convection & Radiation HT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 α of various materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 Thermal Conductivity of Various Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4 Heat Generation in Various geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5 convective heat transfer coefficient h in W/m2 .K for various heat transfer types . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6 Convection Controlling Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
7 Empirical formulation of heat transfer coefficients various flow regimes and geometries of Flow Over
Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
8 Convection Coeff. for Flow Over Cylinders and Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
9 Laminar Flow in Tube Isothermal U W T and Isoflux U W F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
10 Natural Convection Heat Transfer Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
11 Boiling Correlation Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

II
1 Course objectives and Learning Outcome
This module is meant to provide not as stand alone or sufficient reference for the national exit exam but as the
fundamental guide so that to enable students to have a review resource of the heat transfer under graduate course.
Ethiopian mechanical Engineering graduating students or those who are currently studying the course can have this
condensed comprehensive reference and prepare for the their upcoming national exam using the module by further
attempting exercises, examples and objective questions provided as a quick reference and comparing their response
to the question prompts by referring/consulting lecture notes provided here as well as check answer options for the
objective questions in the last portion of this module against the check answer options in the reference websites. The
course is designed to enable students to
ˆ Develop the fundamental heat transfer equations in Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical coordinates

ˆ Develop the students’ abilities to model and analyze thermal systems, and

ˆ Develop experience in the application of thermal analysis to elementary problems in engineering practice

The objectives of this course therefore are

1. To provide students with a clear and through presentation of the basic concepts of heat and mass transfer and
their applications.
2. To develop understanding of the coupling of fluid mechanics and thermodynamics
3. To provide an understanding of fundamental concepts of heat fluxes.
4. Apply principle of conservation of energy

5. Apply numerical techniques for spatial discretization: finite difference method.

2 Introduction
2.1 Definition
Heat transfer is the ability of the barrel heaters to transfer heat into the material being processed to create a uniform
temperature profile throughout the melt. Heat transfer methods are used in numerous disciplines, such as automotive
engineering, thermal management of electronic devices and systems, climate control, insulation, materials processing,
chemical engineering and power station engineering.
There is a distinct difference between the two. Temperature with symbol T is a measure of the amount of energy
possessed by the molecules of a substance. It is a relative measure of how hot or cold a substance is and can be used
to predict the direction of heat transfer. The scales for measuring temperature in SI units are the Celsius and Kelvin
temperature scales.
On the other hand, heat with symbol Q is energy in transit. The transfer of energy as heat occurs at the molecular
level as a result of a temperature difference. Heat is measured by the Joule and calorie in the SI system.
Furthermore, heat transfer is a complementary science to thermodynamics. Thermodynamics tells us: the amount
heat is transferred δQ, work is done δW and final state of the system alongside with the system overall performance
with the help of four thermodynamic laws.
Heat transfer on the other-hand studies mechanisms or modes δQ transferred, the rate of δQ transferred, and tem-
perature distribution inside the body.
One can plainly say heat transfer as study of energy/mass transfer as particular interest without considering an overall
system energy balance whereas thermodynamics as an overall study of energy equilibrium in a system.
Thermodynamics gives no indication of how long the process takes. In heat transfer, we are more concerned about
the rate of heat transfer.

2.2 Application of Heat/mass transfer

Thermal energy: Thermal energy is associated with the translation, rotation, vibration and electronic states of the
atoms and molecules that comprise matter. Thermal energy represents the cumulative effect of microscopic activities
and is directly linked to the temperature of matter. The application of heat/mass transfer can have a wide scope from
daily life application such as Heating, Cooling, and Cooking up to mechanical applications in systems such as:
heat exchangers, refrigeration and air conditioning, boilers, condensers etc. where processes considered include Heating
/ cooling, Vaporizing, and Energy conversion and advanced cooling applications such as electronic appliances such
as cellphones, computers and so on. The application areas of the science of heat and mass transfer shown below in
Fig. 1.

1
 (a)

(b) (c)

Figure 1: Some applications of Heat and Mass Transfer

[1]

2.3 Modes of Heat Transfer

Heat transfer can be sought in three different mechanisms: conduction mode, convection mode and radiation mode.
Conduction: An energy transfer across a system boundary due to a temperature difference by the mechanism of
inter-molecular interactions. Conduction needs matter and does not require any bulk motion of matter. On the other
hand, Convection is an energy transfer across a system boundary due to a temperature difference by the combined
mechanisms of intermolecular interactions and bulk transport. Convection needs fluid matter. Radiation heat transfer
involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation that arises due to the temperature of the body. Radiation
does not need matter. The comparison of three modes of heat transfer presented in Fig. 1. Another important thermal

Figure 2: Modes of Heat Transfer

property parameter used in selection of heat storage in engineering is thermal diffusivity designated by symbol α = ρCkP
where k is thermal conductivity, ρ is density and CP is heat capacity. Fig. 2 shows the diffusivity property (heat

2
 Table 1: Conduction, Convection & Radiation HT

Comparison of HT Modes
conduction Convection Radiation

Described by Fourier Law Described by Newton’s Law of Cooling Governed by Stefan Boltzman law
q⃗ = −kA∇T q = hAs ∆T q = ϵσA(TS 4 − TSur 4 )
q⃗ is heat flow vector q is heat flow scalar from the source ϵ is surface emissivity,
[2] in W , k is thermal conductivity surface in W , h is HT coeff. A exposed surf. area in m2 & Ts
of material in W/mK, A is cross of material which also is influenced absolute temperature of
section in flow direction in m2 and by surface geometry, flow scheme of Surrounding in K
& material thermal prop. in W/m2 K, As surface, Tsur is
∇T is temp. gradient is surface area in m2 and ∆T is temp. absolute temp.
∇T = ∂T ∂x
i + ∂T
∂y
j + ∂T
∂z
k difference in K, ∆T = Ts − T∞ ϵ = 1 for black body,
each direction heat flow should be Can be free convection induced σ = 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 K 4
computed separately & by buoyancy forces h = 2 − 25 for gases,
combined as h = 20 − 100 for liquid and forced
resultant convection that induced by external
forces like fan h = 20 − 250 gases
and h = 50 − 20, 000 for liquid
but h = 2, 500 − 100, 000 for
boiling and condensation

storage capacity) of various materials. Thermal diffusivity is heat propagation rate, the ratio of thermal conductivity

Table 2: α of various materials

[1]

Material silver gold cupper Aluminum Iron Mercury marble Ice

α in m2 /s 149 × 10−6 127 × 10−6 113 × 10−6 97.5 × 10−6 22.8 × 10−6 4.7 × 10−6 1.2 × 10−6 1.2 × 10−6
Matrials concrete brick dry heavy soil glass wool water beef wood
α in m2 /s 0.75 × 10−6 0.52 × 10−6 0.34 × 10−6 0.23 × 10−6 0.14 × 10−6 0.14 × 10−6 0.13 × 10−6

by the storage capacity which is the product of density and specific heat. Thermal resistance is ratio of thickness by
conductivity
∆T ∆x 1 1
q= whereR = for Cond. & R = for conv. or R = for Rad. (1)
R kA hconv. A hRad. A
The thermal resistance network suits an analogy of electrical circuit. Heat transfer problems are often two or three
dimensional, but approximate solutions can be obtained by assuming one dimensional heat transfer with much more
ease using thermal resistance network.
X X 1
Rtotal = Ri for circuit in series & Rtotal = for circuit in parallel (2)
Ri

2.4 Review Questions

1. What material among soil and brick would be preferred for thermal storage and why? consider table 2
2. Compare and contrast conduction, convection and radiation
3. Find the heat loss per square meter of surface through a brick wall (0.5m) thick, when the inner surface is at
(400k) and outside at (300K), the thermal conductivity of brick may be taken as (0.7w/m.k) ?

3
 (a) (b)

Figure 3: Resistance Network b. Series b. Parallel

3 1D Steady Heat Conduction

Conduction is due to collision between molecules or atoms (fluid); lattice waves induced by atomic and translational
motion of the free electrons (solid). thermal conductivity is a thermodynamic property of a material. From the State
Postulate given in thermodynamics, it may be recalled that thermodynamic properties of pure substances are functions
of two independent thermodynamic intensive properties, say temperature and pressure. Thermal conductivity of real
gases is largely independent of pressure and may be considered a function of temperature alone. For solids and liquids,
properties are largely independent of pressure and depend on temperature alone. It is important that the student gain
a basic perspective of the magnitude of thermal conductivity for various materials. Note that heat transfer is the only
energy interaction; the energy balance for the wall can be expressed:

˙ = dEsyst
Q˙in − Qout (3)
dt
This is important because thermal design involves section of proper materials either for isolation/insulation purpose

Table 3: Thermal Conductivity of Various Materials

[3] Materials Copper Silver Gold Aluminum Steel Limestone Bakelite Water Air
k in W/m2 K 401 429 317 237 60.5 2.15 1.4 0.613 0.0263

in many applications such as refrigerator box design and conduction applications such as heat exchangers. Conversion
of some form of energy into heat energy in a medium is called heat generation. Heat generation leads to a temperature
rise throughout the medium. Some examples of heat generation are resistance heating in wires, exothermic chemical
reactions in solids, and nuclear reaction. Heat generation is usually expressed per unit volume (W/m3 ). In most
applications, we are interested in maximum temperature Tmax and surface temperature Ts of solids which are involved
with heat generation. maximum temperature Tmax in a solid that involves uniform heat generation will occur at a

(a) (b)

Figure 4: a. Maximum temperature with heat generation b. Max.Temp. Thickness Symmetry with Imaginary Wall
[4]

4
location furthest away from the outer surface when the outer surface is maintained at a constant temperature, Ts .
Consider a solid medium of surface area A, volume V , and constant thermal conductivity k, where heat is generated
at a constant rate of ġ per unit volume. Heat is transferred from the solid to the surroundings medium at T∞ . Under
steady conditions, the energy balance for the solid can be expressed as:
ġV
Q̇ = ġV = hA(Ts − T∞ ) in W combining these Ts = T∞ + (4)
A
Heat transfer problem involves either thermal resistance network, boundary condition, heat generation, or combination
of all.
Table 4: Heat Generation in Various geometries

Geometry a plane wall of thickness 2L a long cylinder of radius r0 a sphere of radius r0

Surface Temp. Fourier Relation Ts = T∞ + ġLh Ts = T∞ + ġr 2h
0
Ts = T∞ + ġr3h
0

2 2 2
ġr ġr
Maximum temperature Diff ∆Tmax = ġL 2k ∆Tmax = 4k0 ∆Tmax = 6k0

3.0.1 Heat Transfer from Finned Surfaces

From the Newton’s law of cooling, dotQc onv = hA(Ts − T∞ ), the rate of convective heat transfer from a surface at
a temperature Ts can be increased by two methods: 1. Increasing the convective heat transfer coefficient, h and 2.
Increasing the surface area A. Increasing the convective heat transfer coefficient may not be practical and/or adequate.
An increase in surface area by attaching extended surfaces called fins to the surface is more convenient. Finned surfaces
are commonly used in practice to enhance heat transfer. In the analysis of the fins, we consider steady operation with
no heat generation in the fin. We also assume that the convection heat transfer coefficient h to be constant and
uniform over the entire surface of the fin. In the limiting case of zero thermal resistance (k → ∞), the temperature
of the fin will be uniform at the base value of Tb. The heat transfer from the fin will be maximized in this case given
by Eq. 5. [4]
dotQc onv = hAf ins (Ts − T∞ ) (5)
Fin efficiency can be defined as given in Eq. 6

actual HT from fins Q̇f ins

ηf ins = = (6)
HT from fins if all fins were atTb Q̇f ins,max

Therefore, Q̇f ins = ηf ins hAf ins (Ts − T∞ ). Fin design considerations incorporates 1. the longer the fin, the larger the
heat transfer area and thus the higher the rate of heat transfer from the fin, 2. the larger the fin, the bigger the mass,
the higher the price, and larger the fluid friction and 3. the fin efficiency decreases with increasing fin length because
of the decrease in fin temperature with length. The performance of fins is judged on the basis of the enhancement in
heat transfer relative to the no-fin case, and expressed in terms of the fin effectiveness in Eq. 7

Q̇f in
ϵf in = (7)
Q̇nof in

<1 fin acts as insulation
εfin =  = 1 fin does not affect heat transfer
>1 fin enhances heat transfer
For a sufficiently long fin of uniform cross-section Ac , the temperature at the tip of the fin will approach the environment
temperature, T∞ . By writing energy balance and solving the differential equation, one finds Eq. 8 first two rows:
where Ac is the cross-sectional area, x is the distance from the base, and p is perimeter. The effectiveness becomes
the last row of Eq. 8: !
r
T (x) − T∞ hp
= exp −x
Tb − T∞ kAc
(8)
p
Qlong fin = hpkAc (Tb − T∞ )
r
kp
εlong fin =
hAc
To increase fin effectiveness, one can conclude: [5]
ˆ the thermal conductivity of the fin material must be as high as possible

ˆ the ratio of perimeter to the cross-sectional area p/Ac should be as high as possible

5
 ˆ the use of fin is most effective in applications that involve low convection heat transfer coefficient, i.e. natural
convection.
Example 1 1.2 kg of liquid water initially at 15o C is to be heated to 95o C in a teapot equipped with a 1200 − W
electric heating element inside Fig . The teapot is 0.5 kg and has an average specific heat of 0.7kJ/kg o C. Taking the
specific heat of water to be 4.18kJ/kg o C and disregarding any heat loss from the teapot, determine how long it will
take for the water to be heated assuming negligible loss from tea pot and constant properties.

Solution Using Eq. 3

Ein − Eout = Esystem
Ein = ∆U = ∆Uwater + ∆Uteapot
where ∆Uteapot ≈ 0
Ein = (mCP ∆T )water + (mCP ∆T )teapot
= 1.2kg × 4.18kJ/kg.o C × (95o C − 15o C) + 0.5kg
×0.7kJ/kg.o C × (95o C − 15o C) = 429.3kJ
Esystem
∆t =
˙
Esystem
429.3kJ
= = 358sec ≡ 6minutes
1200W
Example 2 Consider the combined series-parallel composite arrangement shown in figure below. Assuming one–dimensional
heat transfer, determine the rate of heat transfer.

Solution The equivalent circuit diagram is shown below

6
 T1 − T∞ 1 1 R1 R2
Q̇ = Rtotal = [( + )parallel + R3 + Rconv ]series = + R3 + Rconv
Rtotal R1 R2 R1 + R2
Example 2: Thermal Network Problem Consider the combined series−parallel composite circular arrangement
shown in figure below. Assuming one–dimensional heat transfer, determine the rate of heat transfer. The cylinder has
radius r and length L.

Solution Since, there is no heat generation in the layer and thermal conductivity is constant, the Fourier law becomes:
dT dT
Q̇cylCond = −kA = −k(2πrL)
dr dr
r2 Z T2
T1 − T2
Z
Q̇cylCond
dr = k dT =
r1 2πrL T1 Rtotal
T1 − T2 T1 − T2
Q̇cylCond = = 2πkL
Rtotal lnr1 /r2
ln rr21
Rc yl =
2πkL
Example 3 Thermal Composite System/Network Problem Steam at Tinf ity , 1 = 320o C flows in a cast iron
pipe [k = 80W/m.o C] whose inner and outer diameter are D1 = 5cm and D2 = 5.5cm, respectively. The pipe is
covered with a 3cm thick glass wool insulation [k = 0.05W/m.o C]. Heat is lost to the surroundings at Tinf ity , 2 = 5o C
by natural convection and radiation, with a combined heat transfer coefficient of h2 = 18W/m2 .o C. Taking the heat
transfer coefficient inside the pipe to be h1 = 60W/m2 K, determine the rate of heat loss from the steam per unit length
of the pipe. Also determine the temperature drop across the pipe shell and the insulation. Assume: Steady-state and
one-dimensional heat transfer.
solution Taking L = 1m, the areas of the surfaces exposed to convection are:

A1 = 2πr1 L = 0.157m2
A2 = 2πr2 L = 0.361m2
1 1
Rcanv ,1 = = = 0.106o .C/W
h1 A1 (60 W/m . .C) (0.157m2 )
2 o

ln (r2 /r1 )
R1 = Rpipe = = 0.0002o .C/W
2πk1 L
ln (r3 /r2 )
R2 = Rinsulation = = 2.35o .C/W
2πk2 L
1
Rcanv ,2 = = 0.154o .C/W
h2 A2
Rtotal = Rconv ,1 + R1 + R2 + Rcanv ,2 = 2.61o .C/W

7
The steady-state rate of heat loss from the steam becomes
T∞,1 − T∞,2
Q̇ = = 120.7W (per m pipe length)
Rtotal
The total heat loss for a given length can be determined by multiplying the above quantity by the pipe length. The
temperature drop across the pipe and the insulation are:

∆Tpipe = Qo .Rpipe = (120.7W ) (0.00022o .C/W ) = 0.02o .C

∆Tinsulation = Qo .Rinsulation = (120.7W ) (2.35o .C/W ) = 284o .C

Note that the temperature difference (thermal resistance) across the pipe is too small relative to other resistances and
can be ignored.
Example 4 Boundary Condition Problem A steel pipe (K = 45.0W/m.K) having a 0.05m Outer Diameter
is covered with a 0.042 m thick layer of magnesia (K = 0.07W/m.K) which in turn covered with a 0.024 m layer
of fiberglass insulation (K = 0.048W/m.K). The pipe wall outside temperature is 370 K and the outer surface
temperature of the fiberglass is 305K. What is the interfacial temperature between the magnesia and fiberglass? Also
calculate the steady state heat transfer
Given
OD = 0.05m d1 = 0.05m r1 = 0.025m k1 = 45W/mK r2 = r1 + insulation thickness 1
r2 = 0.025 + 0.042 r2 = 0.067m k2 = 0.07W/mK k3 = 0.048W/mK r3 = r2 + tinsulation2 = 0.067 + 0.024
r3 = 0.091m T 1 = 370K T 3 = 305K Find (i)T 2? (ii)Q?

∆Toverall 370K − 305K 65K

Q= = =
REquiv RE quiv REquiv

ln rr12 ln rr23
REquiv = RT hrmalCercuit1 + RT hrmalCercuit2 = +
2πk2 L 2πk3 L
0.067 0.091
ln 0.025 ln 0.067
REquiv = RT hrmalCercuit1 + RT hrmalCercuit2 = + = 2.24 + 1.02 = 3.26K/W
2π0.07 × 1 2π0.07 × 1
65K
Q= = 19.96W
3.26K/W
To find T2 , Q = TR1 −T
th1
2
, T2 = T1 − (QRth1 ) = 370 − (19.96 × 2.24) = 325.26K
Example 5 Fins Problem A motor body is 360mm in diameter (outside) and 240mm long. Its surface temperature
should not exceed 55o C when dissipating 340W . Longitudinal fins of 15mm thickness and 40mm height are proposed.
The convection coefficient is 40W/m2 .o C. Determine the number of fins required. Atmospheric temperature is 30o C.
thermal conductivity k = 40W/mo eC.
D = 0.36m L = 0.24m Tb = 55o C Qg = 340W tf in = 0.015m hf in = 0.04m
Given and required
h = 40W/m . C T∞ = 30 C k = 40W/mo C
2 o o
Find No. of fins N
Solution
Qg 340W
N= =√ q
Qeachf in h2LkA(Tb − T∞ ) tanh(L 2hL
kA )

340W
N=p q
2×40×0.24
40 × 2 × 0.24 × 40 × (0.015 × 0.24)(55 − 30) tanh(0.24 40×(0.015×0.24) )

N = 72.06 ≈ 72f ins

8
3.1 Review Questions
1. Which one of water and air better suited for insulation considering table 3 and why? what materials in the list
would you select for cooling or heating? Base your answer with reasons.

2. Given material with thermal conductivity k, suppose you are considering to make a heater. If you have an
available geometry option a plane wall of thickness L, long cylinder with radius r0 and sphere with radius r0 ,
what geometry would you prefer if L = r0,spere = r0,cylinder ? refer table 4
3. Distinguish between fin efficiency and fin effectiveness

4. Describe electrical circuit analogy of thermal circuit

5. Thick-walled tube of stainless steel, K = 19W/m.o .C, with (2cm) inner diameter and (4cm) outer diameter, If
the inside wall temperature of the pipe is (600oC), calculate the heat loss per meter of length, outside temp. Is
(100o .C)?
6. A Furnace is constructed with (0.20m) of firebrick, (0.10m) insulating brick and (0.20m) of building brick, the
inside temperature is (1200K) and the outside temperature is (330K), if thermal conductivity (k) is 1.4, 0.21, 0.7
seriously, find the heat loss per unit area?

4 2D Steady Heat Conduction

There are many conduction problems in which the temperature gradient is significant in more than one coordinate
direction. In such cases, the multidimensional effects must be accounted for. In this chapter, the various techniques
for treating two-dimensional systems under steady-state conditions are considered. The objective of this chapter is
to mathematically model the way thermal energy moves through the plate. The heat equation for 2-D, steady-state
conditions with no generation and constant thermal conductivity given in Eq. 9

∂2T ∂2T
q(x, y) = −k∇T (x, y) = −k( 2
+ )=0 (9)
∂x ∂y 2
Methods for solving equation 9 include the use of analytical, graphical, and numerical approaches.

4.1 Analytic Method: The Method of Separation of Variables

This is one of the analytical techniques employed to obtain exact solution to 2-D conduction problems. The major
drawbacks of analytical solution techniques are by applying mathematical superposition and seeking out solutions
with constant coefficients that are either sum or products of functions of one variable.

ˆ The solutions often involve complicated mathematical series and functions

ˆ Solutions may be obtained for only a restricted set of simple geometries and boundary conditions
∂2T ∂2T q0′′′
Example 6 Given two dimensional problem of modified Eq. 9 ∂x2 + ∂y 2 + k = 0 where the last term represent
′′′
∂T q0
heat generation. The boundary conditions are = 0, ∂T
∂x L = k ,
∂x 0 T (x̄, 0) = 1 and ∂T
∂y L = −BiT̄ (x̄, 0)
¯ = q”0 L , ¯′ = q”′0 L2
Solution Let’s introduce dimensionless parameters q” k(T1 −T∞ ) q” k(T1 −T∞ ) and Bi = hL/K, this also known
as Biot number The superposition involve splitting the problem in two parts as shown in figure 5: Part A is adiabatic
condition at x̄ = 0 and 1, uniform temperature of 1 at ȳ = 0, convection at ȳ = 1 and uniform heat generation of Q”′ .
Part B is an adiabatic condition at x̄ = 0 and 1, uniform heat flux of q” ¯ at x̄ = 1, zero temp. at ȳ = 0, convection at
ȳ = 1 and no heat generation Otherwise the number of equation will be less than unknowns. The subsequent equation
for each condition can be written and substituted in the original equation to find the solution. It can be noted here
that the introduction of convention just increase the number of equations and unknowns that otherwise the method
is the same. In cylindrical coordinates, the superposition follows the same suit.The non dimensional temperature
is T̄ = TTB−T −T∞ . Let L be the characteristic length, so that z = z/L and r = r/L. Again, it is good practice to
∞

nondimensionalize all spacial variables by the same characteristic length. The governing steady state equation is
1 ∂ ∂2T ∂2T ∂ T̄ ∂ T̄
r ∂r r ∂r 2 + ∂z 2 = 0, and boundary value conditions T̄ (r̄, 0) = 1, ∂r 1 = 0, T̄ (z̄, 0) = ∞, and − r̄ = BiT̄ (a, z̄).
Exact solutions have been obtained for many geometries and boundary conditions. Many 2 − D or 3 − D conduction
problems may be solved rapidly by utilizing these existing solution. These solutions have been presented in terms
of the shape factor, S. The heat transfer rate may be expressed in Eq. 10 where k is the thermal conductivity of
the medium and ∆T1−2 is the temperature difference between boundaries. It follows then that the 2 − D conduction
resistance is also in Eq. 10
1
q = Sk∆T1−2 where RCond2D = (10)
Sk

9
 Figure 5: Boundary Condition Problem of Two dimensional Conduction and Convection

q
As
For objects that are embedded within an infinite medium, a characteristic length may be defined in Lc = 4π or
steady-state dimensionless conduction heat rate, qss given
k
qss = kAs (T1 − T2 ) (11)
qLc
Shape factor for various geometries presented in Table 4 alongside which shape factor that incorporated in Equation
10 presented in Figure 6.

4.2 Graphical Method

This method uses a graph called a heat flux plots. We already saw graphs in example 6 that simplify the calculation.
The constant temperature lines (shown in the body) are called isotherms, The directions of the heat flux vectors
are represented by the heat flow lines. They are perpendicular to the isotherms, and The heat flux components are
determined by applying the Fourier’s law. Sets of rules for graphical technique include

1. identify the symmetry lines of both geometry and thermal condition called adiabates
2. construct an isothermal lines at right angle to adiabtes
3. adiabates bisect isothermal corners
Example 7 Graphical Method Typical example is given here.consider a long prismatic thin rectangular solid plate
made of some thermally conductive material. Suppose the dimensions of the plate.
Solution: No heat can be conducted across a heat flow line. Therefore, heat flow lines are sometimes referred to as
adiabats. Adiabatic surfaces (or symmetry lines) are heat flow lines (since heat cannot be conducted across them).

4.3 Numerical Method: Finite-Difference Equations

Some 2-D conduction problems cannot be solved analytically due to the nature of the geometries and/or boundary
conditions. In such cases, the best alternative is the use of a numerical technique. Among the numerical techniques
available are the finite-difference, finite-element and boundary-element methods.

4.3.1 Nodal Analysis

A numerical solution enables determination of temperature at only discrete points. The first step in any numerical
analysis must therefore be to select these points. The medium is subdivided into a number of small regions. A discrete
point, where the temperature will be determined, is located at the center of each small region. This is frequently
termed a nodal point (or simply a node). The aggregate of points is termed a nodal network, grid, or mesh. The
temperature of a node is assumed to represent the average temperature of the region where it is located. Each node
is designated by its row and column numbers. The numerical accuracy of the calculations increases as the number
of nodal points selected increases. The nodal network identifies discrete points at which the temperature is to be

10
 Figure 6: Shape factor S for various selected geometries
[1]

Figure 7: isothermal and heat flow lines in 2d conduction

[6]

determined and uses an m,n notation to designate their location as shown in Fig. 8. What is represented by the
temperature determined at a nodal point, as for example, Tm,n ? How is the accuracy of the solution affected by
construction of the nodal network? What are the trade-offs between selection of a fine or a coarse mesh?

4.3.2 Finite Difference Method FDM

To determine the temperature distribution numerically, an appropriate conservation equation must be written for each
node. For any interior node of a 2-D system with no generation and uniform thermal conductivity, the exact form
of the energy conservation requirement is given by the heat equation. An approximate, or finite-difference, form of
equation 9 is developed for the m, n nodal point as in Eq.12

11
 Figure 8: Nodal Analysis

Figure 9: Finite Difference Method

∂ 2 T  ∂T / ∂x|m+1/2,n − ∂T / ∂x|m−1/2,n

≈
∂x m,n ∆x

∂T  Tm+1,n − Tm,n
≈
∂x m+1/2,n ∆x
 (12)
∂T  Tm,n − Tm−1,n
≈
∂x m−1/2,n ∆x
1 q̇(∆x)2
T |m,n ≈ [Tm−1,n + Tm+1,n + Tm,n−1 + Tm,n+1 +
4 k
Represent the physical system by a nodal network i.e., discretization of problem. Use the energy balance method to
obtain a finite-difference equation for each node of unknown temperature. Solve the resulting set of algebraic equations
for the unknown nodal temperatures. Use the temperature field and Fourier’s Law to determine the heat transfer in
the medium.
Example 8 Numerical Method Consider the square plate plate temperature distribution with no heat generation
given in the Fig. 10 and determine T1 , T2 , T3 , T4
Solution: Using the last row of equation 12, T1 ≈ 41 [100 + T3 + 50 + T2 ] and likewise,
1 1
T2 ≈ [100 + T1 + 200 + T4 ] T3 ≈ [300 + T1 + 50 + T4 ]
4 4
1
T4 ≈ [300 + T2 + 200 + T3 ] collecting cooefficients & results in
4
The resulting coefficient matrix and RHS array can be augmented and solved using gauss-seidel method.
 
[cccc|c] − 1 0.25 0.25 0 −37.5
 0.25
 −1 0 0.25 −75  
 0.25 0 −1 0.25 −87.5
0 0.25 0.25 −1 −125
Solving this yields T4 = 206.45o C, T3 = 169o C, T2 = 152.32o C and T1 = 358.82o C

4.4 Review Questions

1. What is the use of superposition and variable separation in mathematical formulation of 2D-steady conduction?

12
 Figure 10: FDM Steady State Cond. Worked Example

2. How does various geometries contribute to an overall 2D steady conduction? Select a geometry from figure 6
and make it foundation for your discussion.
3. Consider Example 8 and solve it by using graphical method and attempt with an analytical superposi-
tion/variable separation method

5 Unsteady-State Heat Transfer: Conductive and Convective BL

Most engineering problems incorporate both conduction and convection. Energy balance is going to be used to solve
thermal analysis of such system. Conditions to be considered in this part include: i. temperature do not change
with position but time,(temperature is assumed to be spatially independent (uniform)). The analysis of time variant
temperature is called lumped system analysis. ii. Next analysis in this part involves temperature change with both
time and position for simple slab geometry, and iii. Finally, semi-infinite regions or near surface of a large body.

5.1 Lumped Capacitance Method: No Internal Resistance,

Lumped capacitance model is used in which no temperature gradient exists. Temperature is a function of time only
with Negligible Internal Resistance This means that the internal resistance of the body (conduction) is negligible in
comparison with the external resistance (convection). i.e small convective heat transfer coeff. h and large thermal
conductivity k. This decision is made depending on the magnitude of Biot number Bi with expression in Eq. 13
L
Conductive Resistance kA hL
Bi = = 1 = (13)
ConvectiveResistance hA
k

Consider a solid with convection over its surface in Fig. 11

Employing energy balance,

Figure 11: Lumped Capacitance Model

[7]

13
 − mCp ∆T = hA(T − T∞ )∆t θi = θ(t = 0) = T − T∞ 


∆T hA dθ hA 

− = (T − T∞ ) =− θ


∆t mCp dt mCp  


Z θ Z t 
dT hA dθ hA

=− (T − T∞ ) =− dt (14)
dt mCp θi θ 0 mCp 


θ hA 

ln = −

T (t = 0) = Ti t
θi mCp 



θ = T − T∞ Rearranging to exponential
t
θ − hA
− hA t
= e mCp = e mCp (15)
θi
For given A, V, ρ, CP , s = V /A are exposed surface area, volume, body density, specific heat capacity and characteristic
solid dimension respectively.
hV /A
If Bi = hL k = k < 0.1 in Eq. 13, internal resistance can be ignored and lamped capacitance analysis yields
acceptable. The lumped system is exact if Bi = 0, and Bi = hL hs 1 1
k = k where s = 2 Lfor plate, s = 2 rfor cylinder and
1
s = 3 rfor spere
Example 9 What is the temperature of the egg after 60 minutes?
Given Ti = 20o C, Tair = 3820o C, h = 5.2W/m2 .K, ρ = 1035kg/m3 , CP = 3350J/kg.K, k = 0.62W/m.k. V =
60 × 10−6 m3 , A = 7.85 × 10−3 m2 Assume egg is spherical, h is average value, and lumped capacitance analysis.
5.2×60×10−6
Solution For lumped capacitance analysis to be valid, Bi = hV /Ak = 7.85×10 −3 ×0.62 = 0.07 < 0.1, the analysis is

therefore valid.
60minutes = 3600sec and except that all parameters given in SI units and therefore using equation 15, numbers can
be plugged in directly
hA
− mC t
T60minutes = T∞ + (Ti − T∞ )e P

−3
− 5.2×7.85×10 3600sec
= 38 + (20 − 38)e 1035×60×10−6 ×3350

= 29.1o C

5.2 Significant Internal Resistance

The energy balance equation 9 can incorporate heat conduction if the internal resistance is not neglible.
0

∂T ∂2T 0
ρCP + u ∂T = k 2 + Q , neglect bulk& gen.


∂x

| {z∂t} | ∂x
|{z} |{z} 

{z } 
Generation

storage bulk flow conduction




k ∂2T
 
∂T ∂T  (16)
= , with bound. Cond. for psymetry = 0 and T (L, t > 0) = Ts
∂t ρCP ∂x2 ∂t (x=0,t) 



∞

n

θ X 4(−1) (2n + 1)πx −α( (2n+1)π )
2
t θ T − Ts k 

= cos e 2L , where = , & therm. diff. α = 

θi (2π + 1)π 2L θ T − T ρC

i i s p

n=0

5.2.1 Heat Transfer in an Infinite Geometries

Making n = 0 from Eq. 16. To understanding/feel T vs. x and t is vital, infinite cosine series should be simplified.
The following derivation involves temperature variation with size.
θ 4 πx −α( 2L

π 2
= cos e ) t
remember n = 0 all n terms from Eq. 16 gone 

θi π 2L 



  L 
T − Ts 2
Z
θ 4 πx  π  1 
ln = ln = ln cos −α t, introducing Tav = T dx in the left Eq. (17)
θi Ti − Ts π 2L 2L L 0 


π 2 Tav − Ts 
 
Tav − Ts 8  π 2 αt 4

ln = ln 2 − α t, Rearrenging, the T change with size, 2 = 2 ln



Ti − Ts π 2L L π 8 Ti − Ts

New term in Eq. 17 can also be introduced for FO = Lαt2 known as Fourier Number
Example 10 Consider cylindrical food item with thickness L = 0.03m. Take thermal diffusivity of biomaterial
α = 1.44 × 10−7 m2 /s to be sterilized. Determine temperature variation within food sterilizer at t = 30s and for
t = 600s.

14
Solution The first step is to drop off time values Equation 16, for t = 30s and for t = 600s given.

Temp. drop time t = 30sec Temp. drop time t=600 sec

−7
αt 1.44 × 10 30 αt 1.44 × 10−7 600
F0 = = F 0 = =
L2 0.032 L2 0.03 2
2
  2 
4 π θav 4 π θav
FO = 0.0048 = 2 ln FO = 0.096 = 2 ln
π 8 θi π 8 θi
Temp. decay slowly Temp. decay rapidly

5.2.2 Heisler chart: Infinite (slab, cylinder and spherical) geometry

x
If internal resistance is not negligible, (Tr=r ̸= Tr=0.5r ̸= Tr=0 (i.e.Bi ≥ 0.1) for a cylindrical objects and n = L
for discretization (meaning numerical differentiation). This way eq. 16 can be simplified and solution charts can be
developed with the help of x− axis as L x
and y− axis as Lαt2 using: FO and n = L
x
, m = B −1 for heat transfer, m = DAB
hm L
for mass transfer or film diffusion, and θθ∞ for a given problem, remember α = ρC k
p
Chart developed for n = 0 condition for Eq. 16 is also called heisler chart.Application of internal resistance
involving use of Hiesler chart with sets of assumptions for infinite geometries. It’s developed with calculations
made for the series (n = 0, 1, ...) using equation 16 for various applications. The assumptions include i.Uniform initial

Figure 12: Hiesler Chart:Unsteady state diffusion

15
temperatureii.Constant boundary fluid temperature iii.Perfect slab, cylinder or sphere iv. Far from edges v. No heat
generation (Q = 0) vi. Constant thermal properties (k, α, CP ) are constants vii. Typically for times long after initial
times, given by Lαt2 > 0.2
Example 11 Consider tuna sterilizer: a cylindrical can containing food to be sterilized with heating surface temper-
ature 121o C. If Surface temperature of a slab of tuna is suddenly increased, determine the temperature from initial
point 40o C of at the center of the slab after 30 min. Assume negligible side heating and constant thermal diffusion of
α = 2 × 10−7 m2 /s. The slab thickness is given 25 mm Solution L = thickness2 = 0.0125m and t = 30min = 1800sec

x 0

n= = =0 from the chart in Fig. 12, &

L 0.025 


k


m = Bi−1 = using Bi = ∞orm = 0

=0 
hL 
αt θ T30min = 120.65o C
FO = 2 usingFO = 2.3, = 0.0043 
L θi




2 × 10−7 × 1800 T − Ts



= = 2.3 = 0.0043

0.0125 Ti − Ts
Hiesler Chart can also be used for Convective Boundary Condition. The external fluid resistance considered in addition
to internal fluid resistance Near Surface of a. In convective boundary condition, surface temperature is not the
same as the bulk fluid temperature, T∞ , signifying additional fluid resistance, where numerical method or chart used
to find solution. Eq. 18 is at the surface, 
∂T 
−k = h(Ts − T∞ ) (18)
∂x s

5.3 Large Body: Finite and Semi-infinite Geometry

Large body here refers to semi-infinite regions or near surface of a large body. A finite geometry is considered as the
intersection of two or three infinite geometries
       
Txyz,t − Ts Tx,t − Ts Ty,t − Ts Tz,t − Ts

= + + finite slab
Ti − Ts Ti − Ts Ti − Ts Ti − Ts




| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } 


finite infinite x slab infinite y slab infinite z slab
      (19)
Tr,z,t − Ts Tr,t − Ts Tz,t − Ts 
= + finite cylinder

Ti − Ts Ti − Ts Ti − Ts




| {z } | {z } | {z } 
finite infinite r slab infinite z slab

5.3.1 transient Heat Transfer in a Semi-Infinite Geometry

A semi-infinite region extends to infinity in two directions and a single identifiable surface in the other direction. A
typical example of semi-infinite geometry extends to infinity in the y and z directions and has an identifiable surface

16
at x = 0 It can be used practically in heat transfer for a relatively short time and/or in a relatively thick material

∂2T

∂T
=α 2 Governing Equation

∂t ∂x





T (t = 0) = Ti and T (x = 0) = Ts BC


T (x → ∞) = Ti

IC


  

T − Ti x (20)
= erf √ Solution
Ts − Ti 2 αt 

Z η 
2 2

e−η dη

erf (η) = √ Error function


π 0 


x 

Where η= √ 


2 αt
The temperature solution profile given in a long equation 21 so that you may appreciate.
 
−π 2 αt −32 π 2 αt
 
T1 −T 4 πx 1 3πx
T1 −To = e 4H sin 2H + 3 e 4H sin 2H 
2 2

π
(21)
−52 π 2 αt
+ 51 e 4H 2 sin 5πx

2H + · · ·


Heat flux at the surface of the semi-infinite region can be calculated with chain rule
 
dT  dT dη 
−k = −k
dx x=0 dη dx x=0
 
2 2 1
= −k(Ts − Ti ) − √ e−η η = 0) √
π ( 2 αt
k(Ts − Ti )
= √
αt
x √
√ ≥ 2, or ,x ≥ 4 αt, Semi-infinite Approximation Condition
2 αt
Solution to an approximate semi-finite region with surface heat flux q”surf ace = q”s and convective boundary condi-
tion −k ∂T
∂x Surf ace = h(TSurf ace − T∞ ) is given in Eq. 22

r    
2 αt − x2 q”s x x
T − Ti = q”s − 1 − erf √

e 4αt cond.BC 

k π k 2 αt

    √  (22)
T − Ti x hx h2 αt x h αt 
= 1 − erf √ − e k + k2 1 − erf √ + conv.BC 

Ts − Ti

2 αt 2 αt k

5.4 Review Questions

1. What is a Lamped capacitance method?
θ
2. Write and expression for ratio of temperature differences θi for insignificant and significant internal resistance
the later with an infinite geometries
3. List down assumptions for in using Heisler charts and time-space variation of temperature for an infinite geome-
tries

4. Describe reading procedures for Hiesler Chart for in the contexts of slab, cylinder and slab
5. Describe semi-infinite geometries in relation to finite and infinite geometries considering convective and convective
boundaries
6. The temperature has been 35o .F for a while now, sufficient to chill the ground to this temperature for many
tens of feet below the surface. Suddenly the temperature drops to −20o .F . How long will it take for freezing
temperatures (32o .F ) to reach my pipes, which are 8 ft under ground? Use the following physical properties:
f t2
h = 2.0 hfBT U BT U
t2o .F , αsoil = 0.018 h , ksoil = 0.5 hf to .F
Use simplified version equation for Eq. 22 TT1−T −T0 = erf ζ − e
0 β(2ζ+β)
erf (ζ + β) , ζ ≡ 2√xαt both ζ and β depend
√
h αt T −T0
on time, β ≡ k ,T0 =?, T1 =?, T =?, and T1 −T0 =? with mathcad graph Fig.13

17
 Figure 13: Semi-Infinite Graphical Solution
[8]

6 Convection Heat Transfer

Convection is the mechanism of heat transfer through a fluid in the presence of bulk fluid motion. Convection
is classified as natural (or free) and forced convection depending on how the fluid motion is initiated. In natural
convection, any fluid motion is caused by natural means such as the buoyancy effect, i.e. the rise of warmer fluid and
fall the cooler fluid. Whereas in forced convection, the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a tube by external
means such as a pump or fan
The convection heat transfer without incorporating fluid motion analysed in heat transfer modes and finned surfaces
covered in Section 2.3 and 2.5. This section is about heat transfer any fluid motion occurring naturally due to causes
such as buoyancy and external drives such as propellers, pumps, fans..The former one is called Natural convection
and the later is known as Forced convection. convection can also be categorized based on channel of flow as external
and internal. The phenomena of convection governed by Newton’s law of cooling given in table 1 and appears once
again in Eq.23 taking in to account a convective heat transfer coefficient h in (W/m2 K).

∆T
QConv = = hA(Tw − T∞ )where (23)
Rconv
It is assumed that the velocity of the fluid is zero at the wall, called noslip condition. As a result, the heat transfer

Table 5: convective heat transfer coefficient h in W/m2 .K for various heat transfer types

heat transfer Natural convention Forced convention Boiling Condensation

gases:30 − 300
gases:3 − 20
h in W/m2 K oils:60 − 1800 Water:300 − 105 Steam: 3000 − 105
,water:60 − 90
Water:100 − 1500

from the solid surface to the fluid layer adjacent to the surface is by pure conduction,and other factors that affect heat
transfer via convection listed in the table

6.1 Forced Convection

The simplest forced convection configuration to consider is the flow of mass and heat near a flat plate as shown in the
figure 14. The flow region where the viscous effect dominate referred to as hydrodynamic or velocity boundary layer.

(a) (b)

Figure 14: Convection configuration in various flow scheme: a. various flow layer scheme b. boundary layer

18
 Table 6: Convection Controlling Factors

1.Factors 2.Geometry: 3.Flow Type: 4.Boundary: 5.Fluid Type:

forced, natural,
shape, size, aspect TW = Constisothermal viscous oil, water
Lists laminar,turbulent,
ratio,& orientation or q̇ = Const. , gases/liquid metals
internal, external:
6.Thermofluid Properties all properties determined at film temperature Tf = (Tw + T∞ )/2
& Note that: ρ and ν ∝ 1/Patm
Thermofluid Properties symbols (SI units) Thermofluid Properties symbols (SI units)
Density ρ(kg/m3 ) dynamic viscosity µ(N.s/2 )
specific heat CP (J/kg.K) kinematic viscosity: ν = µ/ρ(m2 /s)
thermal conductivity: k(W/m.K) thermal diffusivity: α = k/(ρ.CP ), (m2 /s)
Prandtl number: ν/α volumetric compressibility: β, K −1
UL hL
Reynold number Re = Nusselt Number Nu =
ν
|{z} k
|{z}
forced Con. Forced/free Conv
buouyancy force
Gr =
| viscous
{z force }
Grashof Number free conv Rayleigh Number RaL = GrL P r
3
|{z}
gβL for free conv
= (TW − T∞ )
ν2

The velocity at the surface of the plate, y = 0, is set to zero, Uy=0 = 0m/s because of the no slip condition at the
wall. The fluid velocity progressively increase along height until it reaches 99 % U∞ that is denoted by δ. The region
beyond the velocity boundary layer is denoted as the inviscid flow region, where frictional effects are negligible and
the velocity remains relatively constant at U∞ .
The thermal boundary layer is arbitrarily selected as the locus of points where TT∞−T −TW = 0.99. For low Prandtl
W

number fluids the velocity boundary layer is fully contained within the thermal boundary layer. Conversely, for high
Prandtl number fluids the thermal boundary layer is contained within the velocity boundary layer.

6.1.1 Types of Flow

As seen in the introduction of this section, flows can be categorized as external and internal. External flows seen in
Fig. 15 can further be analysed as laminar, turbulent or combined in various geometries over which fluid flow as: flow
over plates, cylinders and spheres. Whereas laminar and turbulent internal flow see Fig. 16 analysis geometries can
either be duct or tubes.

(a) (b)

Figure 15: External flows boundary regions a. Flow over Plate b. Flow Over Cylinder

Internal Flow: The Reynolds number is given in 24 and the critical Reynolds number is ReDCr = 2300 :

ReD < 2300 laminar

Um D
ReD = for flow in tube2300 < ReD < 4000 transition (24)
ν
ReD > 4000 turbulent

When the boundary layer grows to the tube radius, r, the boundary layers merge. The flow length is called the flow
entrance length, Lh . 0 ≤ x ≤ Lh and 0 ≤ x ≤ Lt is developing region for hydrodynamic/velocity and temperature

19
 Table 7: Empirical formulation of heat transfer coefficients various flow regimes and geometries of Flow Over Plates

Lam. & Turb. Uniform Wall Temperature Formulation U W T

Flow Regime Nusselt No. at x for various P r Full extent Average N uL
N ux = 0.332Re1/2
x P r 1/3
forP r ≥ 0.6
hL L
Laminar Re < 50, 000 N ux = 0.565Re1/2
x Pr
1/3
for N uL = kf
low Pr such as liquid metalsP r ≤ 0.6
1
1 N uL = 0.0.037Re0.8
L P r for
3
Turbulent R50, 000 ≤ Re ≤ 107 N ux = 0.0.0296Rex0.8 P r 3 for 0.6 < P r < 60
0.6 < P r < 60
...
Combined Laminar-turbulent Uniform Wall Temp. U W T Formulation
Flow Regime Nusselt(No. at L for various P r )
Z xC r Z L
1 lam. lam.
hL = hx dx + hx dx forP r ≤ 0.6
Lam. & Turb. TW − T∞ = Const. L 0 xC r

N uL = (0.037Re0.8
L − 871)P r
1/3
An average Combined for0.6 ≤ P r ≤ 500, 000
...
Uniform Wall Flux U W F Formulation
Flow Regime Nusselt No. at L for various P r
1/2
Laminar Bound. Layer Isoflux N ux = 0.453Rex P r1/3 Local Laminar UWFP r ≥ 0.6
4/5
Turnulent Bound. Layer Isoflux N ux = 0.0308Rex P r1/3 Local Turbulent UWFP r ≥ 0.6

Table 8: Convection Coeff. for Flow Over Cylinders and Spheres

...
Boundary Layer Flow Over Circular Cylinders, Isothermal. U W T Formulation
Geometry Average Nusselt No.
1/2
0.62Rex P r1/3 ReD 5/8 4/5
N uD = 0.3 + 2/3));1/4
[1 + ( ) ]
1 + ((0.4P r 282
Cylinder L/D > 100
at ReD < 107 , 0 ≤ P r ≤ ∞
all properties evaluated atT = (Tw + Ti nf ty)/2
NonCircular Cylinder N uD = CReD m P r1/3
1/2 2/3 µ∞ 1/4
N uD = 2 + [0.4ReD + 0.06ReD ]P r0.4 ( )
µs
Spere at0.7 ≤ P r ≤ 380
&3.5 < ReD < 80, 000

respectively, Lh ≤ x ≤ L is fully developed region. The boundary layer thickness approximated as

 −1/2
Um x
δ(x) ≈ 5x thermal boundary layer thickness
nu
hydrodynamic entry length can be approximated asLh ≈ 0.05ReD D
turbulent entry length can be approximated asLt ≈ 10D ≈ Lh
laminar temp. boundary layerLt ≈ 0.05ReD P rD = P rLh

Lets consider fluid flow in a duct bounded by a wall that is at a different temperature than the fluid. For simplicity
we will examine a round tube of diameter D as shown below. A thermal entrance region develops from 0 ≤ x ≤ Lt .
The thermal entry length can be approximated as Lt ≈ 0.05ReD DP r = P rLh for laminar flow and Lh ≈ Lt ≈ 10D
for turbulent. The total heat transfer from the wall to the fluid stream can be determined by performing an energy
balance over the tube. If we assume steady flow conditions, mass and energy balances

ṁ = minlet
˙ = moutf
˙ low

Q̇ = q˙w A = ṁ(hout − hin ) = ṁCP (Tout − Tin )

q̇w A
Since the wall flux qW
˙ is uniform, the local mean temperature is linear with x. Tm,x = Tm,i + ṁCP The surface
temperature can be determined from TW = Tm + q̇hw The energy balance equation

Q̇ = hA (TW − Tm ) = ṁCP dTm

| {z }
avg∆T

20
 Figure 16: various flow boundary regions in internal flow convection

(a) (b)

Figure 17: Isothermal wall heating, exponential Temp. Decay a. Mean surface Temp. b. Log Mean Temp.

by isolating temperature terms, integrating and expressing temp. difference in terms of log mean temperature
(TW − Tm ) ṁCP TW − Tout hA Tout − Tin Tout − Tin
= ln =− δTln = T −T
=
dTm hA TW − Tin ṁCP ln TW −Tin
W out ln(∆Tout /∆Tin )
| {z }
avg

Therefore, the average rate of heat transfer to or from a fluid flowing in a tube

Q̇ = hA∆Tln (25)
4A
For non-circular tubes the hydraulic diameter, Dh = P can be used in conjunction with Table 6 determine the

Table 9: Laminar Flow in Tube Isothermal U W T and Isoflux U W F

Flow Regime Nusselt No. at L for various P r

1/3  µb 0.14
Developing Laminar N uD = 1.86 ReDLP rD µs
...
Fully Developed Laminar N uD = 3.66 for U W T and L > Lt, Lh
Fully Developed Laminar N uD = 3.66 for U W F and L > Lt, Lh
0.8
N uD = 0.023ReD P rn
ReD > 2, 300
Turbulent U W T & U W F
n = 0.4heating
n = 0.3cooling
Mean fluid temperature Tmean = 12 (Tm,in + Tm,out )

Reynolds number and in turn the Nusselt number.

6.2 Natural Convection

Fluids tend to expand when heated and contract when cooled at constant pressure. Therefore a fluid layer adjacent
to a surface will become lighter if heated and heavier if cooled by the surface. A lighter fluid will flow upward and a
cooler fluid will flow downward. As the fluid sweeps the wall, heat transfer will occur in a similar manner to boundary

21
layer flow however in this case the bulk fluid is stationary as opposed to moving at a constant velocity in the case
of forced convection. In natural convection, the Grashof number is analogous to the Reynolds number see Table 6.
Natural convection heat transfer depends on geometry and orientation. natural convection heat transfer depends on

Figure 18: natural Convection Over surface

geometry and orientation. The velocity and temperature profiles within a boundary layer formed on a vertical plate
in a stationary fluid looks as shown in 18. The general form of the Nusselt number for natural convection is as follows:

N u = f (Gr, P r) ≡ CGrm P rn 


 C depends on geometry, Boundary etc

Ra = Gr.P r
1 m depends on laminar/turbulent (26)
Tf = (Tw − T∞ )
2 n depends on fluid type/flow




β = 1/T f


Example 12 Forced Con. Flow over plate: Consider Figure 15 (a), Hot engine oil with a bulk temperature of
60o C flows over a horizontal, flat plate 5m long with a wall temperature of 20o C. If the fluid has a free stream velocity
of 2m/s, determine the heat transfer rate from the oil to the plate if the plate is assumed to be of unit width.
Solution:Assume steady state; width W = 1m The film temperature is T f = 21 (Tw + T∞ ) = 12 (20 + 60) = 40o C
From Table 3, 1 and standard property table for unused engine oil ρ = 876kg/m3 , k = 0.1444W/(m.K), ν = 2.485 ×
10−4 m2 /s, P r = 2962 The Reynolds number is

U∞ L 2m/s × 5m
ReL = =
ν 2.485 × 10−4 m2 /s

= 4.07 × 104 < Recr = 500, 000

Therefore we are in the laminar regime over the entire length of the plate. The Nusselt number is given in Table 7 as
hav L
N uL = = 0.664Re1/2LP r1/3 Average Nusselt
kf
k 1/2
and the average heat transfer coefficient is hav = 0.664ReL P r1/3
L
0.1444W/(mK)
= × 0.664 × (4.07 × 104 )1/2 × 29621/3
5m
= 55.6W/(m2 K)

The heat flow rate is

Q̇ = hav W × L(T∞ − Tw ) = 55.6W/(m2 K) × (1m × 5m) × (60 − 20)K = 11.112kW Answer

Example 13 Forced Conv. Flow over Cylinder Consider Figure 15 (b) for this problem. An electric wire with a
1mm diameter and a wall temperature of 325K is cooled by air in cross flow with a free stream temperature of 275K.
Determine the air velocity required to maintain a steady heat loss per unit length of 70W/m.

22
 Table 10: Natural Convection Heat Transfer Correlations

Laminar Flow Over a Vertical Plate, Isothermal (U W T )

 1/4

hL
 gβ(TW − T∞ )L3  ν 1/4

1/4
General Form nusselt No. N uL = kf =C 
α = C GrL P r1/4

| ν{z2 }
 | {z }
≡Gr Ra1/4
...
−T∞ )L3
Rayleigh no. RaL = GrL P r = gβ(TWνα
Laminar Flow Over a Long Horizontal Circular Cylinder, Isothermal (U W T )
 1/4

hD
 gβ(TW − T∞ )D3  ν 1/4

1/4
General Form nusselt No. N uD = kf =C 
α = C GrD P r1/4

| ν{z2 }
 | {z }
1/4
≡Gr RaD
...
3
−T∞ )D
Rayleigh no. RaD = GrD P r = gβ(TWνα
Natural Convection From Plate Fin Heat Sinks
Nusselt Number
h i−0.5
Isothermal fins have t < s Average N uS = hS 576 2.873
kf = (RaS S/L)2 + (RaS S/L)0.5

 − T∞)
Q̇opt = hA(TW Optimizing: As number of fins increases, so is heat transfer coefficient h
L
SOpt = 2.714 1/4 But this comes at expense of an area A = 2nHL increases see figure below
RaL

gβ(TW −T∞ )L3

RaL = να

h = 1.307kf /Sopt

Solution: Heat balance

Q = mCp(T out − T in) |viscosity correction factor.
Q = (6000/3600) × 4.93 × (65–15) = 411kW |N u = 0.023(96441)0.8 (4.86)0.33 = 376
Cross-section of pipeA = (π/4)(50 × 10−3 )2 = 1.963 × 10−3 m2 |h = (0.385/50x10−3 ) × 376 = 2895W m−2 .o C −1
6000 1 1
Fluid velocity,u = = 0.98m/s |Take the steam coefficient as 8000W m−2 .o C −1
3600 866 1.963 × 10−3
866times0.98 × (50x10−3 ) 1 1 60 × 10−3 (60/50) 60 1
Re = = 96441 | = + + ×
0.44 × 10−3 U0 8000 2 × 480 50 2895
4.3 × 10−3 × 0.44 × 10−3
Pr = = 4.86 |U0 = 1627W m−2 .o C−1
0.3895
Liquid is not viscous and flow is turbulent,| ∆Tlm = (85–35)/ ln(85/35) = 56.4o C
so use eqn in 9, with C = 0.023 and neglect the| Ao = (411 × 103 )/(1627 × 56.4) = 4.5m2

23
 Ao = π × do × L, L = 4.5/(π × 60 × 10−3 ) = 23.87m
Number of lengths = 23.87/3 = 8(rounded)
Check on viscosity correction
Heat flux, q̇ = 411/4.5 = 91.3kW/m2
∆T across boundary layer = q/h = 91, 300/2895 = 32o C
Mean wall temperature = (15 + 65)/2 + 32 = 72o C
From standard table, µw ≈ 300mN m−2 s
µ/µW = (0.44/0.3)0.14 = 1.055, so correction would increase
the coefficient and reducethe area required. Leave estimate at 8 lengths to allow for fouling.

6.3 Review Questions

1. Distinguish between natural and forced convection

2. Describe factors affecting convection heat transfer

3. Distinguish between natural and forced convection as well as boiling and condensation for various fluids
4. Write temperature at which the thermo-fluid properties are determined

5. Which property in free convection is analogous to Reynolds number in forced convection?

6. Write an expression for Nusselt number for laminar and turbulent flows of internal and external flows considering
uniform wall temperature and uniform heat flux for various geometries
7. Consider Figure 18. Find the optimum fin spacing, Sopt and the rate of heat transfer, Q̇ for the following plate
fin heat sink cooled by natural convection. Given parameters:

W = 120mmL = 18mm H = 24mmt = 1mm

o C
TW = 80 CT∞ = 25 P∞ = 1atmFluid = air

7 Radiation Heat Transfer

7.1 Cause of Radiation, Radiation as a Form of Electromagnetic Wave Energy
Radiation differs from Conduction and Convection heat transfer mechanisms that generally due to Brownian effect,
in the sense that it does not require the presence of a material medium to occur. Energy transfer by radiation occurs
at the speed of light through vacuum due to electromagnetic effect characterized by frequency v, wave length λ and
propagative or photon energy e. It can also occur between two bodies separated by a medium colder than both bodies.
A wide range of electromagnetic spectra shown in the figure 19. Einstein’s photon energy is postulated as in Eq. 27.

(a) (b)

Figure 19: Electromagnetic Spectra

Thermal radiation emission is a direct result of vibrational and rotational motions of molecules, atoms, and electrons

24
of a substance.As Electromagnetic energy (incident radiation)hits surface and pushes some molecules into an excited
state, they relax from the excited state emitting radiation. The incident radiation per unit area is an irradiation, G

e = hc/λ = hv  Thermal radiation is a volumetric
h = 6.625 × 10−34 J.s Plank Const



8
 But,opaque solids like metals exhibit
c0 = 2.99 × 10 m/s light speed (27)

 Surface Rad. b/s it emitted in the
c = c0 /n (where n is refraction index)



 region never reach the surface.
n=1.5 for water & n= 1.5 for air

7.2 Absorptivity, Reflectivity, Emissivity, and Transmissivity

The radiation interaction of bodies characterized by four phenomena: irradiation, absorptivity (α), the ratio of heat
absorbed to incident, emissivity (ϵ), the ratio of heat emitted by the body to that of black body, and transmittance,
τ , portion of irradiation pass through the body see Fig. 20. a. [9] b. [10] Absorptivity is a function of wavelength

(a) (b)

Figure 20: Thermodynamics of Radiation a. Radiation Causes b. absorption, reflection, and transmission of irradiation

(α = α(λ)). The α doesn’t depend on surface temperature but source temperature. Depending on absorptivity,
substances can be gray body or black body: gray body: a body for which α is constant does not depend on λ
black body: a body for which α = 1, i.e. absorbs all incident radiation. For opaque substances, τ = 0. Therefore,
Reflectivity, ρ = 1 − α for opaque surfaces.
qabsorbed
α= qemitted, blackbody = σAT 4 Stefan Boltzman’s Law
qincident
qemitted W (28)
ϵ= qemitted, nonblackbody = ϵAσT 4 σ = 5.676
qemitted, blackbody m2 K
0 ≤ α ≤ 1,0 ≤ ϵ ≤ 1 α = ϵ at the same temp., Kircholf’s law

Example 14 Consider a food body item in the furnace with an internal blower: where there is both convection and
radiation heat transfer in fig 21. Body is at temperature Tb and furnace surface at Ts , assume body and surface
exhibit the same emissivity ϵ∥Ts , and wall acts as a black body, determine radiation heat transfer coefficient in terms
of convection heat transfer coefficient and temperature differences using energy conservation model and Kircholf’s law.
Solution This can be modelled in varieties of ways. Writing expressions using Eq. 23 and 28,

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 21: Combined Radiation Convection Furnace Model a. Radiation Model b. Furnace C. Resistance model

25
 
qtotal = qconv + qrad = (hconv + hrad )A(Ts − Tb ) hrad (Ts − Tb ) = ϵσf (Ts , Tb )

qabsorb,body = ασTs4 = ϵ|Ts Ts4 qemit,body = ϵ|Tb σTs4 = ϵ|Tb Tb4 





qabs,b − qemit,b
qnet,body = = ϵ|Ts σTs4 − ϵ|Tb Tb4 Net flux to bulk object body Assuming ϵ|Ts = ϵ|Tb
A 

ϵ|Ts σ(Ts4 − Tb4 ) 

hrad (Ts − Tb ) = ϵ|Ts σ(Ts4 − Tb4 )

hrad = 

Ts − Tb
The solar energy reaching the edge of the earth’s atmosphere is called the solar constant: Gs = 1353W/m2 throughout
the year within +/- 3.4% variation. Oxygen absorbs narrow band of solar radiation λ = 0.76µm, ozone λ = 0.3−0.4µm.
Clear day solar radiation to the earth’s surface Gs = 950W/m2 in the wavelength range of λ = 0.3 − 2.5µm. The clear
sky has temperature of 230 K cold and 285 K warm, and considering the sky as black body, it’s fictitious radiation is
given by Gsky = σTs4 .

7.3 Radiation Heat Transfer Between Two Infinite Plates and Radiation Shields
Consider a quantity of radiation energy that is emitted from surface 1. And in column 3, With N heat shields present,
q falls by a factor of 1/N compared to no heat shield. Purpose of Heat Shields:is to reduce the amount of energy
transfer from (hotter) plate at T1 to second (cooler) plate at T3.

Scheme diag.
... ... ...
σT14 σ(T14 −T24
qRad, 1 to 2 q12 = 1
+ ε1 −1
q12 = 1 1
ε1 2 ε + ε −1
... ... ...
σT 4 σ(T24 −T34
qRad, A to B q21 = 1 + 12 −1 q23 = 1 1
ε1 ε2 ε + ε −1
σ(T14 −T24 4 4
1 σ(T1 −T3
Net Radiation qnet,12 = 1 + 1 −1 qnet,1,viashieldto3 = N +1 2
ε ε ε −1
... ... ...

7.4 View Factor

Radiation heat transfer between surfaces depends on the orientation of the surfaces relative to each other as well as
their radiation properties and temperatures. View factor (or shape factor) Fij is a purely geometrical parameter that
accounts for the effects of orientation on radiation between surfaces. In view factor calculations, we assume uniform
radiation in all directions throughout the surface, i.e., surfaces are isothermal and diffuse. It ranges from 0 up to 1,
0 ≤ Fij ≤ 1. Also the medium between two surfaces does not absorb, emit, or scatter radiation. Calculating view
factors between surfaces are usually very complex and difficult to perform.

7.4.1 View factor Relations

ˆ An enclosed N sided geometries require an N 2 calculations of Fij
ˆ The reciprocals are equal, Ai Fij = Aj Fji
Pj=N
ˆ Sum = 1, j=1 Fij = 1
ˆ Any two surfaces do not see each other such as opposite/back side of absorbing planes and convex surfaces have
Fij = 0
ˆ Two (or more) surfaces that possess symmetry about a third surface will have identical view factors from that
surface.
ˆ Geometries such as channels and ducts that are very long in one direction can be considered two-dimensional
(since radiation through end surfaces can be neglected). The view factor
P
between their surfaces can P be determined
by cross-string method developed by H. C. Hottel, as follows: Fij = No. of Crossed strings2×string
from edges− No. of uncrossed string
on face

26
 ˆ The view factor from a surface i to a surface j is equal to the sum of the view factors from surface i to the parts
of surface j. Fi,jk = Fi,j + Fi,k
Pj=N J −J
ˆ The net radiation heat transfer Q̇ = EbiRi
−Ji
= j=1 iRij j where E is emitted radiation, J = ϵE + ρG is called
radiosity, sum of emitted and reflected radiations. Rij = Ai1Fij is the resistance to radiation heat transfer.

Example 15 Determine the view factors F12 and F21 for the following geometries in Fig. 22: Solution

Figure 22: View Factor for Various Geometries

1. sphere in cube: 2. square duct: circular tube

By inspection, F 12 = 1 summation r2 /L = 0.5
Reciprocity & summation F 11 + F 12 + F 13 = 1 L/r1 = 2, F13 = 0.17
A1 A1
F21 = F12 F 21 = F12 summation
A2 A2
πD2 π
×1= F11 = 0, F 11 = 0,
6L2 6
5π
F21 + F22 = 1 → F22 = symetry F12 = F13 = 0.5 F 12 = 1 − F 13 = 0.83
6 √
2L A1
= × 0.5 reciprocity, F21 = F12 F12
L A2
πD2 /4
= 0.71 = × 0.83 = 0.21
πDL

7.5 Review Questions

1. Why does radiation heat transfer occur compared to conduction and convection?
2. Why is radiation heat transfer considered as surface phenomena for opaque substances like metals?
3. Describe Kircholf’s and Boltzman’s laws

4. A horizontal oxidized steel pipe carrying steam and having an OD of 0.1683m has a surface temperature of 374.9
K and is exposed to air at 297.1 K in a large enclosure. Calculate the heat loss for 0.305 m of pipe.
5. A horizontal oxidized steel pipe carrying steam and having an OD of 0.1683m has a surface temperature of 374.9
K and is exposed to air at 297.1 K in a large enclosure. Calculate the heat loss for 0.305 m of pipe.
6. Two parallel plates 0.5 by 1.0 m are spaced 0.5 m apart shown in the Fig 23. One plate is maintained at 1000o C
and the other at 500o C. The emissivities of the plates are 0.2 and 0.5, respectively. The plates are located in a
very large room, the walls of which are maintained at 27o C. The plates exchange heat with each other and with
the room, but only the plate surfaces facing each other are to be considered in the analysis. Find the net heat
transfer rate to each plate and the room; neglect other modes of heat transfer, i.e., conduction and convection.

27
 (a) (b)

Figure 23: a. Comb. Radiation-Conv Heat Transfer between Parallel Plates b. Equivalent Resistance Network Model

8 Heat Exchangers
Heat Exchanger: are used for heat transfer between two media, the media do not come into direct contact and there is
no mixing, heat is transport from the hot medium to cold medium by way of heat conducting partition. Heat Transfer
Equipments: are used for heat transfer between two media, the media do not come into direct contact and there is no
mixing, heat is transport from the hot medium to cold medium by way of heat conducting partition. Applications of
heat exchangers include the process, power, heat recovery, oil refinery, manufacturing industries, and the process in
the refining industry often require fluids to be heated or cooled with or without a change in phase during the different
operation. Some examples of heat exchangers are: Car radiators [Media] (water/air), Oil coolers [Media] (oil/air or
water), and Cooling Coils in refrigerators [Media] (air/refrigerant).
There are many ways to increase the efficiency of heat exchangers
ˆ Remove the accumulated precipitated inside and outside the pipes.
ˆ Increase the surface area of contact between the two fluids by increase the number of pipes in (shell and tubes)
heat exchanger.
ˆ In (shell and tube) type we can install baffles to decrease the velocity of fluid in it.

8.1 Types of Heat Exchangers

Heat exchangers classified in term of nature of used fluids which used for heating or cooling as: coolers- use water for
cooling, Condensers- Fluids circulate across the set-up and converted from vapour phase to liquid, heat exchangers- hot
fluid and cold fluid circulate around one-another where heat from hot fluid transferred to cold, and re-boilers: same as
heat exchanger but the heated fluid will change to gas phase (evaporated).
Types of heat exchangers depending on its design configuration: a. Double pipe heat exchange b. Shell and tube heat
exchanger. and c. Plate heat exchanger.

8.1.1 Double pipe – Parallel flow heat exchanger

It consists of central tube container within a larger tube, it is relativity cheap, flexible and hence, used in smaller
units, it is customary to operate with high pressure, high temperature and high density. Fins are used in double pipe
heat exchanger in the figure 24 to increase the efficiency of exchanger and increase the surface area of heat exchanger
tubing. Parallel flow heat exchangers offer the following advantages
(a) The configuration gives a large surface area in small volume.
(b) Good mechanical layout (a good shape for pressure operation).
(c) Uses well- Established fabrication techniques.
(d) Can be constructed from a wide range of materials.
(e) Easily cleaned.
(f) Well- Established design procedures.

8.1.2 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

A type of heat exchanger widely used in chemical process industries is that of (shell & tube) arrangement shown in
the figure below, one fluid flows on the inside of tubes while the other fluid is forced through the shell and over the
outside of tubes, to ensure that the shell side fluid will flow across the tubes and thus in duce higher heat transfer
“Baffles” are placed in the shown figure.
Baffles can be defined as metal plates cutted from one side 25% and drilled many holes where the pipes in the heat

28
 (a) (b)

Figure 24: a. Double pipe Heat Exchanger b. Parallel & Counter Flow

exchangers put through it, these baffles arranged in a particular position and the distance between them are similar.
Aim of using Baffles: To ensure that the shell side fluid will flow across the tubes by reduce fluid velocity so that make
higher heat transfer and to maintain the fluid in the shell as long as possible time to increase the efficiency of the heat
exchanger.

(a) (b)

Figure 25: Shell & Tube - Counter flow heat exchanger a. single & double Shell b. baffles & flow configuration

8.1.3 Plate Heat Exchangers

A plate hate exchanger consists of stack of closely spaced thin metal plates, clamped together in a frame, a thin
gasket seals the plates round their edges, the gap between the plates is normally between about (3 and 6) mm, corner
ports in plates direct the flow from plate to plate, the basic flow arrangements are shown in the figure below, various
combinations of these arrangements are used, plate are available in wide range of materials including (stainless steel,
plastics and asbestos) based gasket materials are used.
Heat transfer coefficients are generally higher in plate heat exchanger than shell & tube exchangers and the units are
more compact, plate are available with effective areas from (0.03 to 1.3) m2 , and up to 400 plates can be contained in
a large frame, a plate is not good shape to resist pressure, and the maximum operating pressure is limited to about
(20 bar), the operating temperature is limited by performance of the available gasket materials to about (250 C), plate
heat exchangers are used extensively in food industries, we have two type of flow for plate.

29
 Figure 26: compact Plate Heat Exchanger

8.2 Heat Exchanger Analysis

All Double pipe, plate and shell & tube based on convection heat transfer the general equation 25 with correction
factor f = Tt22 −t
−T1 where 0.35 ≤ f ≤ 1 shown here again in Eq. 29where t and t are temperatures of tube and shell
1

respectively while 1 and 2 are inlet and exit: [11]

Tout − Tin Tout − Tin  A = πDL for Parallel Pipe


∆Tln = = 
ln TTWW−T out
−Tin
ln(∆Tout /∆Tin )  A = N πDL for Shell & Tube (29)

where Q̇ = f hA∆Tln = ṁCP ∆T  N is No. of Pipes

The effectiveness ϵ from Eq. 8 of can be written in terms of heat capacitance rate [W/K], C, and change in temperature
[K]. The heat capacitance rate is defined in terms of mass flow rate [kg/s], , and specific heat [kJ/(kgK)]. The Number
of Transfer Units (NTU) Method is used to calculate the rate of heat transfer in heat exchangers. Refer [1] for details
in N T U method for all types of heat exchangers.
U As Cmin
Q̇Actual 1 − exp[− Cmin
(1 + CMax )
εparallel flow = = Cmin
Q̇Max.Possibe 1+ Cmax (30)
ε = f (U A/Cmin , Ct extmin/Cmax ) = f (N T U, c)

Example 16 Water at the rate of (68 Kg/min) is heated from (35to75o C by an oil having a specific heat of
(1.9KJ/Kg.o C), the fluids are used counter flow double pipe heat exchanger and the oil enters the exchanger at
(110o C) and leave at (75o C), the overall heat transfer coefficient is (320w/m2 .o C), calculate the heat transfer area?
Solution Q̇ = ṁCP ∆T = 68 × 1.9 × (75 − 35) = 86.1kW and log mean temperature

Tout − Tin Tout − Tin (110 − 75) − (75 − 35)

∆Tlm = = −T
= = 37.44o C
ln(∆Tout /∆Tin ) T
ln TW −Tin
W out
ln 110−75
75−35

Q 86100
A= = = 7.186m2
∆Tlm 320 × 37.44 | {z }
Answer

8.3 Review Questions

1. Distinguish between double pipe, shell & tube and plate type heat exchanger construction with an aid of schematic
sketches
2. write log mean temperature expression for convection heat transfer analysis described in section 6.1.1 and section
8.2 in equation 29 with an aid of temprature vs L sketch
3. What is the effectiveness of a counter-flow heat exchanger that has a heat capacitance U A value of 24 kW/K
if the respective mass rates of flow and specific heats of the two fluids are 10 kg/s, 2 kJ/(kgK) and 4 kg/s, 4
kJ/(kgK)?
4. In a processing plant a material must be heated from 20 to 80o C in order for the desired reaction to proceed,
whereupon the material is cooled in a regenerative heat exchanger, as shown in the figure below. The specific
heat of the material before and after the reaction is 3.0 kJ/ (kgK). If the UA of this counter-flow regenerative
heat exchanger is 2.1 kW/K and the flow rate is 1.2 kg/s, what is the temperature T leaving the heat exchanger?

30
9 Condensation and Boiling Heat Transfer
This last section aimed to differentiate between evaporation and boiling, and gain familiarity with different types of
boiling, develop an understanding of the boiling curve, and the different boiling regimes corresponding to different
regions of the boiling curve, calculate the heat flux and its critical value associated with nucleate boiling A − C in
Fig 27 [1], and examine the methods of boiling heat transfer enhancement, and derive a relation for the heat transfer
coefficient in laminar film condensation over a vertical plate. Furthermore to calculate the heat flux associated with
condensation on inclined and horizontal plates, vertical and horizontal cylinders or spheres, and tube bundles,and
examine dropwise condensation and understand the uncertainties associated with them.
Boiling and condensation are vital links in the heat transfer of heat from a hot to a colder region in countless
applications, e.g., thermal and nuclear power generation in steam plants, refrigeration, refining, heat transmission,
etc.

9.1 Boiling
The production of vapour bubbles during boiling gives rise to presence of surface tension. The vapour inside a bubble
must be at a higher pressure then the surrounding liquid. The pressure difference increases as the diameter of the
bubble decreases, and is insignificant when the bubble is large. However, when the bubble is minute, appreciable
pressure difference exists.

9.1.1 Pool Boiling

Figure 27: Pool Boiling with different forms depending on the temperature ∆Excess = Ts − Tsat

Pool boiling refers to boiling with insignificant fluid velocity can be categorized in two: sub-cooled: Bubbles form
on the heating surface but on release from the surface are absorbed by the mass of the liquid and saturated. When the
temperature of the main body of the liquid is below the saturation temperature during sub-cooled boiling. When the
temperature of the liquid is equal to the saturation temperature.
In pool boiling, in absence of bulk flow, Any motion of the fluid is due to natural convection currents and the motion
of the bubbles under the influence of buoyancy. Boiling is called flow boiling in the presence of bulk fluid flow. In flow
boiling, the fluid is forced to move in a heated pipe or over a surface by external means such as a pump.
Evaporation occurs at the liquid–vapor interface when the vapour pressure is less than the saturation pressure of
the liquid at a given temperature. Whereas Boiling occurs at the solid–liquid interface when a liquid is brought into
contact with a surface maintained at a temperature sufficiently above the saturation temperature of the liquid.
At Point A, Bubbles do not form on the heating surface until the liquid is heated a few degrees above the saturation
temperature. the liquid is slightly superheated in this case (metastable state). The fluid motion in this mode of
boiling is governed by natural convection currents. Heat transfer from the heating surface to the fluid is by natural
convection. In Point A − C, the bubbles form at an increasing rate at an increasing number of nucleation sites as
we move along the boiling curve toward point C. Region A–B :isolated bubbles; Region B–C : numerous continuous
columns of vapor in the liquid.After point B the heat flux increases at a lower rate with increasing DeltaTexcess , and

31
reaches a maximum at point C called critical heat flux. DeltaTexcess is increased past point C, the heat flux decreases
because a large fraction of the heater surface is covered by a vapor film, In the transition boiling regime, both nucleate
and film boiling partially occur. Beyond Point D the heater surface is completely covered by a continuous stable vapor
film. Point D, where the heat flux reaches a minimum is called the Leidenfrost point.

9.1.2 Pool Boiling Correlation

Table 11: Boiling Correlation Equations

Region Heat Transfer Correlation Note

h i1/2 h i3
q”s = µl hf g g(ρlσ−ρv )
CP,l ∆Te
Nucleate Boiling Cs,f hf g P r n Rohsenow 1952 Any Geometry
l

h i1/4
Critical Heat Flux CHF q”max = Chf g ρv σ g(ρlρ−ρ
2
v)
S. S. Kutateladze 1948 for any, µ, k, CP
v

h i1/4
σg(ρl −ρv )
Minimum Heat Flux MHF q”min = 0.09hf g ρv ρ2v Zuber drived for Leidenfrost point

i1/4
g(ρl −ρv )h′f g
h
h̄D
Film Boiling N uD = kv =C νv kv (Ts −Tsat ) Cylinder & Sphere diam. D
above 300o C,Radiation Significant
εσ(Ts4 −Tsat
4
) 4/3
h̄rad = Ts −Tsat h̄4/3 = h̄conv + h̄rad h̄1/3

Enhancement of Heat Transf. Depend on Heating surface and at Nucleate Pt

↑h bubble formation rate surface irregularities and roughness
10 × h ↑ & 3 × h ↑ Factors achieved by enhancement during nucleate and CHF resp.

9.1.3 External and Internal Forced Convection Boiling (Flow Boiling)

In flow boiling, the fluid is forced to move by an externalsource such as a pump as it undergoes a phase-change process.
Flow boiling is classified as either external or internal flow boiling.

Types External Internal

Flow Regime
In flow boiling, the fluid is forced to move by The two phase flow in a tube exhibits different
an external source such as a pump as it flow boiling regimes, depending on the relative
undergoes a phase change process. The boiling amounts of the liquid and the vapor phases.
Description
in this case exhibits the combined effects Typical flow regimes: Liquid single-phase flow,
of convection & pool boiling. The Bubbly flow, Slug flow, Annular flow,
nucleate boil. heat flux & CHF ↑ with vel. Mist flow, Vapor single phase flow.

Typical flow regimes:

32
 1. Liquid single-phase flow: In the inlet region the liquid is subcooled and heat transfer to the liquid is by forced
convection (assuming no subcooled boiling).
2. Bubbly flow: Individual bubbles and Low mass qualities

3. Slug flow: Bubbles coalesce into slugs of vapor. and Moderate mass qualities
4. Annular flow: Core of the flow consists of vapor only, and liquid adjacent to the walls. and Very high heat
transfer coefficients
5. Mist flow: a sharp decrease in the heat transfer coefficient

6. Vapor single-phase flow: The liquid phase is completely evaporated and vapor is superheated

9.2 Condensation
Condensation occurs when the temperature of a vapor is reduced below its saturation temperature. Only condensation
on solid surfaces is considered in this section. Two forms of condensation: film condensation and dropwise condensa-
tion.
In film condensation, the condensate wets the surface and forms a liquid film. The surface is blanketed by a liquid
film which serves as a resistance to heat transfer. liquid film starts forming at the top of the plate and flows downward
under the influence of gravity. The hydrodynamics of film condensation is analysed using Newton’s second law and
heat transfer assumed to be only conduction using Fourier law. The condensate Weight adds up Viscous shear force
and Buoyancy force.
In droplet condensation, the most effective mechanisms of heat transfer, and extremely large heat transfer coeffi-
cients can be achieved. Small droplets grow as a result of continued condensation, coalesce into large droplets, and
slide down when they reach a certain size. Large heat transfer coefficients enable designers to achieve a specified heat
transfer rate with a smaller surface area. The challenge in dropwise condensation is to sustain it for prolonged periods
of time. Dropwise condensation has been studied experimentally for a number of surface fluid combinations. The
waves at the liquid vapor interface tend to increase heat transfer. Film condensation model ASSUMPTIONS: 1. Both
the plate and the vapor are maintained at constant temperatures of Ts and Tsat, respectively, and the temperature
across the liquid film varies linearly. 2. Heat transfer across the liquid film is by pure conduction. 3. The velocity of
the vapor is low (or zero) so that it exerts no drag on the condensate (no viscous shear on the liquid vapor interface).
4. The flow of the condensate is laminar (Re < 30) and the properties of the liquid are constant. 5. The acceleration
of the condensate layer is negligible.

(a) (b)

Figure 28: Film Condensation Vert. Wall Model: a. Hydrodynamics b. Flow Regime

33
 du g(ρl − ρg )(δ − y)
= HEAT TRANSFER
dy µl
obtained from writing Newton’s law in dq = hf g dm˙ = k(bdx) Tsat − Ts
δ
Tsat − Ts
terms of viscous shear force and buoyance force q˙x = hx (Tsat − Ts ) = kx
δ
g(ρl − ρg )δ 2 y 1  y 2
 
kx
u(y) = − hx =
µl δ 2 δ δ
1/4
3
h¯L L

gρl (ρl − ρv )δ 4 4µl kl (Tsat − Ts )hf g x
mass flow rate ṁ = , Nu = → h̄ = hx=L δ=
3µl kl 3 gρl (ρl − ρv )
1/4
gρl (ρl − ρv )hf g L3

N uL = 0.943
µl (Tsat − T s)
For turbulent flows, N u is f (Re) as many empirical relations established for different flow regimes. A single smooth
tube or smooth sphere given in Fiq 29can have correlation shown in Eq. 31,

Figure 29: Film condensation in radial coordinates

1/4
h¯D D gρl (ρl − ρv )hf g L3

N uD = = C (31)
kl µl (Tsat − T s)

Where C= 0.729 for tube and C=0.826 for sphere The dropwise correlation recommended by Griffith (1983) these
simple correlations for dropwise condensation of steam on copper surfaces:
(
51, 104 + 2044Ts 22o C < Tsat < 100o C
hdropwise = (32)
255, 310Tsat > 100o C

9.3 Review Questions

1. Explain pool boiling with relevant sketch of boiling heat vs ∆Texcess .

2. Distinguish external and internal forced boiling

3. Illustrate film condensation model with assumptions
4. Describe advantages and challenges of dropwise condensation

10 Objective Questions
In addition to sample questions listed under here, you can also check questions with answers free on-line by clicking
links under Reference Section. [12] [13] [14] [15]
1. What is heat transfer?

(a) Flow of thermal energy from low-temperature reservoir to high-temperature reservoir

(b) Flow of energy in the form of heat from high-temperature reservoir to low-temperature reservoir
(c) Flow of thermal energy irrespective of reservoir temperature
(d) None of the above

34
 2. Which of the following is a method of heat transfer?
(a) Convection
(b) Radiation
(c) Conduction
(d) All of the mentioned
3. Heat transfer takes place according to which of the following law?
(a) Newton’s second law of motion
(b) First law of thermodynamics
(c) Newton’s law of cooling
(d) Second law of thermodynamics
4. Which of the following is the rate of heat transfer unit?
(a) Watt
(b) Pascal
(c) Joule
(d) Newton
5. Which of the following is an example of steady-state heat transfer?
(a) Electric bulb cools down by the surrounding atmosphere
(b) Chilling effect of cold wind on a warm body
(c) Boilers and turbines
(d) Cooling of I.C engine
6. Which way is heat transfer believed to take place in a long, hollow cylinder that is kept at consistent but varied
temperatures on its inner and outer surfaces?
(a) Unpredictable
(b) Radial only
(c) No heat transfer takes place
(d) Axial only
7. Which of the following is correct regarding one dimensional heat transfer?
(a) Steady –f (x, y, t), U nsteady–f (x)
(b) Steady –f (y, z), U nsteady–f (y)
(c) Steady –f (x, t), U nsteady–f (x)
(d) Steady –f (x), U nsteady–f (x, t)
8. A person prefers to sit by a fire during the cold winter months. Which of the following heat transfer types gives
him with the most heat?
(a) Convection and radiation together
(b) Radiation will provide quick warmth
(c) If it is near the fire, convection sounds good
(d) Conduction from the fire
9. On which of the following does convective heat transfer coefficient doesn’t depend?
(a) Orientation of solid surface
(b) Time
(c) Surface area
(d) Space
10. In liquids and gases, heat transmission is primarily caused by
(a) Convection

35
 (b) Radiation
(c) Conduction
(d) Conduction as well as convection
11. For conduction heat transfer, the heat energy propagation will be minimal for

(a) Copper
(b) Air
(c) Water
(d) Lead

12. A 25 mm diameter egg roll (k = 1 W/m degree) is roasted with the help of microwave heating. For good
quality roasting, it is desired that temperature at the center of roll is maintained at 100 degree Celsius when the
surrounding temperature is 25 degree Celsius. What should be the heating capacity in W/m 3 of the microwave
if the heat transfer coefficient on the surface of egg roll is 20 W/m2 degree?

(a) 613.31 kW/m3

(b) 93.31 kW/m3
(c) 6713.31 kW/m3
(d) 213.31 kW/m3
13. The rate of heat transfer for a plane wall of homogenous material with constant thermal conductivity is given
by which of the following equation?
(a) Q = 2k/δx
(b) Q = 2kAδx
(c) Q = kA(t1 − t2)/δ
(d) Q = 2kAx/δ
14. The appropriate rate equation for convective heat transfer between a surface and adjacent fluid is prescribed by
which law?
(a) Newton’s law of cooling
(b) Kirchhoff’s law
(c) Newton’s first law
(d) Wein’s displacement law
15. A wire of radius 3 mm and 1.25 m length is to be maintained at 60 degree Celsius by insulating it by a material
of thermal conductivity 0.175W/mK. The temperature of surrounding is 20o C with heat transfer coefficient 8.5
W/m2 K. Find percentage increase in heat loss due to insulation?
(a) 124.23 %
(b) 100.00 %
(c) 12.55 %
(d) 134.46 %
16. Why fins are provided on a heat transfer surface?
(a) Pressure drop of the fluid should be minimized
(b) Increase turbulence in flow for enhancing heat transfer
(c) Surface area is maximum to promote the rate of heat transfer
(d) Increase temperature gradient so as to enhance heat transfer

36
11 References
References
[1] Y Cengel, T. M. Heat, Heat and Mass Transfer 2003.
[2] S. H. A. Talib, S. I. N. S. Hashim, S. Beddu, A. F. Maidin, M. S. Abustan in MATEC Web of Conferences,
Vol. 87, EDP Sciences, 2017, p. 01015.
[3] P. Böckh, T. Wetzel, Heat transfer: basics and practice, Springer Science & Business Media, 2011.
[4] C. Chhokar, G. B. Abadi, M. Bahrami, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 2022, 196, 123304.
[5] H. Truong, G. E. Zinsmeister, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 1978, 21, 905–909.
[6] C.-H. Wang, Z.-Y. Liu, Z.-Y. Jiang, X.-X. Zhang, Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 2022, 30, 101758.
[7] J. Wojtkowiak in Encyclopedia of Thermal Stresses, (Ed.: R. B. Hetnarski), Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht,
2014, pp. 2808–2817.
[8] S. Uppuluri, S. E. Keinath, D. A. Tomalia, P. R. Dvornic, Macromolecules 1998, 31, 4498–4510.
[9] N. Boerema, G. Morrison, R. Taylor, G. Rosengarten, Solar Energy 2012, 86, 2293–2305.
[10] M. Siavashi, H. R. Talesh Bahrami, E. Aminian, Applied Thermal Engineering 2018, 138, 465–474.
[11] B. A. Mohamad.
[12] Heat Transfer MCQ (Multiple Choice Questions), https : / / www . sanfoundry . com / 1000 - heat - transfer -
questions-answers/, Accessed: January 27, 2023.
[13] 300 Heat Transfer MCQ Questions and Answers, https : / / engineeringinterviewquestions . com / heat -
transfer- mechanical- engineering- multiple- choice- questions- and- answers/, Accessed: January 27,
2023.
[14] Latest Heat Transfer MCQ Objective Questions, https://testbook.com/objective- questions/mcq- on-
heat-transfer--5eea6a1039140f30f369e89a, Accessed: January 27, 2023.
[15] Heat Transfer Quiz Questions with Answers, https://www.objectivequiz.com/heat-transfer-questions-
answers, Accessed: January 27, 2023.

37
 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Tsegaye Getachew1∗
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Wolaita Sodo University, [email protected]
April 21, 2023

Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Basic Refrigeration and Air Conditioning System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Terms, Definition, and Applications of RAC (Refrigeration and Air Conditioning System . . . 2
1.2 System Performance of Heat Pump and Refrigeration Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 The refrigeration cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Vapor Compression Refrigeration System Cycle (VCRS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.2 Vapor Expansion Refrigeration System Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.3 Air Cycle (AC) or Air Conditioning Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Solved Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Review Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 PSYCHROMETRY 7
2.1 Solved Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Review Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3 Air-Conditioning 11
3.1 Solved Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4 Load Calculation 15
4.1 Calculating heating and cooling loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.2 Methods for estimating cooling and heating loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.2.1 Cooling Load Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.3 Solved Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.4 Multiple Choice Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

List of Figures
1 Components of Refrigeration and Air conditioning System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Sensible and Latent heat of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3 Isothermal wall heating, exponential Temp. Decay a. Mean surface Temp. b. Log Mean Temp. . . . . 4
4 Refrigerator versus heat pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5 Basic circuit diagram of vapor absorption cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
6 Air Cooling Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
7 a. wet bulb temperature measurement b.laboratory psychrometer c. Various Air Conditioning Processes
across Mollier chart d. psychrometric chart/Mollier Diagram e. Mollier Diagram Reading . . . . . . . 8
8 Typical Air Conditioning Process Across Mollier Diagram a. Sensible heating circuit b. sensible heating
Mollier diag. c. Sensible cooling circuit d. sensible cooling Mollier diag. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
9 Bypass factor a. circuit diagram b. Mollier diagram c. heating coil d. cooling coil . . . . . . . . . . . 9
10 Solved Problem a. Comfort AC b. Industrial AC c. Winter AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
11 Cooling load components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
12 A typical summer air conditioning system having a cooling coil with a by-pass factor of none . . . . . 19

I
List of Tables
1 Common Refrigerants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Cooling Load Factor (CLF) for glass with interior shading and located in north latitudes . . . . . . . 17
3 Total heat gain, sensible heat gain fraction from occupants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4 Table showing typical load of various types of appliances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

II
1 Introduction
Refrigeration is the process of removing heat. Refrigeration is described as a technique for lowering a system’s
temperature below that of its surroundings and holding it there by continuously removing heat from it. Refrigerator
is the name of the appliance that creates the cooling effect. Air-conditioning achieved by controlling temperature,
humidity, ventilation, and air quality within bounds established by the needs of the air conditioned enclosure, air
conditioning is a type of air treatment.
Working principle of refrigeration

1. Heat is constantly transferred from a body in a high-temperature region to a body in a low-temperature region.
2. According to the second rule of thermodynamics, heat transfer from a system with a lower temperature to an
environment with a higher temperature is achievable through some external methods.
3. The working fluid undergoes phase transitions from liquid to vapour upon heat rejection and from liquid to
vapour upon heat absorption.
4. A cooling effect is produced when the working fluid transitions from a liquid to a vapor phase.
Its foundation is the second law of thermodynamics. According to the Clausius Statement, heat cannot move from
a body that is warmer to one that is colder without some external assistance. In refrigeration, heat is continually
rejected to the environment at a higher temperature while being continuously removed from the system at a lower
temperature. This is accomplished by utilizing an outside source, such as a compressor (or) a pump. A working fluid or
medium known as refrigerant is used to remove heat from a system operating at a lower temperature. The refrigerant
radiates heat away into the hot environment. Freon, ammonia, CO2 , SO2 , hydrocarbon refrigerant, methylene chloride,
ethylene, ethane, air, and water are only a few of the possible refrigerants.

1.1 Basic Refrigeration and Air Conditioning System Components

Principal refrigeration components of vapor compression refrigeration cycle are given in the figure 1. Few components
can vary with different refrigeration system depending on the construction purpose of either addition or removal of
heat.

Compressor

re Su Hig
su r pe h
es apo rh Pr
r
P V e at ess
w d ed ur
Lo ate Va e
u r po
S at r
Evaporator Condenser
Li id
qu i qu
id L
-V t ed
ap a
or t ur
M Sa
ix
.
Expansion Device

Figure 1: Components of Refrigeration and Air conditioning System

The evaporator’s function is to use the liquid refrigerant to remove extra heat from the product. Low pressure
causes the liquid refrigerant inside the evaporator to boil. The rate at which heat is transferred from the product to
the liquid refrigerant in the evaporator and the rate at which the compressor removes the low-pressure vapor from
the evaporator define the amount of this pressure. To allow for heat transmission, the liquid refrigerant’s temperature
must be lower than that of the object being cooled. After being transferred, the compressor uses the suction line to
take liquid refrigerant from the evaporator. When the liquid refrigerant reaches the evaporator coil, it has transformed
into vapor.
The evaporator’s low temperature, low pressure, and overheated vapor is transferred through the suction line, com-
pressed to high pressure by the compressor, and then discharged into the condenser without changing its gaseous
state. In order to raise the pressure of the refrigerant to a point where the saturation temperature of the discharge
refrigerant is higher than the temperature of the available cooling medium, heat is added to the refrigerant during
this process. This allows the superheated refrigerant to condense at normal ambient conditions. Rotary, hermetic,

1
and semi-hermetic compressors are among the various types of reciprocating compressors that are used for various
applications.
The condenser’s function is to transfer heat from the refrigerant to the ambient air. It can quickly transport heat
from the air near the pipe to the gas or vapor, turning them into liquid. Because they release heat while operating,
condensers frequently operate at high temperatures. The second law of thermodynamics states that spontaneous
heat transmission in a closed system is one-way, going from high temperature to low temperature, which means that
microscopic particles carrying heat may only exacerbate disorder.
Expansion Valve:The mechanism, which is designed to pass the most liquid refrigerant feasible to achieve a good
refrigeration effect, is used to feed the high-pressure liquid from the condenser to the evaporator. To have the least
amount of pressure drop, the liquid line needs to be suitably sized. The throttling mechanism regulates the flow
of refrigerant while also reducing pressure. Additionally, it lowers the pressure from the discharge pressure to the
evaporator pressure without causing the pressure refrigerant’s condition to change. Capillary tubes and thermostatic
expansion valves are examples of throttling apparatus. For applications up to around 10 refrigeration tons, the capil-
lary tube is the most often utilized throttling device.
Vapor Compression: (VCR) system is the most affordable and straightforward form of cooling equipment currently
in use. VCR systems are applied in industrial sectors like oil refineries, petrochemical factories, food processing busi-
nesses, and natural gas plants to remove existing heat when cooling spaces is required. The heat is transferred from
the cold reservoir to the hot reservoir in these systems, which operate in the opposite direction of the Carnot cycle.
The device uses mechanical energy to go through stages of compression and expansion to provide the cooling effect.
Ammonia is the primary refrigerant used in conventional (VCR) systems when phases transition from liquid to gas
and vice versa. In the compressor, the refrigerant is first adiabatically compressed. The pressure and temperature
of the refrigerant will rise. Heat from the refrigerant is rejected to the atmosphere by the condenser, which receives
it at constant pressure. After entering an expansion device, the refrigerant will expand and its temperature and
pressure will decrease. This low-temperature refrigerant evaporates when it enters the evaporator while keeping the
pressure constant, producing cooling. The heat that the evaporator absorbs is known as the refrigeration effect. As
the low-temperature refrigerant vapor enters the compressor, the cycle is then repeated.
Refrigerant: The operating substance utilized in refrigeration systems is referred to as ”refrigerant”. The most widely
used refrigerants at the moment are a mixture of hydrocarbons and halogens sold under a variety of brand names,
including freon, genetron, arcton, isotron, frigen, etc. These are either methane- or ethane-based and contain chlorine
or fluorine atoms in place of hydrogen carbon atoms. It was discovered in the middle of the 1970s that CFCs (chloro-
fluorocarbons) increase not only the amount of ultraviolet radiation that enters the earth’s atmosphere, but also act
as a barrier to the escape of infrared radiation to space, which adds to the greenhouse effect and subsequently, global
warming. Because of this, many nations have outlawed or gradually phased out the usage of some CFCs. The (ODP)
of R-12 is most severely harmed by fully halogenated CFCs, including R-11, R12, and R115. The most common
refrigerant is chlorine-free R-134a, which is used mostly in refrigerators and air conditioners for homes.
Properties of a good refrigerant:
1. very low boiling point and very low freezing point.
2. high latent heat of evaporation associated with less work requirement of the system
3. low saturation pressure.
4. good thermal conductivity for rapid heat transfer
5. non-toxic, non-inflammable, non-corrosive to the working parts.
6. economical for both in initial cost and maintenance cost
7. chemically stable for temperature variations and neutral for lubricating oil
8. Leaks should be easily detected, located
9. Should operate under low pressure
The common refrigerants and their typical properties given in Table 1 where some hydrocarbon refrigerants naming
following the naming convention.

1.1.1 Terms, Definition, and Applications of RAC (Refrigeration and Air Conditioning System
ˆ Refrigeration EffectIt is the quantity of cooling that a refrigeration system generates. It is described as the
rate of heat removal from the area (or system) that needs to be cooled during a cycle. It is also known as
”refrigerator capacity.” In either kW or kJ/s, it is measured.
ˆ cryogenics: Cryogenics studies the causes and consequences of extremely low temperatures. The name is
derived from the Greek words ”kryos” and ”genic,” which mean ”to produce” and ”frost,” respectively. A
definition like that would allow for all temperatures below zero degrees Celsius to be included.

2
 Table 1: Common Refrigerants

# Refrigerant Properties
1 It has a boiling point of 33.5 o C and It’s the most
Ammonia N H3 widely used refrigerant in vapour absorption
highly inflammable, irritating and corrosive and due
to the later two reasons, it’s not suitable for food
industries
Used in large industries such as ice manufacturing
plant packaging plants for cold storage
2 CO2 Has a boiling point of -77.6 o C and used where space
consideration (compact)is important such as ships
because of its specific volume
3 has Boiling Temperature of −10o C and it’s Colour-
SO2
less, and suffocating chemical with irritating odour.
Historically, this refrigerant was utilized in household
refrigerators in the past
4 has a boiling point of −29.8o C, non-flammable, non-
Freon-12
explosive, non corrosive and odourless
widely accepted refrigerant for various applications
and used in small capacity equipment such as domes-
tic refrigerators, water coolers, and air-conditioner.
5 has a normal boiling point of −40.8o C and more com-
Freon-22
paratively high-pressure refrigerant than Freon-12
employed for air-conditioners in large capacity
plants, food freezing, freeze drying

ˆ Ton of Refrigeration or Units of Refrigeration: is the unit of refrigeration, the amount of heat absorbed in
order to produce one ton of ice in 24 hours from water, whose initial temperature 0o C. 1Ton of refrigeration
= 210kJ/minor3.517kW
ˆ Ice Making Capacity: the ability of a refrigerating system to make ice. In other words, it is the capacity of
a refrigerating system to remove heat from water to make ice.
ˆ Co-efficient of Performance:, (COP) the performance measure of the refrigeration system, the ratio or the
amount of heat removed from a given space to the work supplied to achieve the heat removal. The design of
the system or the specific purpose configuration determines the formula of COP to be used from Equation 1, see
Figure 4 for better clarity. The computation of work from the change in heat transfer follows the second law of
thermodynamics
Desired Output QL QL TL
COPR = = = = for refrigerator
Work supplied to the system W QH − QL TH − TL
(1)
Desired Output Q QH TH
COPHP = = = = for heat pump
Work supplied to the system W QH − QL TH − TL

ˆ Relative COP: the ratio of actual COP to the theoretical COP of a refrigerator.
Actual COP
COPRelative = (2)
T heoreticalCOP
The theoretical COP always > 1.
ˆ Application of RAC: Preservation, and conservation of food and food industries; Industries of chemical
processing; Air conditioning systems for industrial and residential use; Drying Plants, etc.
ˆ Sensible and latent heat: A mathematical and engineering abstraction to add up internal energy and flow
work make up enthalpy. Sensible heat is a change in enthalpy may be felt as a shift in temperature, change
of enthalpy with change in temperature. The unit of change in enthalpy per degree of temperature change, or
the specific heat capacity, is given in kJ/(kg K), where K is kilograms. If enthalpy doesn’t with temperature
temperature change, additional heat absorbed as Latent heat: a change in state (solid to liquid, liquid to
gas, or vice versa). This is measured in kJ/kg but depends on the boiling point see figure 2. [1]. For water,
the latent heat of freezing is 334 kJ/kg as shown in the figure 2 and the specific heat capacity averages 4.19
kJ/(kg K). The quantity of heat to be removed from 1 kg of water at 30o C in order to turn it into ice at 0o C is:
Q = Qsensible + Qlatent = 4.19(30–0) + 334 = 459.7kJ. Mark here also that the temperature scale not converted
to SI unit-Kelvin because the required temperature value is the difference and therefore conversion doesn’t alter
it.

3
 Figure 2: Sensible and Latent heat of water

ˆ Heat Transfer: The average rate of heat transfer to or from a refrigerant fluid flowing in a tube can be modelled
as forced convection graphically shown in the figure 3 [2] and can be computed by using equation 3. The h inthe
equation 3 known as thermal transimitance measured in W/(mK ).

Figure 3: Isothermal wall heating, exponential Temp. Decay a. Mean surface Temp. b. Log Mean Temp.

Q̇ = hA∆Tln (3)

where the logarithmic mean temperature can be calculated by using 4

∆Tmax − ∆Tmin Tout − Tin
∆Tln = =
ln ∆Tmax
∆Tmin
ln(∆T out /∆Tin ) (4)
where Q̇ = f hA∆Tln = ṁCP ∆T

1.2 System Performance of Heat Pump and Refrigeration Cycles

The COP for refrigerator and heat pump are related as seen in Eq. 1 COPR = 1 + COPHP

1.3 The refrigeration cycle

The common refrigeration cycle comprise vapor compression cycle, vapor absorption cycle, steam jet refrigeration
system(old), air cycle, and thermoelectric cooling.

1.3.1 Vapor Compression Refrigeration System Cycle (VCRS)

As shown in the figure 1, a liquid refrigerant boils and condenses within the bounds of its freezing point and critical
temperature. The transition between the liquid and gaseous states—at a temperature depends on its pressure. The
latent heat of evaporation must be obtained during boiling, and it must be released when condensing. At the lower
temperature and pressure, heat is applied to the fluid, supplying the latent heat necessary to cause it to boil and
transform into a vapour. The next step is to mechanically compress this vapour to a higher pressure and a saturation
temperature where its latent heat can be rejected, causing it to transform back into a liquid. The heat transferred to

4
 Warm
Warm Env’t
House

Desired Output
Heat Ejected to

QH
QH
Required Input Required Input
Refrigerator Heat Pump
Wnet,in Wnet,in

Heat Absorped to
Desired Output

QL
QL

Refrigrated
Cold Space Cold Env’t

Figure 4: Refrigerator versus heat pump

the working fluid in the evaporator or the difference in enthalpies between the fluid entering and the vapour leaving the
evaporator, will have the overall cooling effect via an Expansion Valve. A portion of the fluid will flash off into vapour
to eliminate the energy required for this cooling when the pressure is reduced at the sudden volume enlargement valve,
which must result in a proportional drop in temperature.

1.3.2 Vapor Expansion Refrigeration System Cycle

VARS are in the same category as refrigeration systems that use vapour compression. The required input for absorption
systems is heat, as opposed to vapour compression refrigeration systems, which require temperature drop (with an aid
of expansion valve). The VARS constructed with an absorber, heat exchanger and vapor generator, see figure
5 in place of compressor compared to VCRS in the figure 1. Because of this, these systems are often known as heat-
operated or thermal energy-driven systems. Wet absorption systems are another name for typical absorption systems

Figure 5: Basic circuit diagram of vapor absorption cycle

since they absorb refrigerant using liquids. VARS are favored when low-grade energy sources like solar energy or waste
heat are available since they operate on low-grade thermal energy. They are environmentally beneficial because they
use refrigerants like water or ammonia.
VARS does not involve moving part (compressor) or electrical input work and therefore relatively quieter operating
with less wear/tear, but has less COP. Although, VARS may utilize waste heat recovery that give it edge/advantage
over VCRS.

5
1.3.3 Air Cycle (AC) or Air Conditioning Cycle
Any gas, when compressed, rises in temperature. Conversely, if it is made to do work while expanding, the temperature
will drop. AC use is made of the sensible heat only (although it is, of course, the basis of the air liquefaction process).
Typical single stage schematic diagram is shown in the figure 6. The main application for this cycle is the air-
conditioning and pressurization of aircraft. The turbines used for compression and expansion turn at very high speeds
to obtain the necessary pressure ratios and, consequently, are noisy. The COP is lower than with other systems The

Figure 6: Air Cooling Cycle

other type of refrigeration cycle is Thermoelectric cooling. The Peltier cooling effect occurs when an electric current
flows through junctions of different metals and results in a drop in temperature at one junction and an increase at the
other. The development of appropriate semiconductors has recently enabled advancements in this cooling technique.
Due to the high electric currents needed, applications are constrained in size, and the most viable usage are compact
cooling systems for use in the military, aircraft, and laboratories.

1.4 Solved Example

1. Heat is to be removed at a temperature of −5o C and rejected at a temperature of 35o C. What is the Carnot or
Ideal COP? [1]
Solution −5o C becomes 268 K and 35o C becomes 308 K (to the nearest K) by adding linear 273 kelvin scale
to each. Using equation 1, yields
T2 268
COP = = = 6.7 Note here that in the computation of∆T
T1 − T2 35 − (−5))
o
Theoretical COP because COP > 1 yields the same result in both C K
35 − (−5)) = 308K − 268K = 40

2. A fluid evaporates at 3o C and cools water from 11.5o C to 6.4o C. Use equation 3 to calculate the logarithmic
mean temperature difference and what is the heat transfer if it has a surface area of 420 m2 and the thermal
transmittance is 110 W/m2 K? Solution: Using Equation 4 and 3

∆Tmax − ∆Tmin
LM T D = ∆Tln =
ln ∆T max
∆Tmin
(11.3 − 3) − (8.5 − 3)
= = 5.566K
ln (11.3−3)
8.5−3
Q = (hA) × LM T D = 420 × 110 × 5.566 = 257, 000W or 257kW

Again, as the necessary computation solely involves differences, the temperature was not converted to the SI
unit. In addition, many of these ideals will change in practice. The saturation temperature will fluctuate as a
result of a pressure drop along a pipe carrying a fluid that is either boiling or condensing. The values of heat
transfer will vary with temperature for some liquids. Due to these factors, not every heat transfer application
can be precisely predicted by the formula.

1.5 Review Question

1. Consider figure below. Using equation 1 calculate the theoretical net work required to bring forth the operation
in the case of refrigerator assuming that the heat load QL = 257kW .

6
 11.3o C 11.3o C

QH
QH
R HP
Wnet,in Wnet,in

QL
QL

3o C 3o C

2. Calculate the network in the case of heat pump in the figure above considering the heat load QH = 257kW

2 PSYCHROMETRY
The study of the characteristics of air-water vapour mixtures is known as psychrometry. The air in the atmosphere is
thought to be a combination of dry air and water vapor. The air in the atmosphere, also known as atmospheric air,
typically contains some water vapor (or moisture). Dry air is defined as air without any water vapor. The atmospheric
air can then be thought of as an ideal gas mixture, whose pressure is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of dry
air and water vapor, Pa and Pv , respectively. P = Pa + Pv , where P is the total pressure
The term vapor pressure typically refers to the partial pressure of water vapor. It is the pressure that water vapor
would experience on its own, at atmospheric air’s temperature and volume. Air is relative and specific humidity: The
most sensible approach is to state explicitly how much water vapor there is in a unit amount of dry air. Absolute or
specific humidity, commonly known as humidity ratio, is shown by the following symbol:ω for given Pg = PT =TS at

mv Pv V /Rv T Pv /Rv Pv
ω= = = = 0.622
ma Pa V /Ra T Pa /Ra Pa
(5)
0.622Pv
= in kg water vapor/ kg dry air)
P − Pv
The humidity can also express the relative humidity ϕ. The relative humidity ranges from 0 for dry air to 1 for
saturated air. The amount of moisture air can hold depends on its temperature. Therefore, the relative humidity of
air changes with temperature even when its specific humidity remains constant.
ωP 0.622ϕPg
ϕ= and ω= (6)
(0.622 + ω)Pg P − ϕPg

The total enthalpy (an extensive property) of atmospheric air is the sum of the enthalpies of dry air and the water
vapor:
H =Ha + Hv = ma ha + mv hv Dividing by ma gives
H mv
h= = ha + hv = ha + ωhv (7)
ma ma
=ha + ωhg in kJ/kg of dry air
Dry Bulb Temperature, or DBT(tdb): the true temperature of a gas or gas combination as measured using an
error-free thermometer. Wet of the wet bulb: WBT(twb): the temperature measured by an accurate thermometer
with a distilled water-moistened wick. The dew point TemperatureDPT(tdp): the temperature at which liquid
droplets begin to form as soon as the humid air is constantly cooled. Psychrometers: pieces of equipment that
concurrently measure the wet and dry bulb temperatures. A psychrometric chart shows the many thermodynamic
properties of air graphically. It helps to reduce the number of calculations needed to determine the qualities of air
that are needed in the field of air conditioning. The charts created by various air conditioning manufacturers differ
slightly, but overall, they are all the same. Normal atmospheric pressure for drawing the psychrometric chart is 760
mm Hg (or 1.01325 bar). See figure Air conditioning technique: Air conditioning systems are made to meet human
body needs. Air-conditioning operations are necessary to keep a residential area or an industrial facility at the proper
temperature and humidity. The process of air conditioning include: raising the temperature, simply decreasing it,
humidifying (adding moisture), and dehumidifying (removing moisture)as shown in the figure 7 (c). Air conditioning
involves getting the air to the right temperature and humidity, often two or more of these steps are required.
Sensible Heating: As depicted in Fig. 8 (a), suppose that air at temperature td 1 travels over a heating coil at
temperature td 3. It should be noticed that the temperature of the air (td 2) when it exits the heating coil will be lower
than td 3.On the psychrometric chart, the sensible heating process is represented by a horizontal line 1-2 running from

7
 (a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

Figure 7: a. wet bulb temperature measurement b.laboratory psychrometer c. Various Air Conditioning Processes across Mollier chart d.
psychrometric chart/Mollier Diagram e. Mollier Diagram Reading

left to right, as shown in Fig. 8 (b). The surface temperature of the heating coil is represented by point 3 in the
graph. The enthalpy difference (h2 − h1 ) as illustrated in Fig. 8 (b) can be used to calculate the heat absorbed by the
air during sensible heating from the psychrometric chart. It should be remembered that the specific humidity remains
unchanged throughout sensible heating (i.e., W 1 = W 2). Heat added by sensible heating obtained from eq. 8,

q = h2 − h1
= cpa (td2 − td1 ) + W cps (td2 − td1 )
subst. the term (cpa + W cps )

(8)
= (cpa + W cps ) (td2 − td1 ) = cpm td2 − ṫd1 the humid specific heat with (cpm )
taking (cpm ) = 1.022kJ/kgK
∴ q = 1.022 (td2 − td1 ) kJ/kg

The value of humid specific heat (cpm ) The value is taken as 1.022 kJ/kgK. Sensible Cooling: Sensible cooling is
the process of reducing air temperature without affecting the specific humidity of the air. As indicated in Fig. 8 (d),
let air at temperature td 1 to pass over a cooling coil at temperature td 3. It should be noticed that the temperature of
the air (td 2) when it exits the cooling coil will be higher than td 3. A horizontal line 1 − 2 running from right to left on
the psychrometric chart represents the sensible cooling process. The heat rejected by sensible cooling calculated from

8
Figure 8: Typical Air Conditioning Process Across Mollier Diagram a. Sensible heating circuit b. sensible heating Mollier diag. c.
Sensible cooling circuit d. sensible cooling Mollier diag.

9: Heat rejected,
q = h11 − h22
= Cpa (td1 − td2 ) + W Cps (td1 − td2 )
= (Cpa + W Cps ) (td1 − td2 ) = Cpm (td1 − td2 )
(9)
The humid spec. heat term (Cpa + W Cps )
(Cpm ) with value 1.022 kJkgK
∴ Heat rejected, q = 1.022 (td1 − td2 ) kJ/kg
When air passes over a coil, some of it (say x kg also known as by-pass factor: the ratio of loss in cooling or heating
to ideal cooling or heating) just by-passes unaffected while the remaining (1 - x) kg comes in direct contact with the
coil. The by-pass factor of a cooling coil decreases with decrease in fin spacing and increase in number of rows. The
temperature of the air corning out of the apparatus (td2) will be less than td3 in case the coil is a heating coil and
more than td3 or (tds) in case the coil is a cooling coil. x is obtained by balancing the enthalpies as seen in eq. 10
and Fig. 10. [shanmukha2020bypass].

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 9: Bypass factor a. circuit diagram b. Mollier diagram c. heating coil d. cooling coil

xcpm td1 + (1 − x)cpm td3

= 1 × cpm tdd
x (td3 − td1 ) = td3 − td2
td3 − td2 (10)
x=
td3 − td1
td3 − td2 td2 − td3
BP Fheating coil = BP Fcooling coil =
td3 − td1 td1 − td3
ηheating/cooling coil = 1 − x = 1 − BP Fheating/cooling coil

9
Humidification is the process of introducing moisture into the air without modifying its dry bulb temperature.
Dehumidification is the process of removing moisture from the air without changing the dry bulb temperature. It
should be noticed that during humidification, the specific humidity likewise rises from W1 to W2, as shown in Fig. 9
(b) , and the relative humidity rises from 2 to 1. In the reverse process, Relative humidity falls from 1 to 2 during
dehumidification, and specific humidity falls from W1 to W2, as seen in Fig.9 b. It should be noticed that the
intercept (h2 − h1) on the psychrometric curve indicates the change in enthalpy during humidification. Because the
dry bulb temperature of the air during humidification stays constant, so does its sensible heat. It follows logically that
the rise in moisture content equal to ∆W ,(where ∆W = W 2 − W 1) or (W 1 − W 2 for dehumidification) kg per kg of
dry air is what causes the change in enthalpy per kg of dry air, which is what is referred to as a latent heat transfer
(LH) given in equation 11 for the given of dry air flowing in m3/min v .
LH = h2 − h1 = hf g (W2 − W1 )
(11)
= v × 1.2 × 2500 × ∆W = 3000v × ∆W kJ/min
The air is humidified by adding or spraying steam, hot water, or cold water into the atmosphere. The following two
techniques can be used to obtain the humidification:
1. Direct approach: With this method, water is sprayed into the room to be air-conditioned in a highly atomized
state. It is not very effective to obtain humidification using this method.
2. Indirect approach: In this method, an air-washer, is used to inject water into the air in the air-conditioning
plant. The room that needs air conditioning is subsequently given this conditioned air.
The other way around air conditioning can either be combination of (heating or cooling) and (humidification and
dehumidification), respectively, and Adiabatic Mixing. Sensible Heat Factor is the ratio of sensible heat to the sum
of sensible and latent heats. In the adiabatic mixing streams, the heat transfer with the surroundings is usually
small, and thus the mixing processes can be assumed to be adiabatic. Mixing processes normally involve no work
interactions, and the changes in kinetic and potential energies, if any, are negligible.

(a) (b)

mass of dry air ṁa1 + ṁa2 = ṁa3

mass of water vapor ω1 ṁa1 + ω2 ṁa2 = ω3 ṁa3
energy ṁa1 h1 + ṁa2 h2 = ṁa3 h3 (12)
ṁa1 ω2 − ω3 h2 − h3
= =
ṁa2 ω3 − ω1 h3 − h1

2.1 Solved Examples

1. Atmospheric air at a dry bulb temperature of 16o C and 25% relative humidity passes through a furnace and
then through a humidifier, in such a way that the final dry bulb temperature is 30o C and 50% relative humidity.
Find the heat and moisture added to the air. Also determine the sensible heat factor of the-process.
solution Heat added to the air: First of all, mark the initial condition of air i.e. at dry bulb temperature 16
degree Celsius and 25 percent relative humidity on the psychrometric chart at point 1, as shown in Fig. Then
mark the final condition of air at 30 degree Celsius dry bulb temperature and 50 percent relative humidity on
the psychrometric chart at point 2. Now locate the point A by drawing horizontal line through point 1 and
vertical line through point

10
 h1 = 23kJ/kg of dry air hA = 38kJ/kgof dry air
h2 = 64kJ/kgof dry air Heat added = h2 − h1 = 64 − 23 = 41kJ/kgof dry air Ans.
2. Determine From the psychrometric chart, we find that enthalpy of air at point 1 in the question 1, Solution:
W1 = 0.0026kg/kg of dry air and specific humidity in the air at point 2 , W2 = 0.0132kg/kg of dry air ∴ Moisture
added to the air
= W2 − W1 = 0.0132 − 0.0026 = 0.0106kg/kg of dry air Ans.
sensible heat factor of the process,
hA − h1 38 − 23
SHF = = = 0.366 Ans.
h2 − h1 64 − 23

2.2 Review Question

1. Saturated air leaving the cooling section of an air-conditioning system at 14o C at a rate of 50m3 /minis mixed
adiabatically with the outside air at 32o C and 60 percent relative humidity at a rate of 20m3 /min. Assuming
that the mixing process occurs at a pressure of 1 atm, determine the specific humidity, the relative humidity,
the dry-bulb temperature, and the volume flow rate of the mixture.

2. Distinguish between sensible heat and latent heat with an appropriate sketch
3. Explain heating with humidification and cooling with dehumidification
4. describe A/C processes across Mollier diagram

3 Air-Conditioning
The study of air conditioning, i.e., supplying and sustaining desirable internal atmospheric conditions for human
comfort regardless of exterior conditions, is an area of engineering science. Air conditioning for industrial use, food
processing, food storage, and other topics are also covered.
A/C variables Conditioned air: The following four elements are crucial for comfortable air conditioning: air’s temper-
ature, air humidity, air quality, and the flow of air.
Air Conditioning System Equipment
1. Circulation fan:-The primary function of this fan is to flow air into and out of the room.
2. A/C unit: It is a unit that consists of cooling and dehumidifying operations for summer air conditioning or
heating and humidification activities for winter air conditioning.
3. supply ducts: The supply duct transfers the conditioned air from the circulating fan to the appropriate place in
the space to be air conditioned.
4. Supply outlets: These are grills that distribute conditioned air uniformly throughout the room.
5. Return outlets are the apertures in a room’s surface that allow room air to enter the return duct.
6. Filters: The primary function of filters is to remove dust, grime, and other potentially hazardous germs from
the air.
Air Conditioning System Classification : The following are some broad categories of air conditioning systems:
1. According to the purpose, there are two types of air conditioning systems: comfort air conditioning systems and
industrial air conditioning systems.

11
 2. Depending on the time of year There are three types of air conditioning systems: winter air conditioning, summer
air conditioning, and year-round air conditioning.
3. Depending on the equipment configuration, a unitary air conditioning system and a central air conditioning
system

1.System of Comfort Air Conditioning: The air is brought to the desired dry bulb temperature and relative
humidity for human health, comfort, and efficiency in comfort air conditioning. If there is insufficient data for the
desired condition, it is assumed to be 21o C dry bulb temperature and 50 percent relative humidity. In general,
the sensible heat factor is kept as follows: = 0.9 for home or private office For a busy restaurant or workplace
= 0.8 Auditorium or cinema hall = 0.7 Ballroom, dance hall, and so on = 0.6 Comfort air conditioning can be
used in homes, workplaces, stores, restaurants, theaters, hospitals, and schools, among other places. 2. Industrial
Air Conditioning System It is an important system of air conditioning these days in which the inside dry bulb
temperature and relative humidity of the air is kept constant for proper working of the machines and for the proper
research and manufacturing processes. Some of the sophisticated electronic and other machines need a particular dry
bulb temperature and relative humidity. Sometimes, these machines also require a particular method of psychrometric
processes. This type of air conditioning system is used in textile mills, paper mills, machine-parts manufacturing
plants, tool rooms, photo-processing plants etc.
3. System of Winter Air Conditioning: The air is heated in winter air conditioning, which is usually accompanied
by humidification. The system’s schematic configuration. The outside air passes via a damper and mixes with the
recirculated outside air (which is obtained by a fan from the conditioned space). The Filter mixed air is filtered to
eliminate dirt, dust, and other contaminants. The air is now sent via a preheat coil to prevent water from freezing and
to control the evaporation of water in the humidifier. Following that, the air is forced to flow through a reheat coil
in order to reach the desired dry bulb temperature. A fan now supplies the conditioned air to the conditioned room.
The exhaust fans or ventilators expel a portion of the used air from the conditioned space to the atmosphere. The
exhaust fans or ventilators expel a portion of the used air from the conditioned space to the atmosphere. The residual
utilized air (known as re-circulated air) is conditioned once again. To compensate for the loss of conditioned (or used)
air through exhaust fans or ventilation from the conditioned area, outside air is drawn and mixed with re-circulated
air.
4.Air Conditioning System for Summer: It is the most common type of air conditioning, and it cools and
dehumidifies the air. The outside air passes through the damper and mixes with re-circulated air (from the conditioned
area). The mingled air is filtered to eliminate dirt, dust, and other pollutants. The air is now forced to flow through
a cooling coil. The coil is substantially cooler than the acceptable dry bulb temperature of the air in the conditioned
space. Cooled air flows through a perforated membrane, losing moisture in the condensed form, which is collected
in a sump. The air is then forced to travel through a heating coil, which gently warms it. A fan now supplies the
conditioned air to the conditioned room. The exhaust fans or ventilators expel a portion of the used air from the
conditioned space to the atmosphere. The residual utilized air (known as re-circulated air) is conditioned once again.
To compensate for the loss of conditioned (or utilized) air due to exhaust fans or ventilation from the conditioned
room, outside air is drawn and mixed with re-circulated air.
5.All-Year Air Conditioning System: The year-round air conditioning system should include both summer and
winter air conditioning equipment. A diagram of a modern summer year-round air conditioning system. The outside
air enters the damper and mixes with the Damper re-circulated air (which comes from the conditioned room). The
mingled air is filtered to eliminate dirt, dust, and other pollutants. The cooling coil in summer air conditioning
works to chill the air to the appropriate temperature. Dehumidification is achieved by running the cooling coil at a
temperature lower than the dew point (apparatus dew point). In the winter, the cooling coil is turned off and the
heating coil is activated to heat the air. During the dry season, spray humidifiers are also used to humidify the air.
System of Integrated Air Conditioning The constructed air conditioner in a unitary air conditioning system is
installed in or near the room to be conditioned. The most popular type of one-room conditioner is a unitary system,
which sits in a window or wall opening and has internal controls. A fan blows interior air over the evaporator, which
cools it. As a second fan blows over the conditioner, the outside air is heated. Heat is provided from the room and
discharged to the environment throughout this procedure. A big house or building may contain numerous such units,
allowing each area to be cooled independently. There are two types of unitary air conditioning systems.
1. windows unit: These air conditioners have a tiny capacity of 1TR to 3TR and are referred to through a window
or wall. They are solely used to condition the air in one room. When the room is larger, two or more units are
employed.
2. Vertical Packed Units/PTAC systems or vertical packed units: These air conditioners have a larger capacity of
5 to 20TR and are located near the space to be conditioned. They can be used in a restaurant, a bank, or a
small office. PTACS/wall split air conditioning systems/ductless systems used in hotels feature two independent
units, the evaporative unit on the inside and the condensing unit on the outside, connected by tubing that runs
through the wall. This permits each room to be neighboring in its own right. In cold weather, a PTAC system
can be modified to offer heating, either directly with an electric strip, gas, or other heaters, or indirectly by
reversing the refrigerant flow to heat the inside and draw heat from the outer air, transforming the air into a

12
 heat pump. While room air conditioning offers the most flexibility when it comes to cooling rooms, it is typically
more expensive than a central air conditioning system.
7.Central Air Conditioning System: the most common type of air conditioning system, used when cooling capacity
of 25TR or more is necessary. It is used when the air flow is greater than 300 m3/min or when multiple zones in a
structure require A/C. Air-conditioning is used in food preparation and processing sectors. Used in hospitals to offer
patients with comfortable surroundings. And many more industries, such as textiles, printing, photography, and so
on. A human being uses an air-conditioning system for commercial purposes. For example, at theaters, departmental
storerooms, and so on. Many modes of transportation, including cars, trains, aircraft, and ships, use air-conditioning
systems. This ensures that the passengers are comfortable. For a specific purpose, the air-conditioning system utilized
in television centers, computer centers, and museums.

3.1 Solved Examples

1. An air conditioning plant is required to supply 60m3 of air per minute at a DBT of 21o C and 55% RH. The
outside air is at DBT of 28o C and 60% RH. Determine the mass of water drained and capacity of the cooling
coil. Assume the air conditioning plant first to dehumidify and then to cool the air.
Solution Given v2 = 60m3 /min, td2 = 21o C, ϕ2 = 55%, tdt = 28o C, ϕ1 = 60%
Mass of water drained First of all, mark the initial condition of air at 28o C dry bulb temperature and 60%

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 10: Solved Problem a. Comfort AC b. Industrial AC c. Winter AC

relative humidity on the 1h psychrometric chart as point 1 , as shown in Fig. 10a.. Now mark the final condition
of air at 21o C dry bulb temperature % and 55% relative humidity as point 2 . From the psychrometric chart,
we find that Specific humidity of air at point 1 , W1 = 0.0141kg/kg of dry air Specific humidity of air at point
2 , W2 = 0.0084kg/kg of dry air and specific volume of air at point 2 , vs2 = 0.845m3/kg of dry air We know
that mass of air circulated, ma = vvn2 = 0.845
60
= 71kg/min ∴ Mass of water drained

= ma (W1− W2 ) = 71(0.0142 − 0.0084) = 0.412kg/min

= 0.412 × 60 = 24.72kg/h Ans.

Capacity of the cooling coil From the psychrometric chart, we find that Enthalpy of air at point 1 ,

h1 = 64.8kJ/kg of dry air

and enthalpy of air at point 2 ,

h2 = 42.4kJ/kg of dry air
∴ Capacity of the cooling coil

= ma (h1 − h2 ) = 71(64.8 − 42.4) = 1590.4kJ/min

= 1590.4/210 = 7.57 TR Ans.

2. Following data refers to an air conditioning system to be designed for an industrial process for hot and wet
climate: Outside conditions = 30o C DBT and 75% RH Required inside conditions = 20o C DBT and 60% RH
The required condition is to be achieved first by cooling and dehumidifying and then by heating. If 20 nil of air
is absorbed-by the plant every minute, find : 1. capacity of the cooling coil in tones of refrigeration; 2. capacity
of the heating coil in kW; 3. amount of water removed per hour; and 4. By-pass factor of the heating coil, if its
surface temperature is 35C .
Solution: Given: tdt = 30o C, ϕ1 = 75%, td3 = 20o C, ϕ3 = 60%; vl = 20m3 /min, td4 = 35o C 1.Capacity of the
cooling coil in tones of refrigeration First of all, mark the initial condition of air at 30o C dry bulb temperature
and 75% relative humidity on the psychrometric chart as point 1, as shown in Fig. 10 (b) . Then mark the final

13
 condition of air at 20o C dry bulb temperature and 60% relative humidity oil the chart as point 3.
Now locate the points 2’ and 2 on the saturation curve by drawing horizontal lines through points 1 and 3 as
shown in Fig. 2. On the chart, the process 1-2’ represents the sensible cooling. 2’-2represents dehumidifying
process and 2-3 represents the sensible heating process. From the psychrometric chart, we find that the specific
volume of air at point 1. vx1 = 0.886m3 / kg of dry air ; Enthalpy of air at point 1, h1 = 81.8kJ/kg of dry air
and enthalpy of air at point 2, h2 = 34.2kJ/kg of dry air
v1 20
ma = = = 22.6kg/min
vs1 0.866
∴ Capacity of the cooling coil
= ma (h1 − h2 ) = 22.6(81.8 − 34.2) = 1075.76kJ/min
= 1075.76/210 = 5.1 TR Ans.
2. Capacity of the heating coll in kW From the psychrometric ehart, we find that enthalpy of air at point 3 ,
h3 = 42.6kJ/kg of dry air
∴ Capacity of the heating coil
− ma (h1 − h2 ) − 22.6(42.6 − 34.2) − 189.84Id/min
− 189.84/60 − 3.16kW Ans.
3. Amount of water removed per hour From the psychrometric chart, we find that specific humidity of air at
point 1 ,
W1 = 0.0202kg/kg of dry air
and specific humidity of air at point 2.
W2 = 0.0088kg/kg of dry air
∴ Amount of water removed per hour
− ma (W1 − W2 ) − 22.6(0.0202 − 0.0088) − 0.258kg/min
= 0.258 × 60 = 15.48kg/h Ans.

3. The amount of air supplied to an air conditioned hall is 300m3 /min. The atmospheric conditions are 35o C DBT
and 55% RH. The required conditions are 20o C DBT and 60%RH. Find out the sensible heat and latent heat
removed from the air per minute. Also find sensible heat factor for the system.
Solution:Given v1 = 300m3 /min; tdt, = 35o C, ϕ1 = 55%, td2 = 20o C; ϕ2 = 60% First of all, mark the initial
condition of air at 35o C dry bulb temperature and 55% relative humidity on the psychrometric chart at point
1, as shown in Fig. 10 (c). Now mark the final condition of air at 20o C dry bulb temperature and 60% relative
humidity on the chart as point 2. Locate point 3 on the chart by drawing horizontal line through point 2 and
vertical line through point 1.
From the psychrometric chart, we find that specific volume of air at point 1, vs1 = 0.9m3 /kg of dry air ∴ Mass
of air supplied,Sensible heat removed from the air From the psychrometric chart, we find that enthalpy of air
at point 1, h1 = 85.8kJ/kgof dryair Enthalpy of air at point 2, h2 = 42.2kJ/kg of dry air and enthalpy of air
at point 3, h3 = 57.4kJ/kg of dry air We know that sensible heat removed from the air, SH = ma (h3 − h2 ) =
333.3(57.4 − 42.2) = 5066.2kJ/min Ans. Latent heat removed from the air We know that latent heat removed
from the air, LH = ma(h1 − h3 ) = 333.3(85.8 − 57.4) = 9465.7kJ/min Ans,
SH SH 5066.2
We know that sensible heal factor for the system SHF = T otalHeat = SH+LH , SHF = 5066.2+9465.7 = 0.348
Ans

3.2 Review Questions

1. An air conditioning plant is to be designed for a small office for winter conditions with the following data: Outdoor
conditions = 10o C DBT and 8o C WBT, Required indoor conditions = 20o CDBT and60% RH , Amount of air
circulation = 0.3m3 /min/person , Seating capacity of the office = 50 persons , The required condition is achieved
first by heating and then by adiabatic humidifying. Find: I. Heating capacity of the coil in kW and the surface
temperature, if the by-pass factor of the coil is 0.32 and 2. capacity of the humidifier.
2. Explain Various types and application areas of systems of Air conditioning

4 Load Calculation
Heating and cooling load calculations are performed to estimate the required capacity of heating and cooling systems
to keep the conditioned space at the appropriate temperature.

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4.1 Calculating heating and cooling loads
Heating load calculations are performed to predict the heat loss from the building during the winter in order to
determine the required heating capabilities. During the winter, the peak heating load usually comes before daybreak,
and the external conditions do not fluctuate greatly during the season. The heat load estimates are performed under
steady-state settings (no solar radiation and constant external conditions) while ignoring internal heat sources.
This cautious approach results in a minor overestimation of heating capacity. For more precision, the thermal capacity
of the walls and interior heat sources are included, which complicates the situation. The unsteady state processes are
used to estimate cooling loads since the peak cooling demand occurs throughout the day and the outside conditions
vary greatly during the day owing to solar radiation. Furthermore, all internal sources contribute to cooling loads,
and ignoring them would result in an overestimate of the needed cooling capacity and the likelihood of being unable
to sustain the required indoor conditions. As a result, cooling load estimates are fundamentally more difficult since
they entail solving unsteady equations with unsteady boundary conditions and interior heat sources.
There is a balance point for any building where the solar radiation (Qsolar ) and internal heat generation rate (Qint )
exactly balance the heat losses from the building. As a result of the sensible heat balance equation, at the balanced
condition for the product of overall heat transfer coefficient and A is heat transfer area of the building,U A, given in
equation 13:
Qsolar + Qint = U A(Tin − Tout solving for outdoor temp. yields
(Qsolar + Qint )sensible (13)
Tout,bal = Tin −
UA
When Tout > Tout,bal , cooling of the building is required.
when Tout < Tout,bal , then heating the building is required. when Tout = Tout,bal , no cooling or heating is required.
The balanced external temperature for residential buildings (with fewer inside heat sources) can range from 10 to
18o C.This indicates that if the balanced outdoor temperature is 18o C, then when the outdoor temperature reaches
18o C, a cooling system is required. This means that buildings require cooling not only in the summer, but also in
the spring and fall. If the building is highly insulated (low UA) and/or internal loads are high, the balanced outdoor
temperature will decrease according to the energy balancing equation 13, resulting in an extended cooling season and
a shortened heating season.
Thus a smaller balanced outdoor temperature implies higher cooling requirements and smaller heatingrequirements,
and vice versa. For commercial buildings with large internal loads and relatively smaller heat transfer areas, the
balanced outdoor temperature can be as low as 2o C, implying a lengthy cooling season and a small heatingseason.
If there are no internal heat sources and if the solar radiation is negligible, then from the heat balance equation,
Tout,bal = Tin , this implies that if the outside temperature exceeds the required inside temperature (say, 25o C for
comfort) then there is a need for cooling otherwise there is a need for heating.

4.2 Methods for estimating cooling and heating loads

The heating/cooling load calculations entail a systematic, sequential approach for determining the needed system
capacity by accounting for all building energy flows. In practice, building loads are calculated using a range of
approaches ranging from simple rules of thumb to complicated Transfer Function approaches. Typical rules-of-thumb
procedures for cooling loads, for example, indicate the required cooling capacity based on floor space or occupancy.
Such guidelines are important for estimating the size and cost of equipment. The major conceptual flaw of rule-of-
thumb techniques is the assumption that building design makes no difference. As a result, the rules for a poorly
planned building are often the same. More accurate load estimation methods combine analytical methods with
empirical results derived from actual data, such as the use of Cooling Load Temperature Difference (CLTD) for
estimating fabric heat gain and Solar Heat Gain Factor (SHGF) for estimating heat transfer through fenestration.
These approaches are extensively utilized by air conditioning engineers because they produce reasonably accurate
findings and can be performed manually in a very short period of time. TFM (Transfer Function Method):Computers
are required for accuracy. They are, however, costly and time demanding, and are used to estimate cooling loads for
large commercial or institutional buildings.

4.2.1 Cooling Load Calculation

The amount of a building’s cooling demand ranges from zero to a maximum value. The design cooling load is a load
that is close to but not always the maximum magnitude. The design cooling load takes into account all of the loads in
a building under a certain set of assumptions. The following are the assumptions: A long-term statistical database is
used to select design outside conditions. The circumstances will not necessarily represent any specific year, but will be
representative of the building’s location. The solar radiation load on the building is assessed for clear sky conditions.
The occupancy of the facility is considered to be at full design capacity. All building equipment and appliances are
assumed to be in generally good working order. The cooling load of a building can be separated into two categories:
Heat carried through the building envelope (walls, roof, floor, windows, doors, etc.) is an example of an external load.
Heat generated by inhabitants, equipment, and lighting constitutes internal load. Any building’s overall cooling load
includes both obvious and latent load components. The sensible load influences dry bulb temperature, whereas the

15
latent load influences conditioned space moisture content. Buildings can also be characterized as either outwardly
or internally loaded. The cooling load on an externally loaded building is mostly due to heat transfer between the
surroundings and the internal conditioned area.
Because the daily environmental conditions vary, so does the external cooling demand. Internal heat generating
sources such as humans, appliances, or processes account for the majority of the cooling load in a building. In general,
internal heat sources may remain relatively constant, and because heat transfer from changeable surroundings is
substantially smaller than internal heat sources, the cooling load of an internally loaded building may remain quite
constant. Knowing whether the building is externally or internally loaded is critical for good system design. Heat
transfer by conduction through the building walls, roof, floor, doors, and so on, as well as heat transfer by radiation
through fenestration such as windows and skylights, are examples of external loads. These are all examples of sensible
heat transfers. In addition to these, the external load includes heat transfer owing to infiltration, which includes both
sensible and latent components. The heat transfer caused by ventilation is a load on the system, not the structure.
Internal loads include sensible and latent heat transmission from inhabitants, products, processes, and appliances, as
well as sensible heat transfer from lighting and other equipment. Figure 11 below shows various components that
constitute the cooling load on a building. [3]

Figure 11: Cooling load components

Table 2 below shows typical data on required cooling capacities based on the floor area or application [4]. The

Table 2: Cooling Load Factor (CLF) for glass with interior shading and located in north latitudes

Direction of Sunlight window facing

Solar Time h
N NE E SE S SW W NW Horiz.
6 0.73 0.56 0.47 0.30 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.12
7 0.66 0.76 0.72 0.57 0.16 0.11 0.09 0.11 0.27
8 0.65 0.74 0.80 0.74 0.23 0.14 0.11 0.14 0.44
9 0.73 0.58 0.76 0.81 0.38 0.16 0.13 0.17 0.59
10 0.80 0.37 0.62 0.79 0.58 0.19 0.15 0.19 0.72
11 0.86 0.29 0.41 0.68 0.75 0.22 0.16 0.20 0.81
12 0.89 0.27 0.27 0.49 0.83 0.38 0.17 0.21 0.85
13 0.89 0.26 0.26 0.33 0.80 0.59 0.31 0.22 0.85
14 0.86 0.24 0.24 0.28 0.68 0.75 0.53 0.30 0.81
15 0.82 0.22 0.22 0.25 0.50 0.83 0.72 0.52 0.71
16 0.75 0.20 0.20 0.22 0.35 0.81 0.82 0.73 0.58
17 0.78 0.16 0.16 0.18 0.27 0.69 0.81 0.82 0.42
18 0.91 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.19 0.45 0.61 0.69 0.25

cooling load calculations are carried out based on the CLTD/CLF method suggested by ASHRAE. Estimation of
external loads: Heat transfer through opaque surfaces: This is a sensible heat transfer prrocess. The heat transfer
rate through opaque surfaces such as walls, roof, floor, doors etc. and it is given by eq. 14. [5]

QOpaque = U A × CLT D (14)

where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient and A is the heat transfer area of the conditioned space’s surface. The
cooling load temperature differential is denoted by CLTD. CLTD must be taken from the CLTD tables for sunny
surfaces. If the actual conditions differ from those on which the CLTD tables are generated, the values received from

16
the table must be adjusted.
The CLTD value is simply equal to the temperature differential across the wall or roof for surfaces that are not
illuminated or have little thermal mass (such as doors). For example, the CLTD value for external doors is just the
difference between the design outside and indoor dry bulb temperatures. Tout − Tin
The CLTD of the interior walls of interior air conditioned rooms surrounded by non-air conditioned spaces is equal to
the temperature difference between the surrounding non-air conditioned space and the conditioned space. Obviously,
if an air conditioned room is surrounded by other air conditioned rooms, all of which are set to the same temperature,
the CLTD values of the interior room’s walls will be zero.
CLTD for floor and roof values with a false ceiling could be challenging. When determining CLTD for floors that
stand on the ground, use the temperature of the ground. The ground temperature, on the other hand, is affected
by location and time. For evaluating heat transfer via ground, ASHRAE recommends appropriate temperature
difference values. If the floor is supported by a basement or another room’s roof, the CLTD for the floor is the
temperature differential across the floor (that is, the temperature difference between the basement or room below and
the conditioned space). b) Heat transfer through fenestration: Heat transfer through a transparent surface, such as a
window, involves conduction heat transfer due to temperature differences across the window and solar radiation heat
transmission through the window. The heat transfer due to solar radiation through the window is given by:
Qtrans = AU nshaded × SHGFmax × SC × CLF (15)
where Aunshaded is the area exposed to solar radiation, SHGFmax and SC are the maximum Solar Heat Gain Factor
and Shading Coefficient, respectively, and CLF is the Cooling Load Factor. The un-shaded area has to be obtained
from the dimensions of the external shade and solar geometry. SHGFmax and SC are obtained from ASHRAE tables
based on the orientation of the window, location , month of the year and the type of glass and internal shading device.
Cooling Load Factor/CLF: The Cooling Load Factor (CLF) compensates for the fact that all radiant energy
entering the conditioned area at a given time does not immediately become a part of the cooling load1. When solar
radiation enters the conditioned space, only a small amount of it is instantly absorbed by the air particles, resulting
in a minor temperature change. The majority of the radiation is absorbed by the internal surfaces, which include
the ceiling, floor, internal walls, furniture, and so on. Because of the high but finite thermal capacity of the roof,
floor, walls, and so on, their temperature rises slowly as a result of solar radiation absorption. Only the fraction of
solar radiation transported to the air in the conditioned room creates a strain on the building; heat transferred to the
outside does not contribute to the cooling load. As can be observed, radiation heat transfer introduces a time lag as
well as a decrement factor based on the dynamic properties of the surfaces. c) Heat transfer due to infiltration: Heat
transfer due to infiltration consists of both sensible as well as latent components. The sensible heat transfer rate due
to infiltration is given by equation 16
Qs,inf = mo Cp,m (To − Ti ) = vρo cp,m (To − Ti ) (16)

where V̇o is the infiltration rate in m3 /s , ρo and cp,m are the density and specific heat of the moist, infiltrated air,
respectively. T0 and Ti are the outdoor and indoor dry bulb temperatures. The latent heat transfer rate due to
infiltration is given by Eq. 17
Ql,inf = mo hi,g (Wo − Wi ) = vρo hi,g (Wo − Wi ) (17)
where hf g is the latent heat of vaporization of water, Wo and Wi are the outdoor and indoor humidity ratio, respectively.
The infiltration rate depends upon several factors such as the tightness of the building that includes the walls, windows,
doors etc and the prevailing wind speed and direction. The infiltration rate is obtained by using either the air change
method or the crack method (i) The infiltration rate by air change method is given by:
Vo = ACH × V /3600inm3 /s (18)
where ACH is the number of air changes per hour and V is the gross volume of the conditioned space in m3 . Normally
the ACH value varies from 0.5 ACH for tight and well-sealed buildings to about 2.0 for loose and poorly sealed
buildings. For modern buildings the ACH value may be as low as 0.2 ACH.
(ii) The infiltration rate by the crack method is given by:
Vo = A.C.H∆P n inm3 /s (19)
where A is the effective leakage area of the cracks, C is a flow coefficient which depends on the type of the crack
and the nature of the flow in the crack, ∆P is the difference between outside and inside pressure (Po-Pi) and n is an
exponent whose value depends on the nature of the flow in the crack. The value of n varies between 0.4 to 1.0, i.e.,
0.4 ≤ n ≤ 1.0.
The pressure difference ∆P arises due to pressure difference due to the wind (∆Pwind ), pressure difference due to the
stack effect (∆Pstack ) and pressure difference due to building pressurization (∆Pbld ).
∆P = ∆Pwind + ∆Pstack + ∆Pbld (20)
Representative infiltration rate figures for various types of windows, doors, walls, and so on have been measured
and are published in tabular form in air conditioning design handbooks. d) Variable external loads:-In addition to

17
the aforementioned loads, if the cooling coil has a positive by-pass factor (BPF ¿ 0), some ventilation air enters the
conditioned space directly, becoming part of the building cooling load. Because of the bypassed ventilation air, the
sensible and latent heat transfer rates, and can be calculated using equtations 16 and 17 substituting the ventilation
rate and BPF is the by-pass factor of the cooling coil. Furthermore, sensible and latent heat transmission to the
building happens as a result of heat transfer and air leakage in the supply ducts. Depending on the specifics of the
supply air ducts, a safety factor is frequently specified to accommodate for this.
If the supply duct has a supply air fan with a motor, the power input to the fan forms part of the building’s external
sensible load. If the duct contains an electric motor that drives the fan, the efficiency of the fan motor must also be
considered when estimating the cooling load. Most of the time, the power input to the fan is unknown at this stage
since the volume of supplied air required is unknown. To account for this aspect, it is first assumed that the supply
fan contributes around 5% of the room’s sensible cooling load, and cooling loads are then assessed. This value is then
corrected at the end when the actual fan selection done
Estimating the internal load:Internal loads include: loads caused by inhabitants, loads caused by illumination,
loads caused by equipment and appliances, and loads caused by products stored or processes done in the conditioned
space. Internal cooling load owing to occupants: The internal cooling load due to inhabitants includes both sensible
and latent heat components. The rate of sensible and latent heat transmission is mostly determined by the population
and activity level of the inhabitants as seen in eq. 21
Qs,occ = no.people × senible heat gain per person × CLF
(21)
Ql,occ = no.people × latent heat gain per person

The table 3 below depicts typical values of total heat gain from occupants as well as sensible heat gain fraction as a
function of activity in an air-conditioned environment. When the conditioned space temperature rises, the perceptible
percentage of total heat gain falls while the latent heat gain rises, and vice versa.

Table 3: Total heat gain, sensible heat gain fraction from occupants

Activity Total heat gain, W Sensible heat gain fraction

Sleeping 70 0.75
Seated, quiet 100 0.60
Standing 150 0.50
Walking @ 3.5 kmph 305 0.35
Office work 150 0.55
Teaching 175 0.50
Industrial work 300 to 600 0.35

Qs,light = Installed wattage × Usage Factor × CLF

Ql,Appliences = Installed Wattage × Usage Factor × CLF general (22)
Ql,Appliences = Installed Wattage × Latent fraction for appliances in the Table 4

A typical ballast factor value of 1.25 for lighting is taken for fluorescent lights, while it is equal to 1.0 for incandescent
lamps. Other equipment, such as computers and printers, have a sensible heat transfer load that is assessed based

Table 4: Table showing typical load of various types of appliances.

Appliance Sensible load, W Latent load, W Total load, W

Coffee brewer, 0.5 gallons 265 65 330
Coffee warmer, 0.5 gallons 71 27 98
Toaster, 360 slices/h 1500 382 1882
Food warmer/m² plate area 1150 1150 2300

on the rated power consumption. Because the radiative heat transfer from these devices is often insignificant due to
lower operating temperatures, the CLF value for these equipments can be considered as 1.0. When the equipment is
powered by electric motors that are also kept inside the conditioned environment, the efficiency of the electric motor
must be considered.
Though the equations appear to make estimating cooling load due to appliance and equipment simple, a large amount
of uncertainty is introduced due to the usage factor and the difference between rated (nameplate) power consumption
at full loads and actual power consumption at part loads. If the conditioned area is used to store products (for example,
cold storage) or to carry out specific procedures, the sensible and latent heat emitted by these specific products and/or
processes must be included to the internal cooling loads.
Air conditioning and refrigeration handbooks contain information on the sensible and latent heat release rates of a
wide range of live and dead items typically stored in cold storage. These tables can be used to estimate the needed
cooling capacity of cold storages.

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Using the aforementioned equations, one can calculate the sensible (Qs,r ), latent (Ql,r ), and total cooling load (Qt,r )
of the buildings. Because the load due to illuminated surfaces varies with solar time, it is advisable to compute the
cooling loads at different solar periods and use the maximum load to estimate system capacity. The building’s Room
Sensible Heat Factor (RSHF) can be calculated using the sensible and total cooling loads. Estimation of the system’s
cooling capacity: To determine the system’s needed cooling capacity, take into consideration the sensible and latent
loads owing to ventilation, leakage losses in the return air ducts, and heat added due to the return air fan (if any).
Load on the system as a result of vented air: The by-pass factor of the cooling coil is X. The cooling load on the coil
as a result of sensible heat transfer from the vented air is then provided by:

Qs, vent = ṁvent (1 − X) · cp,m (T0 − Ti ) = V̇vent ρ0 (1 − X) · cp,m (T0 − Ti ) (23)

where Where mvent and vvent are the mass and volumetric flow rates of the ventilated air and X is the by-pass factor
of the coil. The amount of sensible and latent heat transfer rates caused by air leakage from or into the system is
determined by the efficacy of the sealing supplied, as well as the condition of the external and return air. Because
the load due to the return air duct, including the return air fan (Qreturn duct ), is unknown a priori, an initial value is
assumed and calculations are undertaken. At the end, this figure 12 is adjusted to account for actual leakage losses
and return fan power usage.
Load on coil due to leakage: The following figure 12 shows a typical summer air conditioning system with a cooling
coil of none-zero by-pass factor. Now, the total sensible load on the coil (Qs,c ) is calculated by adding the total sensible

Figure 12: A typical summer air conditioning system having a cooling coil with a by-pass factor of none

load on the building (Qs,r ), ventilation sensible load (Qs,vent ), and return air duct and fan sensible load (Qs,retrunduct )
as seen in Equation. Similarly, the total latent load on the coil (Ql,c ) is calculated by adding the total latent load on
the building (Ql.r ), ventilation latent load (Ql,vent ), and return air duct and fan latent load (Ql,retrunduct ), that is:

Qs,c = Qs,r + Qs, vent + Qs, return duct Total Sensible Cooling Load
(24)
Q1,C = QI,J + Q1, vent + Q1 Ireturn duct Total Latent Cooling Load

Finally the required cooling capacity of the system which is equal to the total load on the coil by adding up the
two. From the given data, one may calculate the sensible heat factor for the coil (CSHF), draw the process line on
the psychrometric chart, and obtain the needed coil Apparatus Dew Point Temperature (coil ADP). In the end, a
reasonable safety factor is usually utilized to account for uncertainties in occupants, equipment, external infiltration,
external circumstances, and so on.
Heating Load calculation: For evaluating building heating demands, traditional steady-state circumstances are
assumed, and interior heat sources are ignored. The process for calculating heating load thus becomes pretty straight-
forward. Only sensible and latent heat losses from building walls, roof, ground, windows, and doors due to infiltration
and ventilation must be estimated. Equations identical to those used for cooling load estimates are utilized, but the
CLTD values are simply replaced by the design temperature differential between the conditioned interior and the
outdoors.
Because a constant state is assumed, the system’s necessary heating capacity is equal to the entire heat loss from
the building. As a result, depending on the unique circumstance, a suitable and economically justified strategy for
estimating heating loads must be chosen.

4.3 Solved Example

1. A building has a U-value of 0.5W/m2 K and a total exposed surface area of 384m2 . The building is subjected
to an external load (only sensible) of 2 kW and an internal load of 1.2 kW (sensible). If the required internal
temperature is 25o C, state whether a cooling system is required or a heating system is required when the external

19
 temperature is 3o C. How the results will change, if the U-value of the building is reduced to 0.36W/m.K
Solution Ans.: From energy balance,
(Qsolar + Qint )sensible (2 + 1.2) × 1000
Tout,bal = Tin − = 25 − = 8.33o C
UA 0.5 × 384
Since the outdoor temperature at balance point is greater than the external temperature (Text < Tout bal ); the
building requires heating (Ans.) When the U -value of the building is reduced to 0.36W/m.K, the new balanced
outdoor temperature is given by:
(Qsolar + Qint )sensible (2 + 1.2) × 1000
Tout,bal = Tin − = 25 − = 1.85o C
UA 0.36 × 384
Since now the outdoor temperature at balance point is smaller than the external temperature (Text > Tout bal );
the building now requires cooling (Ans.) The above example shows that adding more insulation to a building
extends the cooling season and reduces the heating season.
2. An air conditioned room that stands on a well ventilated basement measures 3 m wide, 3 m high and 6 m deep.
One of the two 3 m walls faces west and contains a double glazed glass window of size 1.5 m by 1.5 m, mounted
flush with the wall with no external shading. There are no heat gains through the walls other than the one
facing west. Calculate the sensible, latent and total heat gains on the room, room sensible heat factor from the
following information. What is the required cooling capacity
Inside conditions : 25o C dry bulb, 50 percent RH, Outside conditions : 43o C dry bulb, 24o C wet bulb, U-
value for wall : 1.78W/m2 .K, U-value for roof : 1.316W/m2 .K, U-value for floor : 1.2W/m2 .K, Effective
Temp. Difference (ETD) for wall: 25o C, Effective Temp. Difference (ETD) for roof: 30o C, U-value for glass
; 3.12W/m2 .K, Solar Heat Gain (SHG) of glass: 300W/m2 , Internal Shading Coefficient (SC) of glass: 0.86,
occumpancy : 4 (90 W sensible heat/person) (40 W latent heat/person), Lighting load : 33W/m2 of floor area,
Appliance load : 600WSensible + 300Wlatent , Infiltration : 0.5 Air Changes per Hour, Barometric pressure : 101
kPa
solution Ans.: From psychrometric chart, For the inside conditions of 25o C dry bulb, 50 percent RH: Wi =
9, 9167 × 10 − 3kgw/kgda For the outside conditions of 43o C dry bulb, 24o C wet bulb: Wo = 0.0107kgw/kg,
density of dry air = 1.095kg/m3 External loads:
(a) Heat transfer rate through the walls: Since only west wall measuring 3m x 3m with a glass windows of
1.5m × 1.5m is exposed; the heat transfer rate through this wall is given by:
Qwall = Uwall × Awall ET Dwall = 1.78 × (9 − 2.25) × 25 = 300.38WSensible
(b) Heat transfer rate through roof:
Qroof = Uroof × Aroof ET Droof = 1.316 × 18 × 30 = 710.6WSensible
(c) Heat transfer rate through floor: Since the room stands on a well-ventilated basement, we can assume the
conditions in the basement to be same as that of the outside (i.e., 43o C dry bulb and 24o C wet bulb), since
the floor is not exposed to solar radiation, the driving temperature difference for the roof is the temperature
difference between the outdoor and indoor, hence:
Qf loor = Uf loor × Af loor ET Df loor = 1.2 × 18 × 18 = 388.8WSensible
(d) Heat transfer rate through glass: This consists of the radiative as well as conductive components. Since no
information is available on the value of CLF, it is taken as 1.0. Hence the total heat transfer rate through the
glass window is given by:
Qglass = Aglass × [Uglass (To − Ti ) + SGHmax × SC] = 2.25[3.12 × 18 + 300 × 0.86] = 706.9WSensible
(e) Heat transfer due to infiltration: The infiltration rate is 0.5 ACH, converting this into mass flow rate, the
infiltration rate in kg/s is given by:
minf = ρ × (ACH × volumeof theroom)/3600 = 1.095 × (0.5 × 3 × 3 × 6)/3600
minf = 8.2125x10 − 3kg/s
Sensible heat transfer rate due to infiltration, Qs ,inf;
Qs,inf = minf cp,m (T o − T i) = 8.2125 × 10 − 3 × 1021.6 × (43 − 25) = 151WSensible
Latent heat transfer rate due to infiltration, Ql,inf :

Ql,inf = minf hf g (W o − W i)
= 8.8125 × 10 − 3 × 2501 × 103(0.0107 − 0.0099)
= 16.4Wsensible

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 Internal Loads
Load due to occupants: The sensible and latent load due to occupants are:

Qs,occ = no.of occupants × SHG = 4x90 = 360W Ql,occ = no.of occupants × LHG = 4x40 = 160W

b) Load due to lighting: Assuming a CLF value of 1.0, the load due to lighting is:

Qlights = 33xf loorarea = 33x18 = 594WSensible

c) Load due to appliance:

Qs,app = 600WSensible Ql,app = 300W Latent
Total sensible and latent loads are obtained by summing-up all the sensible and latent load components (both
external as well as internal) as:

Qs,total = 300.38+710.6+388.8+706.9+151+360+594+600 = 3811.68WAns. Ql,total = 16.4+160+300 = 476.4WAns.

Total load on the building is:

Qtotal = Qs,total + Ql,total = 3811.68 + 476.4 = 4288.08WAns.

Room Sensible Heat Factor (RSHF) is given by:

RSHF = Qs,total /Qtotal = 3811.68/4288.08 = 0.889Ans.

To calculate the required cooling capacity, one has to know the losses in return air ducts. Ventilation may be
neglected as the infiltration can take care of the small ventilation requirement. Hence using a safety factor of
1.25, the required cooling capacity is: Required cooling capacity

= 4288.08x1.25 = 5360.1W ≡ 1.5T R

4.4 Multiple Choice Review Questions

For Similar Questions with answers, please visit the website [6]
1. Which of the following statements are TRUE?
(a) Steady state methods are justified in case of heatingload calculations as the outside temperatures during
winter are normally very low
(b) Steady state methods are justified in case of heatingload calculations as the peak load normally ocurs before
sunrise
(c) Steady state methods are justified in case of heatingload calculations as the outside temperature variation
is normally low during winter months
(d) Neglecting internal heat sources while calculating heatingloads underestimates the required capacity
2. Which of the following statements are TRUE?
(a) Methods based on rules-of-thumb are not always useful as they are not based on practical systems
(b) Methods based on rules-of-thumb are not always useful as they do not distinguish between a good building
design and a bad building design
(c) Methods based on Transfer Function Method are not always useful as they do not yield accurate results
(d) Methods based on Transfer Function Method are not always useful as they are complex and time consuming
3. Which of the following statements are TRUE?
(a) An internally loaded building requires a system with variable cooling capacity
(b) An externally loaded building requires a system with variable cooling capacity
(c) An auditorium is a good example of an internally loaded building
(d) A residence is a good example of an internally loaded building
4. Which of the following statements are TRUE?
(a) External loads consist of only sensible components, where as internal loads consist of both sensible and
latent components
(b) Both external and internal loads consist of sensible as well as latent components

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 (c) Fabric heat gain consists of both sensible and latent components
(d) Heat transfer due to occumpancy consists of both sensible and latent components
5. Which of the following statements are TRUE?

(a) Infiltration load is a part of the building load

(b) Infiltration load is not a part of the building load
(c) Infiltration rate increases as the pressure difference across the building decreases
(d) Infiltration rate is uncontrollable

References
[1] Guy F Hundy, Albert Runcorn Trott, and TC Welch. Refrigeration and air-conditioning. Butterworth-Heinemann,
2008.
[2] Y Cengel and Transfer Mass Heat. “A practical approach on Heat and Mass Transfer”. In: Heat and Mass Transfer
(2003).
[3] RS Khurmi and JK Gupta. Textbook of refrigeration and air conditioning. S. Chand Publishing, 2008.
[4] William Rudoy and Joseph F Cuba. Cooling and heating load calculation manual. Vol. 158. ASHRAE, 1979.
[5] Bereket Asgedom Nigusse. Improvements to the radiant time series method cooling load calculation procedure.
Oklahoma State University, 2007.
[6] Sanfoundry. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning MCQ (Multiple Choice Questions). 2022. url: https://www.
sanfoundry.com/1000-refrigeration-air-conditioning-questions-answers/.

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