Q1. Explain single and two element control strategies for boiler.

Discuss
limitations of each.

The Below Figure depicts the control scheme for single-element drum
level control. In this configuration, only the water level in the drum is being
measured (hence the term ” single element” ) . LT- 1 is an electronic
differential pressure transmitter with a high static pressure range.

The high side of the transmitter is connected to the bottom of the drum.
Because of the drum’s static pressure, the low side of the transmitter is
connected to the top of the drum above the water/steam interface. This
provides a reference for the transmitter by cancelling the static pressure
effect and allowing only the water hydrostatic head to be measured.

A constant head reservoir is required to maintain a consistent head in the

reference leg of the transmitter. This is often referred to as a ”wet leg” The
output of the electronic DP transmitter is the process Input for
the Controller, (LC-1), and the output is then compared to a drum level
set-point. Any discrepancy between set-point and drum level causes an
output from the controller in compensation.

Because controller action is reverse, as the drum level Increases, a

resultant output signal will decrease to close the feedwater control valve.
The output of the Controller is fed to the feedwater control valve (FCV-1).
If the feedwater valve is pneumatic, an lP (current-to-pressure) converter
is required to change the Controller current output to accommodate the
pneumatic valve.

Note that the response from the controller to the feedwater control valve
is reactive; i.e. feedwater is added only in response to a drop in drum level.
This type of control is acceptable if steam load changes are not dramatic
because the controller can respond well to steady demands. In
applications where steam load changes become frequent and
unpredictable, a reactive strategy is better suited. This type of system
requires more field devices for input.

A two-element drum level control system is capable of providing close

adherence of drum level to its set-point under steady-state conditions as
well as being capable of providing the required tight control during a
transient. Its performance during transient conditions permits its use on
many industrial boiler applications. Such applications are characterized
by adequately-sized drums used with load changes of moderate rate and
degree. These characteristics are usually found in plants with continuous-
type processes, and those with mixed heating and processing demands.
Caution should be exercised in its use on systems without reasonably
constant feedwater pressure.

The term ‘two-element’ is derived from two variables: steam flow and drum
level influence on the feedwater valve position. It is often classified as a
combination ‘feed-forward-feedback’ system because the steam flow
demand is fed forward as the primary index of the feedwater valve
position. The drum level signal becomes the feedback which is used to
constantly trim the accuracy of the feed-forward system and provide final
control of the water/steam interface in the drum.

The below Figure for the control scheme of a two-element drum level
control. Note the left side of the doted line is identical to that used in single-
element control. Additional equipment required for two-element drum level
control consists of a steam flow measuring device, a differential pressure
transmitter, a square root extractor, a feedwater flow computer and a
feedwater flow mode transfer station. At first this may appear like a large
investment in order to gain stable drum level control, but as you will see
this is not necessarily true.
How it works:
Steam flow is measured by the steam flow transmitter (FT-1), its signal is
fed to the feedwater flow computer or flow controller (FC-1) after
processing through the square root extractor (FY-1) (Note: Square root
extractor function is an inbuilt option utilized either in transmitter or
controller). As in the single-element level control, the drum level is
measured by the level transmitter (LT-1) and its signal is transmitted to
the drum level controller (LC-1). In the drum level controller, the process
signal is compared to the drum level set-point, where a required corrective
output signal to maintain the drum level is produced. This corrective signal
is sent to the feedwater flow computer. The feedwater flow computer
combines the signal from the two variables, and produces an output signal
to the feedwater control valve (FCV-1). Auto/Manual transfer of the
feedwater control valve is accomplished via FK-1.

Nearly all of the load change work is done by the feed-forward system, for
example, a pound of feedwater change is made for every pound of steam
flow change. The drum level control system is used for compensation
only.

It is expected that the drum level will be maintained very closely to the set-
point value. This is true in spite of the low-to-moderate volume/throughput
ratio and a wide operating range. As a result, integral response (reset) is
a necessary function in the drum level controller.
Q2.Explain three element control strategy and it’s limitations for boiler.
Discuss

advantages of it over single and two element control strategies.

In most drum level control applications, the two-element drum level control
will maintain the required water/steam interface level – even under
moderate load changes.

However, If an unstable feedwater system exists exhibiting a variable feed

header-to-drum pressure differential, or if large unpredictable steam
demands are frequent, a three-element drum level control scheme should
be considered. As implied from the previous information, this control
strategy supplies control of feedwater flow in relationship to steam flow.

The performance of the three-element control system during transient

conditions makes it very useful for general industrial and utility boiler
applications. It handles loads exhibiting wide and rapid rates of change.
Plants which exhibit load characteristics of this type are those with mixed,
continuous, and batch processing demands. It is also recommended
where normal load characteristics are fairly steady; but upsets can be
sudden, unpredictable and/or a significant portion of the load.

How it works:
The Below Figure shows the control scheme for three-element drum level
control. To the left of the dotted line, the instrumentation is the same as
that for the two-element drum level control, with one exception: the output
of the feedwater flow computer now becomes the set-point of the
feedwater flow controller (FIC-2). Equipment required to complete our
three-element drum level control scheme includes an additional flow
device (FE-2) and differential pressure transmitter (FT-2).
The area to the left of the dotted line in figure functions the same as that
of a two-element drum level control. We can pick up the operation for
this scheme where the output signal of the feedwater flow computer (the
combination of steam flow and drum level) enters the feedwater
controller (FIC-2).
This in effect becomes the set-point to this controller. Feedwater flow Is
measured by the transmitter (FT-2). The output signal of the feedwater
flow transmitter is linearized by the square root extractor, (FY-2) (Note:
Now a days square root extractor function provided in either transmitter or
controller as inbuilt option). This signal is the process variable to the
feedwater controller and is compared to the output of the feedwater flow
computer (set-point). The feedwater flow controller produces the
necessary corrective signal to maintain feedwater flow at its set-point by
the adjustment of the feedwater control valve (FCV-1).

As in the two-element drum level control scheme, nearly all of the work
necessary to compensate for load change is done by the feed-forward
system (i.e. a pound of feedwater change is made for every pound of
steam flow change). The drum level portion of the control scheme is used
only in a compensating role. Despite low-to-moderate volume/ throughput
ratio and a wide operating range, it is expected the drum level will be
maintained very close to set-point. Achieving this requires use of the
integrating response and reset in both the drum level and feedwater
controllers.
Q3 What are shrinking and swelling effect in boiler? Explain dynamic
compensation of it.

Under boiling conditions, steam supporting field products such as bubbles

exist below the water/steam level interface. These bubbles have volume
and therefore displace water to create a misrepresentation of the true
water level in the drum. Another effect upon drum level is pressure in the
drum.

Because steam bubbles compress under pressure (if the drum pressure
changes due to load demands), the steam bubbles expand or contract
respective to these pressure changes. A higher steam demand will cause
the drum pressure to drop, and the steam bubbles to expand to give the
appearance of a water level higher than it truly is.

This fictitious higher water level causes the feedwater input to be shut
down at a time when more water is really required. A surge in water level
as a result of the drum pressure decreasing is called ‘swell’. A water level
decrease due to drum pressure increase is called ‘shrink’.

Q4 Explain steam temperature and pressure control for boiler.

Steam Temperature Control

Steam temperature is one of the most challenging control loops in a

power plant boiler because it is highly nonlinear and has a long dead
time and time lag. Adding to the challenge, steam temperature is
affected by boiler load, rate of change of boiler load, air flow rate, the
combination of burners in service, and the amount of soot on the boiler
tubes.
After separation from the boiler water in the drum, the steam is
superheated to improve the thermal efficiency of the boiler-turbine unit.
Modern boilers raise the steam temperature to around 1000F (538C),
which approaches the creep (slow deformation) point of the steel making
up the superheater tubing. Steam temperatures above this level, even
for brief periods of time, can shorten the usable life of the boiler. Keeping
steam temperature constant is also important for minimizing thermal
stresses on the boiler and turbine.
Steam temperature is normally controlled by spraying water into the
steam between the first and second-stage superheater to cool it down.
Water injection is done in a device called an attemperator or
desuperheater. The spray water comes from either an intermediate
stage of the boiler feedwater pump (for reheater spray) or from the pump
discharge (for superheater spray). Other methods of steam temperature
control include flue gas recirculation, flue gas bypass, and tilting the
angle at which the burners fire into the furnace. This discussion will
focus on steam temperature control through attemperation. The designs
discussed here will apply to the reheater and superheater, but only the
superheater will be mentioned for simplicity.
BASIC FEEDBACK CONTROL
The simplest method for controlling steam temperature is by measuring
the steam temperature at the point it exits the boiler, and changing the
spray water valve position to correct deviations from the steam
temperature set point (Figure 1). This control loop should be tuned for
the fastest possible response without overshoot, but even then the loop
will respond relatively slowly due to the long dead time and time lag of
the superheater.

Figure 1. Simple Steam Temperature Control

CASCADED STEAM TEMPERATURE CONTROL
Because of the slow response of the main steam temperature control
loop, improved disturbance rejection can be achieved by implementing a
secondary (inner) control loop at the desuperheater. This loop measures
the desuperheater outlet temperature and manipulates the control valve
position to match the desuperheater outlet temperature to its set point
coming from the main steam temperature controller (Figure 2). This
arrangement is called cascade control.
 Figure 2. Cascaded Steam Temperature Controls
The spray water comes from upstream of the feedwater control valves,
and changes in feedwater control valve position will cause changes in
spray water pressure, and therefore disturb the spray water flow rate.
The desuperheater outlet temperature control loop will provide a gradual
recovery when this happens. If the spray water flow rate to the
attemperator is measured, a flow control loop can be implemented as a
tertiary inner loop to provide very fast disturbance rejection. However, in
many cases spray water flow rate is not measured at the individual
attemperators and this flow loop cannot be implemented.

The pressure control switch on a steam heating boiler is designed to

shut the heating system down should unsafe high pressures develop.

As we emphasize at our description of pressure gaugesOn a steam

boiler, residential steam heating systems are almost always designed to
operate at very low pressures, perhaps around .5 psi - that' s 1/2 of one
psi. You should see similar settings on the pressure gauge and on the
steam pressure control switch (the gray box our photos of steam
pressure switches shown here) on your boiler.

Because the operating temperature, pressure, and form of heat

distribution are different from hot water heat (typically 20-30 psi of hot
water), steam boilers (typically less than 0.5 psi steam) use use controls
that monitor steam pressure operated controls like the Honeywell steam
pressure control shown below.
Q8 Explain burner management system for boilers.

A Burner Management System or BMS is a safety system used to

assure safe start-up, operation and shut down of process burners.
The BMS can be used in industries like Oil and Gas, Power Generation,
Chemical or any other process that uses an industrial burner, furnaces,
boilers or other equipment that uses a flame.

Burner Management System

The system can monitor flames with flame detectors; it manages igniters,
burners and actuators, like shutdown valves.
The Burner Management System can have the following functions:

 Inhibit startup when the conditions are not met

 Monitor the burner to detect unsafe operating conditions
 Protect against unsafe operating conditions
 Shutdown interlocks
When the sensors don’t detect the flame or detects unsafe operating
conditions, the BMS signals the actuators to stops the flow of fuel to the
burners, to inhibit the flames.
In the industry there are 2 methods for implementing a BMS: Separated
or integrated

The separated method is the traditional method of implementing a safety

instrumented system (SIS) and a basic control system (BPCS). The SIS
and BPCS logic solver are separated in two separate equipments.
Also the workstations and the SCADA software for each other are
separated. Both systems can communicate with each other using a bus
and a common communication protocol.

The integrated method is a new method of implementing the solution. In

this method the SIS and BPCS logic solver and workstations are on
common equipment. The logic solver is a plc that respects the standards
requested by the industry, like SIL3.

BMS functions :

 Prevent firing unless a satisfactory furnace purge has first been

completed.
 Prohibit start-up of the equipment unless certain permissive interlocks
have first been completed.
 Monitor and control the correct component sequencing during start-
up and shut-down of the equipment.
 Conditionally allow the continued operation of the equipment only
while certain safety interlocks remaining satisfied.
 Provide component condition feedback to the operator and, if so
equipped, to the plant control systems and/or data loggers.
 Provide automatic supervision when the equipment is in service and
provide means to make a Master Fuel Trip (MFT) should certain
unacceptable firing conditions occur.
 Execute a MFT upon certain adverse unit operating conditions

Types of BMS:

 separate control
 integrated control
An integrated system offers:

 Integrated operating interface

 Integrated fire and gas detection system
 Integrated peer control
 Integrated power supply
 Integrated diagnosis
 Integrated security tools
 Integrated backup and recovery tools
 Integrated post-incident analysis
 Integrated simulation and optimization tools
 Fast data exchange due to direct communication
Advantages:

 Minimize intervention and shutdown time

 Recover more easily from process upsets
 Easier integration of components and systems
 Time synchronization is not needed
 Reduce hardware and installation cost by installing one system
instead of two
 Minimize the quantity of spare parts
 Easier and less expensive engineering and maintenance
 Reduce the number of operating personal
 Reduce training requirements and time
 Improve accessibility
Disadvantages:

 Less flexible
 Two separate systems are easier to manage
 Separated systems lead to reduced long-term administrative costs

Q9 Describe boiler and its components in detail with figure.

KEY COMPONENTS OF BOILERS

Boilers are part of a hydronic heating system. Hydronic systems use water
to transfer heat to a distribution source, like a radiator, to heat a home.
Hydronic systems can heat via hot water or steam, depending on the type
of boiler used. The boiler is the part of the system that heats the water to
be distributed. The key elements of a boiler include the burner,
combustion chamber, heat exchanger, exhaust stack, and controls. Boiler
accessories including the flue gas economizer are also commonly used
as an effective method to recover heat from a boiler.
Key Components of Boilers are:-
 Burner – The burner is the component of boiler that provides the
heat that heats the water of system. The fuels used can be natural
gas or oil.
 Heat exchanger – The heat exchanger of boiler allows the heat
from the burner to heat the water in system. The job of the heat
exchanger is to carry the heat from the burner to the water without
having direct contact with the water. It’s a similar idea to boiling
water in a pot.
 Supply lines – Hydronic heating systems use piping to deliver the
heated water or steam to the distribution points, and the supply lines
are the pipes that distribute the hot water or steam to distributor.
 Return lines – When the water cools, or the steam cools and
changes states back to water, the return lines bring this water back
to the boiler for re-heating.
 Firebox – The firebox is where the fuel of system meets the air,
creating a flame.
 Refractory – Refractory actually refers to refractory materials that
are used for filling any gaps and/or openings that may be around the
fire box – this helps ensure the fire stays in the fire box.
 Circulator pumps – circulator pumps push the hot water or steam
from system to the heat distributors in our homes.
 Deaerators/Condenser – Deaerator and condenser tanks are only
used in steam boiler systems and not in hot water and hot oil boil
because here the fluid always is on liquid form. The construction of
these two types of tanks is almost identical, but as their names
suggest, they are used for different purposes.

Two primary principles are used with this form of tank design:
thermal and vacuum. This depends on which type of boiler being
used. Each principle also has different pump construction
requirements.

Thermo principle

A tank using the thermal principle is connected to the atmosphere.

This design is normally used in smaller plants. Here, steam is used
to maintain tank water temperature at around 105°C, which removes
air from the water.

Vacuum principle

Here, an ejector pump is used to create a vacuum in the tank. This

causes the tank water to start boiling because of the low
temperature, which in turn removes air from the water. This principle
is normally used for steam turbine applications.
 Economizer

Historically, economizers have only been used in large-scale power

plants. However, the demand for more efficient boilers within
industry and marine means that economizers are now far more
commonplace. An economizer is a heat exchanger that is placed in
the exhaust from a boiler or in the exhaust funnel of the main engine
of a ship. Pump requirements differ greatly, depending on where the
economizer is installed.
 Superheater

It is integral part of boiler and is placed in the path of hot flue gases
from the furnace. The heat recovered from the flue gases is used in
superheating the steam before entering into the turbine (i.e. prime
mover).Its main purpose is to increase the temperature of saturated
steam without raising its pressure.
Natural gas boilers employ one of two types of burners, atmospheric
burners, also called natural draft burners and forced draft burners,
also called power burners. Due to more stringent air quality
regulations, low NOx burners and pre-mix burners are becoming
more commonly used and even required in some areas. By ensuring
efficient mixing of air and fuel as it enters the burner, these types of
burners can ensure that NOx emissions are reduced.
The combustion chamber, usually made of cast iron or steel, houses
the burners and combustion process. Temperatures inside the
combustion chamber can reach several hundred degrees very
quickly