INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

Submitted in the partial requirement for the award of degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

In

CIVIL ENGINEERING

ECO VALLEY HOMES PVT. LTD.

Submitted by

PRABHJOT SINGH
(11504053)

[Link]. 8thSemester

Reg. no. 7141-15-616

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

PUNJABI UNIVERSITY

(Established under Punjab Act No. 35 of 1961)

PATIALA -147002 (PUNJAB)

 DECLARATION

I, Prabhjot Singh ( Roll No. 11504053) of [Link] 4th year CIVIL

ENGINEERING Student Hereby Declare The Project Work Entitled “ECO
VALLEY Homes .’’ is an authentic record of my own work carried out at the site
as requirements of 4 month project semester for the award of degree of [Link].
(CIVIL ENGINERRING),UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING ,
PUNJABI UNIVERSITY, PATIALA under the guidance of Er. Muzamil Ahmad
during 1st January 2019to 30th April 2019.

PRABHJOT SINGH

11504053

DATE……………………

Certified that the above statement made by the student is correct to the best of our
knowledge and belief.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I PRABHJOT SINGH , Student of UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING, PATIALA is highly grateful to all those who guided me in
undergoing the project semester.

I am very thankful to ECO VALLEY CONSTRUCTION COMPANY

[Link].,for giving me the opportunity to undertake my project semester training
at their ECO VALLEY CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING Project.

I would like to convey my heartiest thanks to [Link] Ahmad (Site Engineer),

and all the other engineers who supported me and assisted me throughout the
orientation and also guiding and encouraging me all through the training and
providing in-depth knowledge of the project.

I also thank officials all the member of ECO VALLEY CONSTRUCTION

COMPANY [Link]., for their help, guidance and support during my four
months internship.

I am also thankful to Civil Engineering Department, of Punjabi University

Patiala who has given me this opportunity to explore, learn and grow my practical
knowledge and gave me an industrial exposure so as to see future career aspects.

Finally, I am grateful to one and all who have supported me directly or

indirectly during the course of work.
CERTIFICATE
 Table of contents
1. Introduction to Project ……………………………………………….1

2. Steps involved in construction of residential building ……………4

3. Site investigation…………………………………………………….5

4. Various Test conducted at site:……………………………………8

A) Soil Test …………………………………………………………8

B) Concrete Test……………………………………………………15

C) Brick test………………………………………………………….17

5. Estimation:…………………………………………………………..19

A) Method of estimation…………………………………………….19

B) Estimation of brickwork……………………………………………20

C) Estimation of reinforcement in column footing………………….24

D) Estimation of concrete in slab……………………………………26

6. Demarcation:…………………………………………………………….27

A) Procedure for demarcation…………………………………………..29

 B) Materials used during layout…………………………………………29

7. Layout study ……………………………………………………………….31

8. Excavation :………………………………………………………………….33

A) Working Procedure ………………………………………………….......34

B) Concreting………………………………………………………………..35

C) Quality Control of Exacavation …………………………………………36

9. Foundation:……………………………………………………………..37

A) Type of Foundation………………………………………………..38

10. Layout and casting of Column :……………………………………41

A) Types of Column ………………………………………………...41

B) Construction method of column ………………………………..42

11. Masonary :……………………………………………………………46

A) Brick Masonary …………………………………………………….46

B) Brick work in footing ……………………………………………….49

C) Concrete Block Masonary …………………………………………50

12. Beams:…………………………………………………………………..52

A) Plinth Beam …………………………………………………………52

B) Tie Beam ……………………………………………………………..54

C) Lintel Beam…………………………………………………………..54

13. DPC………………………………………………………………………56

14. Slab:………………………………………………………………………58

A) Procedure……………………………………………………………58
15. Various other works and features at site……………………………...63

A) Sunken slab…………………………………………………………..63

B) Duct…………………………………………………………………….64

C) Sewer work……………………………………………………………65

D) Leveling of slab ………………………………………………………67

F) Level of road using water level………………………………………68

G) Bent up bars…………………………………………………………….70

H) Overlapping of bars……………………………………………………..71

I) Vibrator …………………………………………………………………72

16. Lessons learnt at site……………………………………………………73

17. Quality check for building materials…………………………………74

Eco Valley Homes

Project Details :
 There Would Be Three Blocks Of Size 94’X115’ is Being
Constructed Each Block Consist Of 6 Floors and 4 apartments
 The Foundation For These Blocks is Isolated footing
 At our site cement of 43 grade was used
 Aggregates used at our site:
o Coarse aggregates of 12.5 and 20 mm sizes.
o Fine aggregates in the form of coarse sand.
 At our site reinforcement bars of 8,10,12 and 16mm were used.
 At our site mortar of ratio 1:6 (cement:sand) was used in brick
masonry work.
 At our site English Bond was used in brick masonry in all
buildings
 M20 Concrete was used in every building
Our Project

Current Status
 Steps Involved In Construction Of
Residential Building:-
Construction of residential building required following paper work before the
start of actual construction. These steps are;

1. Preparation of drawings as per requirements of consumers.

2. Estimation of material cost, labour cost & contingencies.
3. Approval of drawings & estimates from Client.
4. Approval of drawings from City Development Authority. It is most
important because residential building drawings should meet the
authority defined rules.
5. Start of construction work either through contractor or labour hired on
daily basis.
6. Marking of plot boundaries.
7. Cleaning of plot.
8. Preparation of site layout as per drawing.
 Site Investigation:-
Before the engineer can design a foundation intelligently, he must have a
reasonably accurate conception of the physical properties and arrangement
of the underlying materials. The field and laboratory investigations required
to obtain this essential information are called site investigation. It is
necessary to provide information about design and construction and for
environment assessment

 Purposes:-

1. To evaluate the general suitability of the site for the proposed project

2. To enable the adequate and economical design to be made

3. To disclose and make provision for difficulties that may arise during
construction

If an engineer is familiar with a site, then he may undertake a very simple

soil investigation to confirm his experience. High rise buildings usually
require a more through soil investigation than a foundation for a house. The
5 phases involved in any soil investigation work are as follows :-

The 5 phases involved in any soil investigation work are as follows

1. Desk study

2. Preliminary reconnaissance

3. Detailed soil exploration

4. Laboratory test

5. Report writing
Phase 1 (Desk Study) :-
This is the phase where all the information that are available, are collected.
The information which needs to be collected are as follows

 Site plan
 Type, size & importance of the structure
 Loading conditions
 Previous geo-technical reports
 Topographical maps
 Still photographs etc.

Phase 2 (Preliminary Reconnaissance) :-

In this phase a site visit is made to get a general idea of the topography
and geology of the site. You need to take with you all the information
gathered in phase-1 to compare with current conditions of the site. Make a
note of everything while visiting the site. You must note down the following
things

 Photographs of the site and its neighbourhood

 Access to the site for workers and equipments
 Sketch of all fences, utility post, walkways, drainage etc
 Available utility services such as water and electricity
 Sketches of topography including all existing structures, cuts, fills,
ground depressions, ponds & so on.
 Exterior and interior cracks on existing buildings or any tilt
 Geological features from any exposed area such as road cut or
excavated portions

Phase 3 (Detailed Exploration) :-

For a 30.5 wide building, depending on number of stories (1 to 5) 3.5m to
24m deep borings can be made.
For a multi-storey building bore holes are made at a spacing of 10-30m.
The cost of exploration is generally between 0.1% to 0.5% of the total
construction cost.
The objectives of a detailed soils exploration are

 To determine the geological structure, which should include the

thickness, sequence and extent of the soil strata
 To determine the ground water condition
 To obtain disturbed and undisturbed samples for laboratory tests
 To conduct in situ tests

Phase 4 (Laboratory Testing) :-

The objectives of laboratory tests are

 To classify the soils

 To determine soil strength, failure stresses and strains, stress-strain
response, permeability, compaction properties and settlement
parameters.

Phase 5 (Report Writing) :-

The report must contain a clear description of the soils at the site, methods
of exploration, soil stratigraphy, in situ and laboratory test methods and
results, and the location of the ground water, recommendation regarding
construction operation
 Various Tests Conducted at Site :-

 Soil Tests :-
The first step in this connection is the inspection of the site and its vicinity
to get a preliminary idea of the site conditions. This includes the study of
the existing buildings in the neighborhood and if possible the type of their
foundations. The cuts made in the nearby areas should also be looked into.
The subject can be discussed with those persons who were associated in
constructing buildings in the surroundings with regard to their experiences
and difficulties encountered by them.
Test Pits
Test pits are dug by hand or by excavating machines. The size of the pit
should be such that a person can easily enter the pit and have a visual
inspection. Both disturbed and undisturbed soil samples are collected from
the pit for detailed analysis.
Probing
This will give a rough idea of the underlying soil. In this, a steel bar of 25 to
40 mm (1 inch to 1.5 inch) in diameter is driven into the ground until a hard
stratum is met with. The bar is driven by a hammer. The bar is then drawn
out at intervals and the soil sticking to the bar is examined to get an idea of
the type of thesoil. An experienced workman can assess the nature of the
soil by observing the way the rod is penetrated into the soil.
Boring
In this process, bore holes are made in the ground and the soil samples
collected. Boring helps in obtaining 1) extent of each strata of soil/rock 2)
nature of each stratum and the engineering properties of the soils 3)
location of ground water table. The depth and number of boreholes will
depend upon the type of the structure and nature of thesoil as obtained
from preliminary examination. The depth of boreholes is governed by the
depth of the soil affected by the loading. As a rough estimate, it is advisable
to investigate the subsoil to a depth of at least twice the width of the
anticipated largest size of the foundation. In case of a pile foundation, the
depth of boring should extend into the bearing stratum.
Methods of Boring for Soil Investigations
The different methods of boring are:
Auger Boring
The examination of the soil for ordinary buildings can be done by a post
hole auger. The auger is held vertically and is driven into the ground by
rotating its handle. At every 30 cm of depth, the auger is taken out and the
soil samples collected

Wash Boring
Wash boring is commonly used for boring in difficult soil. The hole is
advanced by an auger and then a casing pipe is pushed to prevent the
sides from caving in. A stream of water under pressure is forced through
the rod into the hole. The loosened soil in suspension in water is collected
in a tub.
Percussion Boring
In this method, the substrata is broken by repeated blows by a bit or chisel.
Water is circulated in the hole and then the slurry is bailed out of the hole.
Core Drilling
When rocks are to be penetrated for examination, core drilling is resorted
to. In this process, a hole is made by rotating a hollow steel tube having a
cutting bit at its end.

 Bearing Capacity
The bearing capacity of a soil is defined as the capacity of the subsoil to
support the load of the structure without yielding. The bearing capacity of
the soil depends upon the characteristics such as cohesion, friction, and
unit weight. The bearing capacity can be determined in the field and also
from the results of tests conducted in the laboratory on the soil samples.

 Field and Laboratory Testing

Field Tests
The commonly adopted field tests are:
Standard penetration test, Dynamic cone penetration test, Static cone
penetration test, Plate load test, Vane shear test, and Pressure meter test.
Laboratory Tests
A set of laboratory tests are required to be done to obtain the soil
parameters for the design of foundation. These tests are: Shear strength,
Compressibility, Permeability, Chemical and Mineralogical Composition,
and Soil Classification.

Various laboratory Tests Are Explained As Follows:-

Moisture Content Of The Soil :-

Moisture content or water content in soil is an important parameter for

building [Link] drying method is most common and accurate
method. In this method the soil sample is taken and weighed and put it in
oven and dried at 110o + 5oC. After 24 hours soil is taken out and weighed.
The difference between the two weights is noted as weight of water or
moisture content inthe soil.
 Oven Drying Method

Dry Density Of The Soil :-

The weight of soil particles in a given volume of sample is termed as dry

density of soil. Dry density of soil depends upon void ratio and specific
gravity of soil. Based on values of dry density soil is classified into dense,
medium dense and loose categories.

Dry density of soil is calculated by core cutter method, sand replacement

method and water-displacement method.

Core Cutter Method :

Core Cutter Apparatus

In this method a cylindrical core cutter of standard dimensions is used to

cut the soil in the ground and lift the cutter up with soil sample. The taken
out sample is weighed and noted. Finally water content for that sample is
determined and dry density is calculated from the below relation.

Proctor’s Compaction Test :-

Proctor’s test is conducted to determine compaction characteristics of soil.

Compaction of soil is nothing but reducing air voids in the soil by
densification. The degree of Compaction is measured in terms of dry
density of soil.
In Proctor’s Compaction Test, given soil sample sieved through 20mm and
4.75 mm sieves. Percentage passing 4.75mm and percentage retained on
4.75mm are mixed with certain proportions.

Add water to it and leave it in air tight container for 20hrs. Mix the soil and
divide it into 6 – 8 parts. Position the mold and pour one part of soil into the
mold as 3layers with 25 blows of ramming for each layer.

Remove the base plate and Weight the soil along with mold. Remove the
soil from mold and take the small portion of soil sample at different layers
and conduct water content test. from the values find out the dry density of
soil and water content and draw a graph between them and note down the
maximum dry density and optimum water content of the compacted soil
sample at highest point on the curve.

 How We Calculated Bearing Capacity Of The Soil

At The Site
A simple and quick field test will give you a rough idea of bearing capacity
of soil
Procedure :-
1. Excavate a pit of required depth. (preferably equal to the depth of
foundation)
2. Take a solid ball or square cube of known weight and dimension.
3. Drop the ball or square cube several times, from a known height on to
the bottom surface of excavated pit.
4. Calculate the average depth of impression made several times on the
bottom surface of the excavated pit. Let “d” is the average depth of
impression.
Calculation :-
Calculate the ultimate resistance of soil ( R ) using the formula given below.
R = (w * h) / d
Where,
R = Ultimate resistance of soil (in kg)
d = Average depth of impression (in cm)
w = Weight of the solid ball or square cube (in kg)
h = Height of fall of solid ball or cube (in cm)
If “A” is the cross-sectional area of the solid steel ball or cube, then
resistance of soil per unit area is calculated using following formula.
Resistance of soil per unit area (in kg/cm2) = R / A
Safe bearing capacity (in kg/cm2) = R / (A * F.O.S)
Where,
F.O.S = Factor of safety

Points To Remember :-
1. For non-cohesive soils the values should be reduced by 50% if the
water table is above or near base of footing.
2. These values should be used only for preliminary design. The actual
bearing capacity of soil should be calculated as per the standard codes
3. F.O.S varies from 2 to 3 depending upon the type of structure and site
condition.
4. In order to get reliable test result, perform this test on different types of
soil and then use your judgment to reach at any conclusion.
5. Instead of using solid steel ball or square cube, we can also use CBR
test plunger, or Cone (used for cone penetration test)
  Concrete Tests :-

Slump Test :-

Concrete slump test is to determine the workability or consistency of

concrete mix prepared at the laboratory or the construction site during
the progress of the work. Concrete slump test is carried out from
batch to batch to check the uniform quality of concrete during
construction.

Equipments

Mould for slump test, non porous base plate, measuring scale,
temping rod. The mould for the test is in the form of the frustum of a
cone having height 30 cm, bottom diameter 20 cm and top diameter
10 cm. The tamping rod is of steel 16 mm diameter and 60cm long
and rounded at one end.

Sampling of Materials for Slump Test

A concrete mix (M15 or other) by weight with suitable water/ cement

ratio is prepaid in the laboratory similar to that explained in 5.9 and
required for casting 6 cubes after conducting Slump test.

Procedure

1. Clean the internal surface of the mould and apply oil.

2. Place the mould on a smooth horizontal non- porous base plate.
3. Fill the mould with the prepared concrete mix in 4 approximately
equal layers.
4. Tamp each layer with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the tamping
rod in a uniform manner over the cross section of the mould. For the
 subsequent layers, the tamping should penetrate into the underlying
layer.
5. Remove the excess concrete and level the surface with a trowel.
6. Clean away the mortar or water leaked out between the mould and
the base plate.
7. Raise the mould from the concrete immediately and slowly in vertical
direction.
8. Measure the slump as the difference between the height of the mould
and that of height point of the specimen being tested.

When the slump test is carried out, following are the shape of the
concrete slump that can be observed:

o True Slump – True slump is the only slump that can be measured in
the test. The measurement is taken between the top of the cone and
 the top of the concrete after the cone has been removed as shown in
figure-1.
o Zero Slump – Zero slump is the indication of very low water-cement
ratio, which results in dry mixes. These type of concrete is generally
used for road construction.
o Collapsed Slump – This is an indication that the water-cement ratio
is too high, i.e. concrete mix is too wet or it is a high workability mix,
for which a slump test is not appropriate.
o Shear Slump – The shear slump indicates that the result is
incomplete, and concrete to be retested

 Brick Tests :-

1. Compressive strength test

This test is done to know the compressive strength of brick. It is also called
crushing strength of brick. Generally 5 specimens of bricks are taken to
laboratory for testing and tested one by one. In this test a brick specimen is
put on crushing machine and applied pressure till it breaks. The ultimate
pressure at which brick is crushed is taken into account. All five brick
specimens are tested one by one and average result is taken as brick’s
compressive/crushing strength.

2. Water Absorption test

In this test bricks are weighed in dry condition and let them immersed in
fresh water for 24 hours. After 24 hours of immersion those are taken out
from water and wipe out with cloth. Then brick is weighed in wet condition.
The difference between weights is the water absorbed by brick. The
percentage of water absorption is then [Link] less water absorbed
by brick the greater its quality. Good quality brick doesn’t absorb more than
20% water of its own weight.

3. Efflorescense test
The presence of alkalies in bricks is harmful and they form a gray or white
layer on brick surface by absorbing moisture. To find out the presence of
alkalis in bricks this test is performed. In this test a brick is immersed in
fresh water for 24 hours and then it’s taken out from water and allowed to
dry in [Link] the whitish layer is not visible on surface it proofs that
absence of alkalis in brick. If the whitish layer visible about 10% of brick
surface then the presence of alkalis is in acceptable range. If that is about
50% of surface then it is moderate. If the alkalis’s presence is over 50%
then the brick is severely affected by alkalies

4. Hardness test
In this test a scratch is made on brick surface with a hard thing. If that
doesn’t left any impression on brick then that is good quality brick.

5. Size, shape and color test

In this test randomly collected 20 bricks are staked along lengthwise,
widthwise and heightwise and then those are measured to know the
variation of sizes as per standard. Bricks are closely viewed to check if its
edges are sharp and straight and uniform in shape. A good quality brick
should have bright and uniform color throughout.

6. Soundness test
In this test two bricks are held by both hands and struck with one another. If
the bricks give clear metallic ringing sound and don’t break then those are
good quality bricks.

7. Structure test
In this test a brick is broken or a broken brick is collected and closely
observed. If there are any flows, cracks or holes present on that broken
face then that isn’t good quality brick.

 Estimation of Building Materials

Any person indulged in the Civil Engineering profession can clearly think of
these factors i.e. set amount of funds, costly labour ( skilled and unskilled),
difficulty in getting good building materials, particularly cement and day to
 day rising cost of steel, bricks, timber etc. Alsoeconomy and standard of
the construction are two important things required. Standard of construction
can be achieved by careful supervision and selecting proper specifications
whereas for Economy, planning is a must. The total quantity of various
materials used in construction, if known before hand, can help the planning
towards economy.

Methods Of Estimation
1. Long wall – short wall method
2. Centreline method.

Long wall – short wall method

In this method, the wall along the length of room is considered to be long
wall while the wall perpendicular to long wall is said to be short [Link] get
the length of longwall or shortwall, calculate first the centre line lengths of
individual walls. Then the length of long wall, (out to out) may be calculated
after adding half breadth at each end to its centre line [Link] the
length of short wall measured into in and may be found by deducting half
breadth from its centre line length at each end The length of long wall
usually decreases from earth work to brick work in super structure while the
short wall increases. These lengths are multiplied by breadth and depth to
get quantities.

Centreline method.
This method is suitable for walls of similar cross sections. Here the total
centre line length is multiplied by breadth and depth of respective item to
get the total quantity at a time.
When cross walls or partitions or verandah walls join with main wall, the
centre line length gets reduced by half of breadth for each junction.

Such junction or joints are studied carefully while calculating total centre
line length. The estimates prepared by this method are most accurate and
quick.

 Estimation of Brickwork :-
We are going to discuss,

 Brickwork Calculation & Formula

 How to calculate bricks per square foot
 How to calculate cement quantity & Sand in brickwork
For example:-

Cement mortar ratio should be 1:6 for 9” Brickwork and 1:4 41/2” brickwork

Mortar thickness should not be more than 10 mm between the courses and
sides of the bricks

Brickwork Calculation & Formula

 The size of the modular brick is 190 X 90 X 90 (refer the picture)
 Mortar Thickness is 10mm
 Assume required brickwork volume is 1 cubic meter (m3)
Any brick walls consist of bricks and cement mortar.

So, first of all, we are going to find the volume of bricks with mortar
thickness and then volume of bricks alone.

Volume of bricks with mortar

Volume of 1 brick with mortar = 200 X 100 X 100 (10 mm mortar thickness
on all sides)

= 0.2 X 0.1 X 0.1

Volume of brick with mortar = 0.002 cum (m3)

Therefore, Number of bricks required for 1 cubic meter = 1/0.002 = 500
No’s

Volume of bricks without mortar

Volume of 1 brick without mortar = 190 X 90 X 90

Volume of 1 brick without mortar = 0.001539 cum (m3)

Volume of 500 bricks without mortar = 500 X 0.001539 cum

Volume of bricks without mortar for 1 cum = 0.7695 cum (m3)

Therefore,

Required amount of cement mortar = 1 Cum – Volume of bricks without

mortar

= 1 – 0.7695

Required amount of cement mortar = 0.2305 cum (m3) (Wet Condition)

Dry volume of a mortar = 0.2305 cum X 1.33 = 0.306565 cum

We know the mortar ratio is 1:6 (1 part Cement & 6 Part Sand = 7 Part)

Required amount Cement quantity in brickwork = 0.306565 X 1/7 X 1440

kg

Required amount Cement quantity = 63 Kg = 1.26 bags (50 Kg bag)

Required amount of Sand = 0.306565 X 6/7 = 0.26277 Cubic meter (m3)

Therefore, for 1 cum of brickwork, we need

500 Numbers of bricks

63 kg of cement

0.263 m3 of sand.
Estimation Of Brickwork , Cement And Sand :-
Here I have calculated the quantity of cement , brickwork and sand in My
project 2BHK Apartment

Long Outer Walls (12.19 - 0.3) * 2 = 23.78m

Short Outer Wall (Back Wall) 6.86m

Short Outer Wall (Front Wall) 6.86 - 2.4 =

4.46m

Volume Of Outer Walls

(23.78 + 6.86) * 0.3 * 3.048 + 4.46 * 0.3 * 2.13 =

30.87m³
Inner Horizontal Walls (Excluding Doors And Windows)
6.34m³

Inner Vertical Walls (Excluding Doors And Windows)

6.56m³

Total Volume
43.775m³

Number Of Bricks 43.775 * 500=21888

Bricks

Quantity of Cement 43.775 * 63 = 2758

Kg

Number Of Cement Bags 2758/50 = 56

Bags

Quantity Of Sand 43.775 * 0.263 = 11.52

m³

 Estimation Of Reinforcement in Column Footing

Steps for Finding the quantities of Reinforcement in footing:
Step 1: Identify the type of Mesh or Reinforcement
Step 2: Adopt dia of bars (X bars & Y bars)
Step 3: Deduct the Concrete Cover from all sides of footings
Step 4: Find the length of bars (X bars & Y bars)
Step 5: Find the No. of Bars
Step 6: Find the total length of bars
Step 7: Result: total wt of bars required for footing

Here I have calculated quantity of steel used in column footing

Weight Of Steel in kg (D2/162) *

Length
Quantity Of Steel in Mesh
Length Of One Bar 60” – 6” – 3” (cover both sides) = 51”

Spacing = 5”

Number Of Bars Along One Side = (51/5) + 1 = 11 Bars

Total Number Of bars = 11 * 2 = 22 Bars

Length Of One Bar (with development length) = 51” + 6” = 57”

Total Length Of Bars In One Mesh = 22 * 57” = 1254” = 31.85m

Weight Of Mesh = (102/162) * 31.85 = 19.66 Kg

Quantity Of Steel In Column
Column = 6”*6” , 6 Bars , 12mm dia

Length Of 1 Bar = 13’ + 3’ + 6” = 16’6”

Length Of 6 Bars = 16’6” * 6 = 99’ = 30.17m

Weigth Of Column = (122/162) * 30.17 = 26.82Kg

Quantity Of Steel In Tie bars

Tie Bars = 8mm Dia @ 8” C/C

Number Of Tie Bars In One Column = 156/8 + 1 =21

Length of Tie Bars = 21 * 30” = 630” = 16m

Weight Of Tie Bars = (82/162) * 16 = 6.32Kg

Total Steel In One Column = 19.66 + 26.82 + 6.32 = 52.8 Kg

Total Steel In 9 Columns = 52.8 * 9 = 475.2Kg

  Estimation of quantity of concrete in slab ( in m3)
To calculate the amount of concrete in cubic meter i.e you need to know
the volume of concrete. Basic formula for Volume is Area X Length. So, for
the calculation of amount of concrete in cubic meter you will have to
multiply concrete area with the thickness of concrete layer. It's will give the
value in cubic meter of concrete.

Here I will calculate quantity of concrete required for the highlighted portion
(Bedroom) in m3 .

Thickness of slab is 125mm

Dimension of the beam is 230mm x 450mm

Area of Bedroom slab is 3.068 x

3.665=11.24m2
Volume Of Slab is 11.24 x 0.125 =
1.41m3

Total number of Beams 4

Total volume of Down Beams 0.92m3

Total Quantity Of Concrete in m3 2.33 m3

 Demarcation:-
Demarcation means the action of fixing the boundary or limits of something
or a dividing line.A Demarcation is a line, boundary, or other conceptual
separation between things. DEMARC stands for
[Link] is defined as a limit or boundary, or the act of
establishing a limit or boundary. An example of a demarcation is a city limit
[Link] the objective of measurements is to show relative positions
of various objects on paper. Such representation on paper is called plan or
map. A plan may be defined as the graphical representation of the features
on, near or below the surface of the earth as projected on a horizontal
plane to a suitable scale. However, since the surface of the earth is curved
and that of the paper is plane, no part of the earth can be represented on
such maps without distortion. If the area to be represented is small,
the distortion is less and large scale can be used. Such representations are
called plans. If the area to be represented is large, small, scales are to be
used and distortion is large. Representations of larger areas are called
maps. Representation of a particular locality in a municipal area is a plan
while representation of a state/country is a map. There is no exact
demarcation between a plan and map.
However, since the surface of the earth is curved and that of the paper is
plane, no part of the earth can be represented on such maps without
distortion. If the area to be represented is small, the distortion is less and
large scale can be used. Such representations are called plans. If the area
to be represented is large, small, scales are to be used and distortion is
large. Representations of larger areas are called maps. Representation of a
particular locality in a municipal area is a plan while representation of a
state/country is a map. There is no exact demarcation between a plan and
map.

During our traning Period we have demarcated the boundary lines of

the Plots starting from 908A -916A
Equipments Used For Demarcation :-
1. Leveling Instrument
2. Balli
3. Long Nails
4. Hammer
5. Right Angle(Guniya)
6. Steel Tape
7. Thin Cotton Thread
8. Bricks
9. Cement

We also use Screen sand , Lime powder And Theodelite for Demarcation

The Following Procedure For Demarcation Of a Building :-

 For Demarcation of a building the baseline is marked on the ground

either from centre line of the road or from any permanent building
nearby. This line helps to mark out the front of a building. Side
baseline is also marked with the help of side structure or road or it
can be marked with the help of first baseline or boundary of the plot.
 Fix temporary pegs at the centre line of walls/columns on both sides
of walls and columns in front and back side.
 Fix peg at the centre line of walls/columns on both sides of wall and
columns in left and right side of front of building.
 Check diagonals of the square or rectangle formed after fixing pegs.
 Construct Burji or marking pillars with pegs at a distance of 1.5 meter
to 2 meters and their top surface should be plastered.
 Mark centre line on the top of Burji’s with the help of thread (Soot) or
with the Theodolite in big projects and the diagonal and other
dimension should be checked.
 Level Burji on all corners of building and the top level is fixed at a
proposed plinth level.
 Mark the foundation of walls/columns according to drawing on the
ground with the help of centerline marked on the Burji.
 Mark foundation trenches on the ground with chalk powder.
 Excavate the foundation of the walls /columns up to required level
and the excavation must be checked with the help of centre line and
level burji to avoid any complication later on.
Advantages Of Demarcation:-
 It saves time for measuring and setting of point again and again at
the time of construction.
 It increases the efficiency of mason and foreman for doing their jobs.
 Accuracy can be checked at any time at any step.
 If any mistake is found, it can be easily be correct at early stages. It is
very difficult to rectify the mistake in later.
 Cross check can be done by senior engineer in minimum time.
 A qualitative work is maintained.

Disadvantages Of Construction Without Demarcation:-

 At some sites of work the contractor brings the steel pieces, put them
together on same on the ground and start the work of excavation. In
due course these steel pieces are just no longer useful. Thus no
proper reference point is available while doing further jobs.
 It involves extra time for measuring the offset again and again.
 Accuracy cannot be checked at early stages and it will be very
difficult to do correction on the same in later stage.
 It involves wastage of time andmoney while doing corrections .This
also leads to bad quality of work

Demarcation of plot no. 911A

 Layout Study
Layout of a building or a structure shows the plan of its foundation on the
ground surface according to its drawings, so that excavation can be carried
out exactly where required and position and orientation of the building is
exactly specified. It is set out according to foundation plan drawings and
specifications provided by the engineer or an architect. In order to
understand layout or setting out of a building we must understand some of
the technical terms related to this job which are described below:
Baseline :- A Baseline is a straight reference line with respect to which
corners of the building are located on the ground. It may be outer boundary
boundary of a road or boundary of the area or simply line joining any two
points.
Horizontal Control :- Horizontal control are the points that have known co-
ordinates with respect to a specific point. These points are then used to
locate other points such as corners of a layout using various techniques.
There should be plenty of control points so that each points of foundation
plan can be located precisely on the ground.
Vertical Control :- In order that design points on the works can be
positioned at their correct levels, verticals control points of known elevation
relative to some specified datum are established.
During our training period We have studied the layout plan of Flat no.
911 A ,

In which depth of the footing from ground level was 3’6” and width of
the footing was 5’ And other necessary details of the isolated column
footing in the 2BHK flat and plan of the building are given on the next
page :-
Layout of the 2BHK Flat no. 911 A

 Excavation
In construction terms, excavation is the process of removing earth to form a
cavity in the ground.

On small sites or in confined spaces, excavation may be carried out by

manual means using tools such as picks, shovels and wheelbarrows.
Larger scale excavation works will require heavy plant such
as bulldozers and JCB
Site Clearance Before Excavation for Foundation
Before the excavation for the proposed foundation is commenced, the site
shall be cleared of vegetation, brushwood, stumps of trees etc. Roots of the
trees shall be removed to at least 30 cm below the foundation level. The
pits formed due to roots of trees, old foundations etc. shall be filled up with
soil and compacted.

Excavation Procedure for Foundation

For small buildings, excavation is carried out manually by means of pick
axes, crow bars. spades etc. In case of large buildings and deep
excavation, mechanical earth cutting equipment can be used. For hard
soils when the depth of excavation is less than 1.5 m, the sides of the
trench do not need any external support. If the soil is loose or the
excavation is deeper, some sort of shoring is required to support the sides
from falling.

Planking and strutting can be intermittent or continuous depending on the

nature of soil and the depth of excavation. In the case of intermittent or
“open” planking and strutting the entire sides of trenches are not covered.

Vertical boards (known as poling boards) of size 250 x 40 mm of the

required length can be placed with gaps of about 50 cm . These shall be
kept apart by horizontal wailings of strong timber of section 100 x 100 mm
at a minimum spacing of 1.2 m and strutted by a cross piece of 100 x 100
square or 100 nun diameter.

In the case of soft soils continuous or “close” planking is adopted and the
vertical boards are kept touching each other without any gap as shown .

o The extent of soil and rock strata is found by making trial pits in the
construction site. The excavation and depth is decided according to
the following guidelines in the site

i. For Isolated footing the depth to be one and half times the width of the
foundation

ii. For adjacent footings with clear spacing less than twice the width (i.e.)
one and half times the length

iii. 1.5m in general and 3.5 m in black cotton soils

Dewatering of Excavation

Construction of foundation below the subsoil water level poses problems of

waterlogging. It is therefore very often necessary to dewater the area of
excavation.

Several operations have to be carried out within the excavation, like laying
bed concrete, laying of RCC raft slab and construction of masonry etc.
Therefore, work can be carried out more efficiently if the excavation area is
kept dry.

Concreting of Foundation in Excavation (PCC)

In the case of a masonry wall, the footing is generally of cement concrete

mix of ratio [Link] or [Link] (cement: sand: coarse aggregate). The size of
coarse aggregate is limited to 40 mm. Lime concrete can also be used for
this purpose.

For important works, mixing of concrete should be done in a mechanical

mixer. Concrete should be laid (not thrown) in layers not exceeding 15 cm
and well compacted.
The concrete should lie protected by moist gunny bags after about 1 or 2
hours of laying. Regular curing should be started after 24 hours and be
continued for 10 days.

The masonry work over the bed concrete can be started after 3 days of
laying the concrete but curing along with that of masonry shall be
continued.

For RCC column footings and raft foundations, a levelling course of lean
concrete of 75 mm is laid in order to have an even and soil free surface for
placing the reinforcement.

Quality Checks for Excavation

o Recording initial ground level and check size of bottom.

o Disposal of unsuitable material for filling.
o Stacking suitable material for backfilling to avoid double handling.
o Strata classification approval by competent authority.
o Dressing bottom and sides of pits as per drawing with respect to
centerline.
o Necessary safety measures observed.

Quality Checks For Filling

o Recording initial ground level

o Sample is approved for back filling.
 o Necessary marking/ reference points are established for final level of
backfilling.
o Back filling is being carried out in layers (15cm to 20cm).
o Required watering, compaction is done.
o Required density is achieved.

 Foundation
A foundation (or, more commonly, base) is the element of an architectural
structure which connects it to the ground, and transfers loads from the
structure to the ground. Foundations are generally considered either
shallow or [Link] is a structural part of a building on which a
building stands. Foundation transmits and distributes its own load and
imposed loads to the soil in such a way that the load-bearing capacity of
the foundationbed is not exceeded.

The solid ground on which the foundation rests is called foundation bed.
There are various types of foundation. They can be categorized into two
types.

Types of Foundation
Foundations are mainly two types.

1. Shallow Foundation,

2. Deep Foundation.

Shallow Foundation
A shallow foundation is a type of foundation that transfers loads to the very
near the surface. Shallow foundations typically have a depth to width ratio
of less than 1. The shallow foundation itself can be various types.
  Isolated footing
These are most economical. They are usually in square or rectangle size
with the column sitting in the middle of the square. It’s a kind of pad footing.

IsolatedfootingCombined Footing

 Combined Footing
Combined footings are provided when distance between two columns is
small and soil bearing capacity of soil is lower and their footings overlap
with each other. When two columns are close together and separate
isolated footings would overlap, in such case, it is better to provide a
combined footing than isolated footing.

 Strap Footing
A strap footing is a component of a building's foundation. It is a type of
combined footing, consisting of two or more column footings connected by
a concrete beam. This type of beam is called a strap beam. A strap footing
is often used in conjunction with columns that are located along a building’s
property or lot line. Typically, columns are centered on column footings, but
in conditions where columns are located directly adjacent to the property
line, This results in an eccentric load on a portion of the footing, causing it
to tilt to one side. The strap beam restrains the tendency of the footing to
overturn by connecting it to nearby footings.

 Raft Foundation
Raft Foundations, also called Mat Foundations, are most often used when
basements are to be constructed. In a raft, the entire basement floor slab
acts as the foundation; the weight of the building is spread evenly over the
entire footprint of the building. It is called a raft because the building is like
a vessel that 'floats' in a sea of soil. Mat Foundations are used where the
soil is week, and therefore building loads have to be spread over a large
area, or where columns are closely spaced, which means that if individual
footings were used, they would touch each other.
  Wall Footings
Wall footings are used to distribute loads of structural load-bearing walls to
the soil.

Deep Foundations
Deep foundations are those founding too deeply below the finished ground
surface for their base bearing capacity to be affected by surface conditions,
this is usually at depths of 3 meter below finished ground-level. Deep
foundations can be used to transfer the load to a deeper, more competent
strata at depth if unsuitable soils are present near the surface.

Types

 Pile Foundation
Pile foundation is a type of foundation where a slender member of wood or
concrete or steel is inserted into the ground for transferring the load of a
structure. The load is transferred to stronger stratum by friction or by
bearing.

 Caisson Foundation
Caisson is a watertight structure made of wood, steel or reinforced
concrete which excavates for the foundation of bridges, piers etc.
 Caisson Foundation Pile Foundation

 Layout And Casting Of Column

A Reinforced concrete column is a structural member designed to carry
compressive loads, composed of concrete with an embedded steel frame
to provide reinforcement. It’s vertical member which transfers loads from
slab and beam directly subsequent soil. A whole structure stands on
columns. Most of the building failure happens due to column failure. And
most of the column failure happens not for design fault but for the poor
construction practise.

Types of RCC Column based on length :-

 Short column – if L/B<=12

 Long column – if L/B > 12

Where L is the height of the column, B is width

Generally, floor height is approximately 3 m or 10 feet, L/B ratio will be less

than 12, so in maximum cases short column is placed. In case where
height of floor is more than 3 m or 10 feet, we need to check L/B ratio so
result may be long or short [Link], on long column there are
more forces generated so should be designed carefully.

Types of RCC Column based on moments :-

 Biaxial column: Designed for axial load and moment in 2 directions

 Uniaxial columns: Designed for axial load and moment in 1 direction

Generally, in a building corner most columns are biaxial columns and side
column is uniaxial column and internal columns can be any of these.

Construction Methods of RCC Columns:-

Construction of RCC columns involve following four steps:-

1. Column layout work: In this stage of works the location of columns are
determined practically in field. It is done by laying rope according to grids
shown in the drawing and then mark the location of columns related to
rope.

In drawing, column locations are shown related to grid-line with dimension.

Practically, in field, ropes are our grid-line. So we place columns related to
rope-line by measuring dimension shown in the drawing.
2. Column Reinforcement work: After marking the column locations, we
then start to place reinforcement as instructed in the structural drawing.

This is normally described in the drawing like –

C1-12#16mm⌀ and stirrup-10 mm⌀ @ 4″ c/c.

That means column C1 will have 12 numbers of 16 mm diameter bar as
vertical bar and 10 mm diameter steel should be placed 4 inch center to
center as stirrup.

Or

C2-8#20 mm⌀ + 10#16 mm⌀ and stirrup-10 mm⌀ @ (4″+6“) c/c.

This C2 column’s reinforcement specification means that it’ll have 8

numbers of 20 mm diameter bar as well as 10 numbers of 16 mm diameter
bar as vertical reinforcement and (4″+6″) center to center of stirrups
placement means middle-half portion of clear height of column will have 6″
center to center spacing of stirrups and upper one-fourth as well as bottom
one-fourth height of column’s clear height will hold stirrups at 4″ center to
centerspacing. In drawing sheet, you’ll find suggested lap length for
column’s steel of different diameter bar and other important notes. You
should read those before column reinforcement work.
3. Column formwork :- In building, floor height is normally kept 10 feet. If
the slab has beam then we have to pour concrete up to beam bottom level.
Suppose, beam height specified in drawing is 1′-6″. So, the casting height
of our column will be 8′-6″. And our formwork height will be 8′-6″. But one
thing should be considered here is that dropping concrete from above 5′
height isn’t suggested during pouring. Because it leads concrete
segregation. So we should make one-side of column formwork within 5 feet
height range. After casting 5 feet of column, we just lift the short side up to
full-casting height of column next day.

Another way to cast column without segregation is to keep a small window

at 5 feet level of full-height formwork. After casting up to that level, close
the window and cast the rest of the column.

Layout of formwork Formwork

4. Pouring concrete into column: Casting column is easy. For small

quantity of concrete volume we normally depend on machine-mix
concrete and for large concrete quantity we order ready-mix concrete. I
would suggest machine-mix concrete. Because, if you use moving pump
with ready-mix concrete and if you want not to exceed 5 feet height range
for dropping concrete that would be difficult.
If you don’t use moving pump, yet there are some problems. Suppose, you
have decided to use ready-mix concrete without pump. In that case, you
have to manually unload concrete on job site from ready-mix concrete truck
and have to manually pour into column. That’ll take long time and you’ll
exceed initial setting time of concrete. As a result, concrete will lose its
quality. So it is better to cast column with machine-mix concrete.

Check The Straightness of column with Plumb Bob:- This method you
can be adopted on the site to instantly find out the vertical alignment of any
type of column. For this firstly we have to place the plumb bob on any side
at the top of column, and observe the status of Bob, neither it should be
lying on the column nor it should be hanging like a pendulum, it should just
touch the column boundary. Repeat the same procedure on the adjacent
side of the column. Acc. To Bob we will know that whether the column is
aligned or not, if not then in which direction it is inclined.
 Masonary

 Brick Masonary :-
Brick masonry is built with bricks bonded together with mortar. For
temporary sheds mud mortar may be used but for all permanent
buildings lime or cement mortars are used.

The various types of bonds generally used in brick masonry are :-

Stretcher Bond :- A stretcher is the longer face of the brick as seen in the
elevation. In the brick of size 190 mm × 90 mm × 90 mm,(190 mm × 90
mm) face is the stretcher. In stretcher bond masonry all the bricks are
arranged in stretcher courses as. However care should be taken to break
vertical joints.

This type of construction is useful for the construction half brick thick
partition wall.
Header Bond :- A header is the shorter face of the brick as seen in the
elevation. In a standard brick it is 90 mm × 90 mm face. In header bond
brick masonry all the bricks are arranged in the header courses. This type
of bond is useful for the construction of one brick thick walls.

English Bond :- In this alternate courses consist of headers and

stretchers. This is considered to be the strongest bond. Hence it is
commonly used bond for the walls of all thicknesses. To break continuity of
vertical joints a brick is cut lengthwise into two halves and used in
the beginning and end of a wall after first header. This is called queen
closer.
Flemish bond :- In this type of bond each course comprises of alternate
header and stretcher. Alternate courses start with stretcher and header. To
break the vertical joints queen closers are required, if a course starts with
header. Every header is centrally supported on the stretcher below [Link]
case of double flemish bond, both faces of the wall have flemish look, i.e.
each course consist of alternate header and stretcher, whereas single
flemish bond outer faces of walls have flemish look whereas inner faces
have look of

English bond Construction of flemish bond needs greater skill. It gives more
pleasing appearance. But it is not as strong as English bond. Flemish bond
may be used to get good aesthetic view. If plastering is going to be used, it
is better to use English bond.

At Site , for all the construction purposes there was use of English
bond
  Brick Masonary In Footing :-
In the case of brick walls, the width of section is increased by 114 brick (5
cm) offset on either side. The base rests on a plain concrete footing which
projects 10 to 15 cm beyond the last brick offset

In building brick footings, the principal point to be attended to is to keep the

back joints as far as possible from the face of the work, and in ordinary
cases the best plan is to lay the footings in single courses; the outside of
the work being laid all headers, and no course projecting more than one-
quarter brick beyond the one above it, except in the case of unloaded 9-
inch walls. The bottom course should in all cases be a double one.

At our Site there were 2 steps 27” thick

2 steps of 22.5” thick

2 steps of 18” thick

2 steps of 13.5” thick

Then before before plinth level a wall of 9” thick was constructed

  Concrete Blocks
A Concrete blocks is a standard size rectangular block used in building
construction. Concrete blocks are made from cast concrete. Lower density
blocks may use industrial wastes, such as fly ash or bottom ash as an
aggregate. Concrete blocks may be produced with hollow centers to reduce
weight or improve insulation. The use of block works allows structures to be
built in the traditional masonry style with layers of staggered blocks.
Concrete blocks are typically available in two standard face sizes of
440*215 mm and 390*190 mm. other face sizes are available to aid manual
handling.A concrete block is a mixture of powdered Portland cement,
water, sand and gravel. When all of these ingredients are mixed tigher they
produce a light gMasonry foundation may be constructed from concrete
block or brick masonry units. The concrete block masonry foundation is
commonly used as it is cost effective and its unattractive appearance
would not be visible block with a fine surface texture and a high
impressive strength.

At Media Side of our Site Concrete blocks were used in masonary as

less time is required in completion and they are cheaper than bricks
Quality Control In Brick Masonary :-
The following points should be observed in the construction of brick
masonry:

1. Use bricks of good quality with uniform colour, well burnt, with exact
shape and size.
2. Before using the bricks in masonry, they should be soaked in water for 2
hours so that bricks do not absorb water from the mortar.
3. Bricks should be laid with the frog pointing upward.
4. Construction of brick wall should start from the end or corner.
5. Brick courses should be perfectly horizontal.
6. Verticality of the wall should be ensured by frequently checking with
plumb-bob.
7. Mortar used should be as per specification.
8. Whenever work is stopped brick masonry should be left with toothed
end.
9. Use of brick bats should be avoided.
10. Walls should be raised uniformly. In no case difference between
adjoining walls be more
than 1 m. In a day no wall should be raised by more than 1.5 m.
11. To get proper key for plastering or pointing, the face joints should be
raised to a depth of 12 to 20 mm, when the mortar is green. If plastering or
pointing is not to be provided, face joints should be stuck flush and finished
neatly.
12. Holdfasts for doors and windows should be embedded in brick masonry
with cement mortar or concrete, at the time of constructing the wall itself.
13. Brick masonry should be regularly cured for 2 weeks.
14. For carrying out brick work at higher levels, only single scaffolding
should be used.

 Beams
Beam is a 2d structural element of a frame structure or a beam
supportedstructure. The basic purpose of providing a beam is to transfer
the imposed load both dead and live to a wall or column whatever is
designed on the basis of structural requirement of a [Link] are
meant to resist bending or flexural stresses as a major one with shear
stresses as minor [Link] reason and/or purpose for providing a beam
in a building is to span a gap or to have some space or opening like that
of a door or awindow. Various types of beams are :-

 Plinth Beams :-
Plinth level is basically the level of the ground floor top which is usually kept
higher than the ground level. The reason to make plinth level a bit higher
than the ground level is to prevent the rain or other runoff water from
coming inside the building and on the other hand provide sufficient
drainage to the surface water of the building. The Plinth Beam is the
beam at the plinth level.
Plinth beam in a frame structure is meant to join all the columns thereby
reducing the effective length and thus reducing the slenderness of the
columns.

One more reason to provide plinth beam is to avoid differential settlement

in a building this is due to the reason that all the load of the wall is than
carried by the plinth beam [Link] a skeletal system which is the
other name of a framed structure; plinth beam is the first beam to be
constructed after [Link] the finish floor level of the ground floor is a
kept higher than the ground level; the empty gap and void is filled with a
compacted soil so as to achieve a stable surface for the floor to be
[Link] in view the structural requirement of a building; plinth
beam can either be reinforced or non-reinforced.

Reinforcement At Our Site :- Well the plinth beam is actually a band

beam i.e. it runs throughout the periphery of the structure at plinth level and
is mostly reinforced with minimum 2 main rebars at top and 2 rebars at
bottom with minimum diameter of 10 mm. To avoid shrinkage shear failures
in plinth beam stirrups of minimum 3 numbers are used at 150 mm spacing.
  Tie Beams :-
Tie beam in structural engineering is like a primary beam which connects
two columns at any height above the floor [Link] main difference
between a tie beam and plinth beam is the “elevation” at which the beams
are provided. The plinth beam is provided at plinth level while tie beam is
provided somewhere above plinth level and floor [Link] beams are
meant to act as a length breaker for the columns to reduce their effective
length and reducing slenderness ratio in case the roof height is bit more.

Height :- A tie beam is usually recommended for a column when its height
is more than 4 to 5 meters. However, the designer must keep in check the
bending length of the column to make them non slender.

Construction :- The construction procedure of plinth beam and tie beam

are similar in nature. After achieving the level of construction for either of
plinth and tie beam reinforcement are fixed including the main
reinforcement at both top and bottom. Ties are properly fixed are designed
space keeping in view the cover of the beam. The formwork and shuttering
is then fixed properly the supports are checked so as to avoid any
displacement or offset in construction. The concrete is poured either by
Transit Mixer machine or manually through buckets depending on the
nature and scope of project
 Formwork for Beams

 Lintel Beam :-
Lintel beam is a comparitively thin horizonal member which is provided
on the openings in walls like windows, doors etc so as to carry the load
of the wall above the opening and transfer it to the sides of the opening.
Sometimes a band lintel beam is also provided in some buildings if the
lintel level of all the building openings are uniform

Purpose :-One purpose of providing lintel beam is also to make the

building sustainable in case of seismic effects. As the weight of the
brickwork above the opening is transfered directly to the lintel beams
and as the opening area is a comparitively weaker area where cracks
and ultimate failure may occur in the absense of lintel beam. Lintel
beams can also be decorative, load-bearing or a combined ornamental
structural beam.

Damp Proof Course (D.P.C) :-

A damp-proof course (DPC) is a horizontal barrier in a wall designed to
resist moisture rising through the structure by capillary action - a
phenomenon known as rising damp. DPC is used to stop dampness in
buildings. In theory, due to capillary movement of water, water rises from
the earth to the building. Passing through the foundation it rises higher
to reach the walls. If water reaches the walls it may damage them by
creating cracks, breaking cement-paint bonds and creating dark-spots
on the wall etc. So, to avoid water from reaching to the walls DPC is laid
at plinth level

Major Causes of Dampness

 1. Moisture from Ground Soil- Moisture raises above by capillary action
causing dampness on walls and grade floor.

2. Splashing of Rain- Rain splashes on the external walls causes

dampness on the walls.

3. Condensation- Condensation of atmospheric moisture, deposited on

walls and ceilings .

Types of Materials for Damp Proof Course

The materials commonly used to check dampness can be divided into

the following three categories:

1. Flexible Materials: Materials like bitumen felts (which may be hessian

based or fiber/glass fiber based), plastic sheeting (polythene sheets)
etc.

2. Semi-rigid Materials: Materials like mastic, asphalt, or combination of

materials or layers.

3. Rigid Materials: Materials like first class bricks, stones, slate, cement
concrete etc.

1. DPC above ground level

For DPC above ground level with wall thickness generally not exceeding 40
cm, any one of the type of materials mentioned above may be used.
Cement concrete is however commonly adopted material for DPC at plinth
level, 38 to 50mm thick layer of cement concrete M15 ([Link] mix) serves
the purpose under normal conditions.

In case of damp and humid atmosphere, richer mix of concrete should be

used. The concrete is further made dense by adding water proofing
materials like Pudlo, Impermo, Waterlock etc. in its ingredients during the
process of mixing. It is used to apply two coats of hot bitumen over the third
surface of the concrete DPC.
2. DPC Material for floors, roofs etc.

For greater wall thickness or where DPC is to be laid over large areas such
as floors, roofs, etc., the choice is limited to flexible materials which provide
lesser number of joints like mastic, asphalt, bitumen felts, plastic sheets
etc.

The felts when used should be properly bonded to the surface with bitumen
and laid with joints properly lapped and sealed.

3. DPC material for Cavity Walls

In cavity wall construction, like cavity over the door or window should be
bridged by flexible material like bitumen felt, strips or lead etc.
 Slab:-
A flat piece of concrete, put on the walls or columns of a structure. It serves
as a walking surface but may also serve as a load bearing member, as in
slab homes.

Functions of Concrete

1. Provide a flat surface

2. To support load
3. Sound, heat and fire insulator
4. Act as a divider (privacy) for the occupants
5. Upper slab became the ceiling for the storey below
6. Space between slab and ceiling can be used to place building
facilities

Procedure

Shuttering For Slab

Reinforcement

It shall be as per BBS prepared according to approved drawing. The R/F

shifting and binding shall be started as soon as shuttering is completed.
R/F binding shall continue as formwork and shuttering work is progresses.

Reinforcement in slab

The slabs having ratio of longer length to its shorter length (Ly/Lx) greater
than 2 is called One way slab otherwise as Two way slabs. In one
way slab Main reinforcement is parallel to shorter direction and
the reinforcement parallel to longer direction is called Distribution steel.

Main Bar is provided at bottom and distribution bar above the main bar.
Main bar is provided to resist bending momemtsafely ,whilwdistribuition
bars are provided for resisting temperature variation, shrinkage and for
supporting the mesh

Thickness of the slab is decided based on span to depth ratio specified in

IS456-2000. Minimum reinforcement is 0.12% for HYSD bars and 0.15%
for mild steel bars. The diameter of bar generally used in slabs are: 6 mm,
8 mm, 10 mm, 12mm and 16mm.

The maximum diameter of bar used in slab should not exceed 1/8 of the
totalthickness of slab. Maximum spacing of main bar is restricted to 3
times effective depth or 300 mm whichever is less. For distribution
bars themaximum spacing is specified as 5 times the effective depth or
450 mm whichever is less.

Minimum clear cover to reinforcements in slab depends on the durability

criteria and this is specified in IS 456-200. Generally15mm to 20mm cover
is provided for the main reinforcements. Alternate main bars can be
cranked near support or could be bent at 1800 at the edge and then
extended at the top inside the slab. Curtailment and cranking of bars.

Torsion reinforcement shall be provided at any corner where the slab is

simply supported on both edges meeting at that corner and is prevented
from lifting unless the consequences of cracking are negligible.

Concreting
Construction joint

The construction joint shall be pre decided and fixed prior to start of the
concreting. It is planned to have two construction joints for main building as
decided. In case of major break down of the Batching plant, the additional
Construction joint may be left. The location of the construction joint shall be
at the one-third span. Construction joint shall be straight and have profile of
‘L’shape so that successive layer of concrete shall be perfectly bonded with
previous laid layer

Production and placement of concrete Stock of material shall be

sufficient to start the concrete. It shall be ensured by stores/purchase dept
that concreting is not stopped on account of [Link] plant and
machinery are checked and made in working conditions.
 Lifting The Mesh For proper Cover Concrete Cubes (for cover)

Concrete of grade M-25 shall be produced from our batching plant and
directly pumped to the location of concrete placement through the pipeline.
The pouring sequence shall be from grid A towards construction joint.
Proper walkways/platforms shall be arranged so that the supports of the
pipeline and manpower are not directly stand on reinforcement.

Sufficient carpenters along with supervisor shall inspect the behavior of

supports below the slab during the casting. Extra Props shall be stocked
below slab to provide additional supports in case of any failure of supports.

Curing
The curing shall be started immediately after thumb set of the concrete laid.
Hessian clothe /Plastic shall be covered over the set concrete to reduce
moisture evaporation from the concrete during hardening and thus to
minimize shrinkage crazy cracks. These cracks are inheriting property of
the concrete specially appears during casting of flat surfaces.

Final curing shall be done by ponding and stacking water for minimum
period of 7 days.

At our site

For Down beams 16 mm dia bars were used with

shearReinforcement 8mm dia bar
at 25”
For Slab 12mm dia main bar with 250mm

spacing

10mm dia distribution bar 200mm

spacing

 Some Other Works And Features

Learnt At Site
  Sunken Slab
Slab which is provided below the washrooms to hide the sewage pipes
or sewerage pipes is called sunken slab. Since the pipes that carry
water are concealed below the floor, care has to be taken to avoid
leakage problems. After casting sewage pipes in the slab the slab is
filled with coal or broken pieces of bricks. There are two types of sunken
slab.

The slab which is provided below the normal floor level at a depth of
200mm to 300 mm and filled with broken pieces of bricks is called
sunken slab.

Sunken Slab Reinforcement for sunken slab

 Duct

Duct means a tube or passageway in a building or machine for air,

liquid, cables, etc. Ducts are conduits or passages used in heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning to deliver and remove air. The needed
 airflows include, for example, supply air, return air, and exhaust air.
Ducts commonly also deliver ventilation air as part of the supply air. As
such, air ducts are one method of ensuring acceptable indoor air
quality as well as thermal comfort.
A duct system is also called ductwork. Planning, sizing, optimizing,
detailing, and finding the pressure losses through a duct system are
called as duct design

Duct

 Sewer Works :-
Sewer Pipe :- A Sanitary sewer or foul sewer is an underground carriage
system specifically for transporting sewage from houses and commercial
buildings through pipes to treatment facilities or disposal.
Water Pipe :- A "water line" usually refers to a pipe supplying
pressurized water ready for use while a sewerline refers
a pipe carrying water with human waste at atmospheric pressure.
Roof drains and patio drains are not permitted to enter the sewer system
but must instead drain to the street and the storm drain system

Storm Pipe :- A storm drain, storm sewer surface water drain/ sewer or
storm water drain is designed to drain excess rain and ground water from
impervious surfaces such as paved streets, car parks, parking lots,
footpaths, sidewalks, and roofs.

Rain water Pipe and PVC Water Pipe Sewer Pipe

Sewer Pipe 2FT long 8” dia SEWER PIPE

Storm Pipe 8FT long 16” dia RAIN WATER/STORM PIPE

Water Pipe 4” or 6” dia WATER PIPES

 Excavation Laying Of Coarse Aggregate and
Sand

Fixing ofJoints Hunching

Hunching of pipes:-The portion of the material placed in an excavation on

either side of and under a pipe the top of the bedding up to the spring line
or horizontal centerline of the pipe. This backfill layer extends from one
trench sidewall to the opposite sidewall. This is the most critical area in
providing support for a pipe. Hunching for preventing leakage or entry of
soil in joints (concrete mix)
Slope of 1” fall for 100ft For Residential Sewer

Slope of 4” fall for 250-300ftFor Main Sewer

  Leveling Of Slab :-
This is a procedure that attempts to correct an uneven concrete surface by
altering the foundation that the surface sits upon. It is a cheaper alternative
to having replacement concrete poured and is commonly performed at
small businesses and private homes as well as at factories, warehouses,
airports and on roads, highways and infrastructures. A ground level slab is
a large flat stretch of concrete, usually between 100-500mm thick which
forms the foundation of house

Slab level from the slab/floor just below it .

On the peripheral columns, a known level is marked. Usually at +1000 mm

from the lower floor level. This is done with water level or with dumpy
[Link] this marking, the height of the beam bottom is determined and
this is checked at various [Link] beam bottom it's easy to measure
the slab bottom.

 Level Of Road Using Water Level

A water level is a device used for matching elevations of locations that are
too far apart for a spirit level to span. The simplest water level is a section
of clear tubing, partially filled with water.

1. Use 50 to 100 feet (15 to 30 m) of tubing with a 5.16 in (13.1 cm)

diameter

2. Attach 1 end of the tubing to the flat side of a stake or dowel. Use
nails or tape to attach the tube to the stake, making sure the open
end of the tube is facing upward. Make sure there are no kinks or
knots in the tube so the water can flow easily through the tube.

3. Hold the other end of the tubing and fill it with [Link] the tube
until the water sits 2 to 3 inches (5.1 to 7.6 cm) below the attached
end of the tubeCheck that there are no air bubbles in the water once
you have filled the tube, as this can throw off the level.

4. Use your thumbs or a cap on the ends to prevent the water from
spilling.

5. Bring the water level to the items you want to [Link] can also
use the water level for construction projects where you need to find 2
level areas on different items that are close to one another.

6. Hold 1 end of the level against 1 of the posts.

Marked by water level tube

7. Place the other end of the level against the other post. Keep your
thumb over the open end of the tube so no water splashes out. Then,
stand back and see where the water sits in either end of the tube.
Notice if the water appears higher or lower in 1 end. This means the
spots are not level and you need to adjust where the level sits on the
posts so the water levels match.

8. Slide the free end of the tube up or down until the level on both ends
[Link] to check the levels as you slide the free end of the
tube.

9. Mark the items at the level spot. Once the meniscus, or water line, is
level on both ends of the tube, use chalk or a pencil to mark the spot
on both posts or items
  Bent Up Bars :-
It is actually economization of material. Normally, for fixed ended beams
positive (sagging) moments are present at the mid span and negative
(hogging) moments at the supports.
So bottom steel is required at the mid span and top steel resists negative
moments at the supports.A bent-up is provided to take the steel on the top
at supports as bottom steel is not normally required at at the supports

Bars are bent near the supports at an angle of 45°. The angle bent may
also be 30° in shallow beams where the (effective depth< 1.5 breadth).

Bars are bent near the support to

1. To resist negative bending moment (hogging).

2. To resist shear force which is greater at supports.

3. To reduce the risk of a brittle failure of slab-column connection.

Bent up bars
  Overlapping in beams and columns:-
Development length and lap length are two important terms in
reinforcement.

During placing the steel in RC structure if the required length of a bar is not
sufficiently available to make a design length then lapping is done. Lapping
means overlapping of two bars side by side to achieve required design
length.

A development length is the quantity of the rebar length that is actually

required to be enclosed into the concrete to make the desired bond
strength between two materials and furthermore to produce required stress
in the steel at that area.

Overlapping is calculated with 40d for beams and 24 d for column. D

denotes the dia of the steel bars and which are utilized in a beam.

The location of these splices in the beams/columns is of great importance.

Splices must be avoided at the midspan (Max. BM.) and at the beam-
column junctions (Max. shear & almost impossible to tie the bars). In a
column, the splicing of bars must be preferably staggered - that is if your
column has say 8 bars, arrange and cut the bars so that 4 bars are spliced
at one level and the other 4 are spliced at another level.
  Vibrator
A concrete vibrator is basically just what it sounds like - a mechanical
device for creating vibration in "wet" concrete. Typically, there is a motor on
one end that you hold onto (or it may be large and placed on the ground),
there's a thick neck that's some length long, and it's connected to a
vibrating head that gets dropped down into the fresh concrete.

The vibrations cause the mixture to liquefy, reducing the internal friction of
the mix components of cement, aggregate, and water. This allows the mix
to move around more easily in whatever form you are placing the concrete.
This helps to ensure that enough concrete gets into every little nook and
cranny and eliminate voids. Furthermore, the vibrations and liquification
help to allow air bubbles to escape. There's a lot of air in the mix when
placed, and too much air in the mix allows for a less dense mixture and
therefore can lead to failures and blemishes. The vibrations help to bring
those air bubbles to the surface where they escape.
 Lessons Learnt At Site
 Flaws :-
Unskilled labour and masons :- usually the masons constructs the wall
without any level due to which the wall doesnot seems good and has less
strength and there were no proper bonds in wall masonary

No Proper Planning :- In 2BHK flats earlier in drawing it was mentioned

10 columns and the construction began according to that but later on the
design was changed to 9 columns so the all construction stopped and re-
began

No Proper Formwork :- Instead of proper formwork of accurate length and

height , wooden flats were used

Low quality roads :- low quality roads were constructed connecting all the
flats , which got damaged after two or three rains

No proper curing :- There was no proper curing of bricks , constructed

walls foundations etc leading to their bad condition

Shortage of materials :- Due to improper management there was

shortage of material, due to which the ongoing construction was halted
frequently

 Qualities :-
Punctuality :- all the labours ,site engineers ,masons were present at the
site about 9 am and work continued upto 5 pm and somedays there extra
hours too

Daily visit :- General manager, project manager and project head used to
visit daily and inspect the ongoing works that were on going on the site .

Qualified site engineers :- All the site engineers present at the site were
highly qualified and very hardworking and were present on the site whole of
the day
Proper Checking of Materials :- The material which is to be used for the
construction is first thoroughly checked by the site engineer then it is
passed for construction

Level check of column :- Every column which was cast was thoroughly
checked for straightness after the removal of formwork

Level check of slab :- The slab level is checked before and after the
reinforcement , and even during the reinforcement

 Quality Check for Building Materials

 Cement

1. The cement should be of Greenish Gray colour for Ordinary Portland

Cement, and Blackish Gray colour for Portland Pozzulana Cement
and Whitish Gray colour for Portland Slag Cement.

2. There should not be any hard lumps on cement, the cement should
be finely powdered. If cement contains hard lumps, then it must be
rejected.

3. The cement when rubbed between fingers should feel smooth, it

should not feel granular. If it is granular then it means adulteration
with sand.

4. A cement paste should feel sticky in between fingers.

5. When hand is dipped into a heap or into a bag of cement, it should

feel cool, not warm.

6. If a hand full of cement is thrown into a bucket of water, the cement

should sink, not float as the Specific Gravity of Cement is greater
than that of Water.
  Sand
1. The Sand should be free from organic impurities and mineral salts, The
maximum permissible quantity of organic impurities should be restricted
to 5%.
2. The Sand should be of Golden Yellow colour.
3. The Sand particles should be sharp and angular to increase the
interlocking property between the sand particles.
4. The sand should coarse for Concreting and medium sand may be
allowed in brickwork and is preferable for plastering works.

 Coarse Aggregate

1. The Stone Chips are to be well graded to increase the mechanical

interlocking between them.

2. Stone Chips should be Angular as far as possible and be porous.

3. The Stone Chips should not be flaky and elongated.

4. The Stone Chips should not contain organic and other impurities, as
only 5% clay content in concrete can reduce the strength of the
concrete as much as 20%.