VI semester Hydroengineering structures 1 Lecture 1
2011/2012
1. Elements of dam engineering
The construction of dams is one of the earliest and most fundamental of civil engineering
activities. All great civilizations have been identified with the construction of storage
reservoirs to satisfy irrigation demands/market. Prosperity, health and material progress
became increasingly linked to the ability to store and direct water.
Dam construction represents a major investment in basic infrastructure within all nations.
Dams are individually unique structures. Irrespective of size and type they demonstrate
great complexity in their load response and in their interactive relationship with site
hydrology and geology.
Structural philosophy and types of dams
The primary purpose of a dam may be defined as to provide for the safe retention and
storage of water. Reservoirs are readily classified in accordance with their primary purpose,
e.g. irrigation, water supply, hydroelectric power generation, river regulation, flood control,
etc.
An initial classification of Dams into two generic groups can be made in terms of the
principal construction material employed.
[Link] dams are constructed of earthfill and/or rockfill. Upstream and downstream
face slopes are similar; dams are with high construction volume relative to height.
[Link] dams are constructed of mass concrete. Face slopes are dissimilar, generally
steep downstream and near vertical upstream, and dams have relatively slender profiles
dependent upon the type.
The second group can be considered to include also older masonry dams.
Historical perspective
The history of dam building dates back to antiquity, and is bound up with the earlier civilizations of
the Middle East and the Far East. Countless small dams, invariably simple embankment structures,
were constructed for irrigation purposes in, for example, China, Japan, India and Sri Lanka. Certain
of these early dams remain in existence.
The dam built at Sadd-el-Kafara, Egypt, around 2600BC, is generally accepted as the oldest known
dam of real significance. Constructed with an earthfill central zone flanked by rock shoulders and
with rubble masonry face protection, Sadd-el-Kafara was completed to a height of 14m. The dam
breached, probably in consequence of flood overtopping, after a relatively short period of service.
Embankment dam types and characteristics
The embankment dams can be classified as earthfill or rockfill dams.
The name 'rockfill embankment' is appropriate where over 50% of the fill material may be
classified as rockfill, i.e. large-grained frictional material.
[Link]. [Link]. Maria Mavrova-Guirguinova
University of Architecture, Civil Engineering
and Geodesy-Sofia
Elements of dam engineering 1/8
VI semester Hydroengineering structures 1 Lecture 1
2011/2012
(a) Homogenous with toe drain: small (b) Modern homogeneous with internal
secondary dams , m = 2.0-2.5 chimney drain , m = 2.5-3.5
(c) Slender central clay core: 19th-century (d) Central concrete core: smaller dams -
'Pennines' type obsolete post 1950 obsolescent m = 2.5-3.5
m = 2.5-3.5
(e) Wide rolled clay core: zoned with (t) EarthfilVrockfill with central rolled clay
transitions and drains: note base drain m = core: zoned with transitions and drains
2.5-3.5 m = 1.6-2.0
Fig.1 Principal variants of earthfill and earthfill-rockfill embankment dams (values of m are
indicative only)
Fig.2 Principal variants of rockfill embankment dams (values of m are indicative only)
•
(a) Central rolled clay core (b) Inclined rolled clay core m = 1.6-2.0
m = 1.6-2.0
transition/ drains
(c) Decked: upstream asphaltic (d) Central asphaltic membrane
or concrete membrane m = 1.6-2.0
m = 1.6-2.0
[Link]. [Link]. Maria Mavrova-Guirguinova
University of Architecture, Civil Engineering
and Geodesy-Sofia
Elements of dam engineering 2/8
VI semester Hydroengineering structures 1 Lecture 1
2011/2012
Concrete dam types and characteristic
Fig. 3. Principal variants of concrete dams
(values of m and n indicative only; in (e) Rh and Rv generally vary over dam faces)
[Link]. [Link]. Maria Mavrova-Guirguinova
University of Architecture, Civil Engineering
and Geodesy-Sofia
Elements of dam engineering 3/8
VI semester Hydroengineering structures 1 Lecture 1
2011/2012
The principal variants of the modern concrete dam are defined below.
[Link] dams. A concrete gravity dam is entirely dependent upon its own mass for
stability. The gravity profile is essentially triangular, with the outline geometry indicated on
(a), to ensure stability and to avoid overstressing of the dam or its foundation. Some gravity
dams are gently curved in plan for aesthetic or other reasons, and without placing any
reliance upon arch action for stability. Where a limited degree of arch action is deliberately
introduced in design, allowing a rather slimmer profile, the term arched or arch-gravity dam
may be employed.
[Link] dams. In structural concept the buttress dam consists of a continuous upstream
face supported at regular intervals by downstream buttresses. The solid head or massive
buttress dam, as illustrated by (b) and (c), is the most prominent modern variant of the type,
and may be considered for conceptual purposes as a lightened version of the gravity dam.
[Link] dams. The arch dam has a considerable upstream curvature.
Structurally it functions primarily as a horizontal arch, transmitting the major portion of the
water load to the abutments or valley sides rather than to the floor of the valley. A relatively
simple arch, i.e. with horizontal curvature only and a constant upstream radius, is shown in
(d). It is structurally more efficient than the gravity or buttress dam, greatly reducing the
volume of concrete required. A particular derivative of the simple arch dam is the cupola or
doublecurvature arch dam (e). The cupola dam introduces complex curvatures in the
vertical as well as the horizontal plane. It is the most sophisticated of concrete dams, being
essentially a dome or shell structure, and is extremely economical in concrete. Abutment
stability is critical to the structural integrity and safety of both the cupola and the simple
arch.
[Link] concrete dams. A number of less common variants of the major types of concrete
dams illustrated in Fig. 3 can also be identified. They include hollow gravity, decked
buttress, flat slab (Ambursen) buttress, multiple arch, and multiple cupola dams, as
illustrated in Fig. 4. The type names are self-explanatory, and the structural parentage of
each as a derivative of one or other of the principal types is apparent from the figures. In
view of this and of the relative rarity of the variants they are not considered further in this
text.
The characteristics of concrete dams are outlined below with respect to the major types, i.e.
gravity, massive buttress and arch or cupola dams. Certain characteristics are shared by all
or most of these types; many are, however, specific to particular variants. Merits shared by
most concrete dams include the following.
[Link]. [Link]. Maria Mavrova-Guirguinova
University of Architecture, Civil Engineering
and Geodesy-Sofia
Elements of dam engineering 4/8
VI semester Hydroengineering structures 1 Lecture 1
2011/2012
Fig. 4. Further variants of concrete dams:
[Link] and cupola dams are suitable to the site topography of wide or narrow valleys
alike, provided that a competent rock foundation is accessible at moderate depth «5
m).
[Link] dams are not sensitive to over topping under extreme flood conditions (cf.
the embankment dam).
[Link] a corollary to 2, all concrete dams can accommodate a crest spillway, if
necessary over their entire length, provided that steps are taken to control
downstream erosion and possible undermining of the dam. The cost of a separate
spillway and channel are therefore avoided.
[Link] pipework, valves and other ancillary works are readily and safely housed in
chambers or galleries within the dam.
[Link] inherent ability to withstand seismic disturbance without catastrophic collapse
is generally high.
[Link] cupola or double-curvature arch dam is an extremely strong and efficient
structure, given a narrow valley with competent abutments.
[Link]. [Link]. Maria Mavrova-Guirguinova
University of Architecture, Civil Engineering
and Geodesy-Sofia
Elements of dam engineering 5/8
VI semester Hydroengineering structures 1 Lecture 1
2011/2012
Stages in dam site appraisal and project development
[Link]. [Link]. Maria Mavrova-Guirguinova
University of Architecture, Civil Engineering
and Geodesy-Sofia
Elements of dam engineering 6/8
VI semester Hydroengineering structures 1 Lecture 1
2011/2012
Spillways, outlets and ancillary works
Dams need structures and facilities for their operational function safely and effectively. In
particular, adequate provision must be made for the safe passage of extreme floods and for
the controlled draw-off and discharge of water in fulfillment of the purpose of the reservoir.
Spillways and outlet works are therefore essential features. Other ancillary facilities are
incorporated as necessary for the purpose of the dam and appropriate to its type.
Provision for permanent flood discharge and outlet works and for river diversion during
construction can prove to be technically difficult and therefore costly.
Spillways
The purpose of the spillway is to pass flood water, and in particular the design flood, safely
downstream when the reservoir is overflowing. It has two principal components: the
controlling spillweir and the spillway channel, the purpose of the latter being to conduct
flood flows safely downstream of the dam. The latter may incorporate a stilling basin or
other energy-dissipating devices. The spillway capacity must safely accommodate the
maximum design flood, the spillweir level dictating the maximum retention level of the dam,
i.e. the normal maximum water level (NWL).
Spillways are normally uncontrolled, i.e. they function automatically as the water level rises
above NWL, but they may be controlled by gates. Concrete dams normally incorporate an
overfall or crest spillway, but embankments generally require a separate side-channel or
shaft spillway structure located adjacent to the dam.
Outlet works
Controlled outlet facilities are required to permit water to be drawn off as is operationally
necessary. Provision must be made to accommodate the required penstocks and pipework
with their associated control gates or valves. Such features are readily accommodated
within a concrete dam. For embankment dams it is normal practice to provide an external
control structure or valve tower, which may be quite separate from the dam, controlling
entry to an outlet tunnel or culvert.
A bottom discharge facility is provided in most dams to provide an additional measure of
drawdown control and, where practicable, to allow emptying of the reservoir. The bottom
outlet must be of as high a capacity as is practicable. In most cases it is necessary to use
special outlet valves and/or structures to avoid scouring and damage to the stream bed and
banks downstream of the dam.
River diversion
This provision is necessary to permit construction to proceed in dry conditions. An outlet
tunnel or culvert may be temporarily adapted to this purpose during construction, and
subsequently employed as a discharge facility for the completed dam. In the absence of
such a tunnel of adequate capacity alternative steps will be necessary, involving the
construction of temporary upstream and downstream cofferdams or, in the case of con-
crete dams, by programming construction of one monolith or block to leave a temporary
gap or formed tunnel through the structure.
[Link]. [Link]. Maria Mavrova-Guirguinova
University of Architecture, Civil Engineering
and Geodesy-Sofia
Elements of dam engineering 7/8
VI semester Hydroengineering structures 1 Lecture 1
2011/2012
Cut-offs
Seepage under and round the flank of a dam must be controlled. This is achieved by the
construction of a cut-off below the structure, continued as necessary on either flank.
Modern embankment cut-offs are generally formed from wide trenches backfilled with
rolled clay, if impervious strata lie at moderate depths, and/or by drilling and grouting to
form a cut-off screen or barrier to greater depths. Grout screen cut-offs are also customarily
formed in the rock foundation under a concrete dam.
Internal drainage
Seepage is always present within the body of any dam. Seepage flows and their resultant
internal pressures must be directed and controlled. Internal drainage systems for this
purpose are therefore an essential and critical feature of all modern dams. In embankments
drainage is effected by suitably located pervious zones leading to horizontal blanket drains
or outlets at base level. In concrete dams vertical drains are formed inside the upstream
face, and seepage pressure is relieved into an internal gallery or outlet drain. In the case of
arch dams, seepage pressures in the rock abutments are frequently relieved by systems of
bored drains and/or drainage or tunnels.
Internal galleries and shafts
In addition to their function alongside drains in effecting local control of seepage, galleries
and shafts are provided as a means of allowing internal inspection, particularly in concrete
dams. The galleries, shafts and any associated chambers to accommodate discharge
valves or gates can also be used to accommodate instrumentation for structural monitoring
and surveillance purposes.
The ancillary structures and design features referred to are further described in subsequent
chapters.
[Link]. [Link]. Maria Mavrova-Guirguinova
University of Architecture, Civil Engineering
and Geodesy-Sofia
Elements of dam engineering 8/8
