WRIE - 32171 Chapter 1 – Elements of Dam Engineering

1. ELEMENTS OF DAM ENGINEERING

1.1.Introduction
Dams are structures controlling the flow of a river by completely blocking the valley of a given
river or drainage system. Through the blockage, storage is formed, which can be utilized for
various water resources development or water control purposes. Thus, retained body of water is
RESERVOIR, the retaining structure whether earth/rock/concrete is the dam.

The preliminary purpose of a dam may be defined as to provide for the safe retention and
storage of water. The specific main functions /advantages of dams and reservoirs are:
 Temporal and quantitative balancing between available water and demand.
 Water storage for days, weeks, months, years, and over years for power generation
and sediment control
 Water supply (municipal, industrial or community water supply, irrigation
purposes)
 Flood control
 Regulation/balancing of river flow (such as navigation, low flow augmentation)
 Recreation
 Multipurpose

The presence of a dam with its storage reservoir interferes with the natural system. Associated to
this, the main disadvantages include:
Distraction of fauna and flora in the dam valley
Interference in the landscape through dams and reservoirs
Change of ground water level
Strong influence on sediment balance
Change in water temperature
Influence on fish

1.2.Dam structures and Reservoir

Structure related to dams include: the dam structure, reservoir, diversion structure, appurtenant
structures such as spillways, bottom outlets, intakes and gates as well as service roads and
bridges. The schematic diagrams of the components are shown below.

1. Reservoir
2. Dam
3. Service Intake
4. Bottom outlet
5. Spill structure
6. Diversion structure
7. Service road

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1.3.Storage Components
The reservoir volume is sub divided in to the following parts, when seen in its vertical section.

1.4.Reservoirs
Functions of reservoirs in Hydraulic Engineering
 Balancing water demand and supply
 Storage of water for further usage
 Provision of storage: flood storage, sedimentation storage, for industrial sewerage,
nature protection

Classification of storage based on use:

 Use and drinking water storage
 Storage for irrigation
 Storage for hydropower
 Storage for low flow augmentation
 Storage for cooling water
 Flood storage
 Artificial lakes, e.g. for recreation, fish protection, nature protection
 Single or multiple purpose reservoirs

Classification based on storage or balancing period:

 Day, week, month, year storage
Classification based on art of storage:
 Surface storage
 Subsurface storage (Caverns, Ground water)

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Reservoir parameters
The most important reservoir parameters are reservoir volume (storage) – S (m3), the reservoir area
– A (m2) which can be related to the elevation or water level in the reservoirs. These parameters
can be computed with the help of topographic maps or surveying. The reservoir surface area can be
computed using plani-metery related to a given contour height.
Based on the derived elevation-area curve and depth, elevation-volume can be computed using
various methods:
I. Average area or trapezoidal method
A  Ai 1i
Si  hi
2
II. Simpson’s 1/3 rule method
A  4 Am  Ai 1i
Si  hi Where Am= mean area between Ai & Ai+1
6

III. Simpson’s 3/8 rule method

h  3 9 9 3 
Si  i  A1  A2  A3  A4 
3 8 8 8 8 
Where h: depth magnitude between interpolation points
A1, A2, A3 and A4: are planar areas at interpolation points.

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1.5.Classification of Dams
Dams are numerous types and there are various ways of classifications.
Classification Based on Purpose
a) Storage Dams
i) Flood control
ii) Water supply: domestic, municipal, industrial, irrigation
iii) Hydroelectric power
iv) Recreation storage
v) Pollution control
b) Stage control Dams
i) Diversion
ii) Navigation
iii) Check
c) Barrier Dams
i) Levees and dykes
ii) Coffer dams
d) Multipurpose Dams

Classification based on Hydraulic design

a) Overflow dams
b) Non overflow dams
c) Composite dams

Classification According to Material of construction

a) Embankment Dams
b) Concrete Dams

a) Embankment Dams
They are constructed of earth fill/earth fill. Upstream and upstream faces are similar and moderate
angles, giving a wide section and a high construction volume relative to height.
b) Concrete Dams
They are constructed of mass concrete. Face slopes are dissimilar, general steep downstream and
near vertical upstream slopes, and dams have relatively slender profile dependent on the type.
Other type such as timber, steel, etc dams in some cases may be constructed.

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Dam

Concrete Embankment

Gravity Arch Massive Rockfill Earth fill

buttress

Arch-Gravity Combination

Classification of dams based on material of construction

1.6.Types of Embankment Dams and their General characteristics

Embankment Dams are dam constructed of natural materials excavated or obtained near the dam
site. They are of relatively (compared with concrete dams) soft and elastic structures. Loads are
transmitted in to the dam body. The foundation requirement is lower compared to gravity dams.
Most of the dams of today (more than 60%) are embankment dams.

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Embankment dams constitute the following advantages

Suitability to wide valley & steep gorges alike
Adaptability to wide range of foundation conditions
Use of natural materials, minimizing cost of transportation of processed materials
Insensitive (can accommodate) to settlement
Insensitive (can withstand)to earth quake

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Simple construction, effectively continuous construction & high mechanized

process
Unit cost of embankment risen much more slowly in real terms than mass concrete
Increasing dam height is simple
Can be well integrated to the landscape

Disadvantages:
Sensitive to wave action
Higher free board is needed (3-4m)
Overtopping is not allowed (intake structures and spillways should be constructed
separate from the dam structure & adequate spillway size should be ensured )
Erosion danger on the down stream sides unless bermes are provided
Construction material and construction progress are affected by weather
Huge mass volume (large transportation, settlement)

1.6.1. Earth fill embankment dams

This indicates type of dam constituting more than 50% compacted earth fill. An earth fill
dam is constructed primarily of engineering soils compacted uniformly and intensively in
relatively thin layers and at controlled moisture contents (see Figure 2.5 for principal
variants). They are designed to resist loads by gravity and by mechanisms of embankment
stability. They are strictly non overflow types.

1.6.2. Rock fill embankment dams

This indicates type of dam constituting more than 50% compacted rock fill. The section
includes a discrete impervious element of compacted earth fill or a slender concrete or
bituminous membrane. Rock fill embankments employing a thin upstream membrane of
asphalt concrete, reinforced concrete or other non natural material are referred to as ‘
decked rock fill dams’

1.7. Characteristics of Concrete Dams

Concrete dams are hard, none yielding and rigid structures. Loads are transmitted through
the dam body and to the foundation. It requires strong and more or less uniform rock
foundation.

Many early dams were constructed as rubble masonry or random masonry. From about
1900, mass concrete, initially without formed transverse contraction joints, began to
displace masonry for the construction of large non embankment dams. From about 1950
mass concrete increasingly incorporated bulk material additives such as slags or pulverized
fuel ash (PFA), in order to reduce thermal problems and to contain escalating costs.

Concrete dams constitute the following advantages:

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Good for narrow valleys. Except arc or cupola, also suitable for wide valleys.
Smaller construction fill volume (compared to embankments)
Construction can takes place irrespective of weather condition
Smaller free board (1-1.5m)
Can be constructed as overflow dam, i.e. can accommodate spillway, hence cost for
separate spillway reduced.
Outlet pipe work, valves and other ancillary works can be provided within the body
of the dam

Disadvantages:

Sensitive to settlement, demanding sound rock foundation

Sensitive by earth quake
Depending on the dam type, it’s construction is demanding (technical personnel,
machine requirement, form work)
Difficult heightening (simplification by pre-stressing)
Bad interference in to natural landscape
Completed unit costs are much higher than for embankment fills, which seldom
balanced by the much lower volumes of concrete required in a dam of certain
height.

1.7.1. Gravity Dams

Concrete gravity dam is designed so that its stability is maintained on it own mass. Its
profile is essentially triangular, to ensure stability and to avoid over stressing of the dam or
its foundation. It may be straight or curved in plan.

1.7.2. Buttress Dams

Consist of a continuous upstream face supported at regular intervals by downstream
buttress. Buttress dams were first developed to conserve water in regions where materials
were scarce or expensive but labor was cheap. Normally needs up to 60% less concrete
than gravity dams of the same height, but needs more form work and reinforcement.
(See figure 1.6.c)

1.7.3. Arch Dams

Loads resisted mainly by arch action and transmitted through abutments. It requires
constant solid and strong abutments. The type is suitable in narrow gorges when the length
of the crest is not more than 5 times the height of the dam. Its particular derivation is the
cupola or double curvature arch dam, which is the most sophisticated concrete dams, and is
extremely economical in concrete. (Refer figure 1.6. b)

1.7.4. Other Concrete Dams

There are member of less common variant of the major types of concrete dams, which also exist.
They include hollow gravity, decked buttress, flat slab (ambursen) buttress, multiple arch (multiple
cupola) dams.

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1.8. Site Investigation, Selection of Sites and Type of Dam

1.8.1. General

A dam and reservoir site must satisfy certain functional and technical requirements.
Whether these requirements are satisfied can be found out through site investigations and
technical evaluations

Functional: the functional suitability of a site is governed by the balance between its natural
physical characteristics and the purpose of the dam/ reservoir. The catchment hydrology,
available head and storage volume etc, must be matched by the operational parameters
needed of the project.

Technical: Technical suitability is associated to the presence or absence of suitable site for
a dam, material of construction, and integrity of reservoir basin with respect to leakage.
Hydrological, geological/geotechnical characteristics of catchment and site are the
principal determinants establishing the technical suitability of reservoir site.

In addition, assessment of the anticipated environmental consequences of construction and

operation of the dam is needed to be evaluated to select site for storage and dam
construction.

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The following are major considerations:

1. Major design inputs: geotechnical, structural, hydraulic, hydrological and also

environmental impacts/effects
2. Optimum design solutions: solution of appropriate type of dam (no clear-cut-rule)
derives from interaction of the above inputs with economic factors including
constructional constraints.
3. As 2 implies, there are frequently several alternatives solutions, which are of equal
technical but of different economic validity. Note that, both relative economic
validity and to a lesser extent technical validity are subject to change as technology
develops.
4. Each and every dam is quite unique solution to the problems of the site in question,
in terms of the balance of technical and economical factor at the time of
consideration.

Principal stages involving site appraisal and leading to selection of optimum dam
site and type of dam are indicated schematically in Figure 1.7 (After Novak et al)

In order to meet the requirements of dam site investigation, design and construction,
a fully coordinated team of specialists is needed. A team of hydraulic, structural,
material, and geotechnical engineers, geologists, and hydrologists should ensure
that all engineering and geological considerations are properly integrated into the
overall design.

Some of the critical aspects of the analysis and design process that require
coordination are (US Army Corps of Engineers):

a. Preliminary assessments of geological data, sub-surface conditions, and

rock structure.
b. Selection of material properties, design parameters, loading conditions,
loading effects, potential mechanisms, and other related features of the
analytical models.
c. Evaluation of the technical and economic feasibility of alternative type
structures.
d. Constructability reviews to see whether design assumptions and
construction procedures are compatible.
e. Refinement of the preliminary structure configuration to reflect the results
of detailed site explorations, materials availability studies, laboratory
testing, and numerical analysis.
f. Cofferdam and diversion layout, design, and sequencing requirements.
g. Size and type of outlet works and spillway.
h. Modification to the structure configuration during construction due to
unexpected variations in the foundation conditions.

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1.8.2. Collection of Data

Physical and Topographical Data

Selection of dam and reservoir sites requires presence of suitable topography. Information can be
obtained through site visit and from large scale topographic maps or aerial photographs. The
criteria for the choice of the site include investigation of:

Valley form

 Canon and V-shape: due to erosion,

 U-shape: due to glacier cut,
 Wide valley: due to strong bank erosion,
 Box valley; due to fluvial deposit on the other shapes

The valley width at the dam site is required to be narrow and wide in the storage part. Figure 1.8
shows the various forms of valley shapes.

Slope: upstream of the dam site, the possible small slope and downstream of the dam site the
possible large slope (by hydropower scheme)

In the collection of relevant topographical information, the following may be followed:

General Plan:

- Obtain a general plan of the catchment and project area from relevant sources (e.g.
EMA)
- Carry out limited survey to include additional information in this plan (aerial
reconnaissance, physical survey, walkovers)
- It must include: the dam site, spillway site, irrigable area/power house site,
catchment are of the stream, locality to be supplied with potable water (if any) Scale
may vary from 1:1000-1:10,000

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The following features should be included:

i. Contours at 0.5mto 1.5m interval

ii. location of existing works, if any, affected by the proposed development
iii. proposed relocation of roads, railways, transmission lines, etc
iv. additional transportation facilities such as access roads; cable ways, etc,
required for the execution of the project
v. location of the stream gauging stations, water sampling and meteorological
stations, if any in the area

Large Plans of the Dam and Spillway Sites:

These should be in the scale of 1:500 to 1:000 with contours as close as possible. These plans
should show:
 Over banks
 Location and elevation of all features such as buildings roads etc
 Location and numbering of test pits and borings.

Geotechnical and Geological Data

A geological map of the entire catchment and project area is essential. Investigation of geological
and geotechnical information of the origin, deposition, formation and physical characteristics of
the dam foundation and reservoir area are needed. As a basis for the investigation, if there is no
accurately describing geological map exists, such maps are produced on large scale for the dam
site and on small scale for reservoir area.

Dam and Spillway Site

Subsurface investigation should be carried out by experienced geologist to obtain the following:
 Geological section of the selected dam site
 Quality of the overburden if an earth dam is to be built
 Shearing strength of the material of overburden and of the dam material
 Quantity and Quality of the overburden material for construction purpose
 Presence of joint planes, caverns, solution channels
 Quality of rock if concrete dam is to be built
 Depth to which rock is weathered
 Presence & extent of seams and joint planes (and orientations)
 Strength of the rock (hardness and durability)
 Availability of aggregate

Reservoir Site

 Check the existence of cracks which are potential leakage source

 Banks should be checked for possible zones of landslide

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Earth quake

Information on seismic activity of the area should be obtained

Here it is assumed that, adequate knowledge of the relevant engineering geology, soil
mechanics and geotechnical parameters are acquired.

Water Resources Data

Data regarding the following are required for water resources planning and reservoir design:
 Catchment area (surface and subsurface0
 Discharge (surface and sub-surface); daily/monthly volume of flow in the stream
and peaks of stream flow at or near dam site
 Sediment carried by the stream
 Maximum observed flood, report on damage caused by flood (extent of flood)
 Data establishing water demand (number of people to be served, approximate
maximum and minimum daily requirement, irrigation water requirement, other
requirement for industries, livestock,, etc)
 Meteorological data such as average temperature, average monthly rainfall,
maximum recorded storm intensities, rate of evaporation
 Ground water level
 Data on minimum downstream water requirement

Project Development Data

Data such as agricultural, hydropower and other relevant data to the project purpose Eg. For
irrigation purpose, the following data are essential for the determination of water requirement:

 size of the area to be irrigated

 soil structure
 possible type of crops
 types of soils along the conveyance canals

Miscellaneous Data

- Materials data: soil, gravel and stone (for aggregate and riprap) are needed in good
quantity and quality for dam construction (possible borrow sites for these materials
should be identified), the borrow area should be within the reasonable distance from
the site. Selection of suitable borrow area is identified by:
 Thickness of the top organic soil which has to be discarded
 Content of organic matter in the rest of the soil
 Quantity of oversized cobbles which would have to be removed
from the soil

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- Rock for aggregate and riprap has to pass the standard tests of specific gravity,
absorption, abrasion, soundness, etc.
- Erosion in the catchment area- identify sources of erosion
- Transport-Existing facilities and rates
- Local labor-availability and rates
- Information at the desk study stage
- Notes on site reconnaissance

Which are generally valid for site investigation for civil engineering purposes.

1.8.3. Investigations
The purpose of site or material investigation in the context of dam engineering is to determine the
suitability of the selected site for dam construction and reservoir storage as well as to describe the
geotechnical parameters necessary for the design and construction of the structures.

For such purposes, thus, general site exploration and investigations, in addition to the above data
collection, involve the following:

 Field investigation
 In situ tests/ Field tests
 Laboratory tests
(See details of these soil mechanics and foundation engineering courses)

1.8.4. Location of Dam

Influencing factors:

 Plan for the use of water

 Width and shape of the valley
 Load carrying capacity and impermeability of foundation
 Seepage lose in the reservoir area
 Quantity, quality and transport distance of the construction materials
 Suitability for appurtenant structures (bottom outlet, intake, spillway, power house)
 Danger due to slide, avalanche, etc
 Influence on environment and landscape
 Recreation value
 Available storage area
 Dam heightening and capacity augmentation possibilities
 Cost
 Social and political implications

1.8.5. Height of a Dam

The selection of the height of a dam influenced from:
 Local topographic conditions
 Dam type

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 Required storage
 Finance

1.8.6. Selection of Dam Type

Influencing factors:
 Topography (valley form see Figure 1.8 and 1.10)
 Foundation (stability, impermeability)
 Geology (layers, fishers)
 Required height
 Purpose of the dam
 Climate (ice)
 Flood spillway
 Availability, quality (nature, state) of construction materials
 Construction (Supply, transport, equipment, qualification of personnel)
 Landscape
 Cost (economics)
It is necessary to make open the possible alternative solutions until an optimum solution is found
w.r.t cost, construction program and available resource. Novak et al consider four cardinally
important points in selection of dam type as:
1. Hydraulic Gradient: the nominal value of hydraulic gradient I for seepage under,
around or through dam varies by at least one order of magnitude according to type
(0.5 for homogenous dam to 10 or more for buttress or coupola)
2. Foundation stress: nominal stress transmitted to the foundation vary greatly with
dam type (The notional maximum stresses due to dam height of 100m varies
between 1.8 to 10 MN/m2 for embankment to arch dams)
3. Foundation deformability: certain types of dams are better able to accommodate
significant foundation deformation /settlement without damage.
4. Foundation excavation: economic considerations dictate the excavation volume and
foundation preparation should be minimized.

Figure 1.10 illustrate examples of valley profile with suggested dam type and Table 1.3 provide
type characteristics with respect to choice of dams 9After Novak et al)

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Type Notes and Characteristics

Embankment
Earth fill Suited to either rock or soil foundation and can accept limited
differential settlement given relatively wide and plastic core. Cut-off
to sound, i.e. less permeable, horizon required. Low contact stress
Rock fill Rock foundation preferable; can accept variable quality and limited
weathering. Cut-off to sound horizons required. Rock fills suitable for
all weather placing. Requires materials for core, filter, etc.
Concrete
Gravity Suited to wide valleys, provided that excavation depth is less than c.
5m. Limited weathering of rock acceptable. Check discontinuities in
rock with regard top sliding. Moderate contact stress. Requires
imported cement.
Buttress As gravity dam, but higher contact stress require sound rock.
Concrete save relative to gravity dam 30-60%.
Arch/Cupola Suited to narrow gorges, subject to uniform sound rock of high
strength and limited deformability in foundation and most practically
in abutments.
High abutment loading. Concrete saving relative to gravity dam is 50-
85%

Table 1.3: Dam selection: Type characteristics

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2. CONCRETE DAMS
2.1.1. Forces Acting & Load combination on dams
Loads can be classified in terms of applicability or relative importance as primary loads,
secondary loads, & Exceptional loads.

i) Primary loads: are identified as those of major importance to all dams

irrespective of type. Example self weight, water & related seepage loads.
ii) Secondary loads: are universally applicable although of lesser magnitude (e.g.
Silt load) or alternatively are of major importance only to certain types of dam
(e.g. thermal effects with in concrete dams).
iii) Exceptional loads: are so designed on the basis of limited general applicability
of occurrence (e.g. tectonic effects, or the inertia loads associated with seismic
activity).

Gravity dam Loads

a) Primary Loads
i. Water Load (Refer fig. 1.8 page 6)

Hydrostatic distribution of pressure with horizontal resultant force P1 (Note also a vertical
component exists in the case of an u/s batter, and equivalent tail water may operate in the
d/s face)

Z12 Z1
Pwh   w KN / m acting at
2 3

Where w unit weight of water =9.81 KN/m3

Pwv =w (area A1) KN/ m
Acting through centroid of A1

Pressure of any permanent tail water above the plane considered is:
 w Z 22
Pwn1 
2
with Pwv1   w (area A2 )

ii. Self weight load: (Refer fig. 1.8, 3.1 page 6)

Determined w.r.t an appropriate unit weight of the material

Pm=c Ap KN/m
acts through the centroid of x- sectional area AP.
(c 23.5 KN/m3)

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Where crest gates & other ancillary structures of considerable weight exist they must also
be considered in determining Pm & their appropriate position of line of action.

iii. Seepage & uplift load: (Refer fig. 1.8, 3.2 page 6)

Equilibrium seepage patterns will establish within & under a dam e.g. with resultant
forces identified as P3 & P4.

Pu =  Ah (Uw ,avg)

 Z  Z2 
 . Ah . w  1  if no drain functioning.
 2 
 is area reduction factor
Ah nominal plane area at a section considered.

If no drains functioning

 
T 2 Z 2 1 Z 1
Pu acts at Y1  m
3 Z 2  Z1

In modern dams internal uplift is controlled by the provision of vertical relief drains close
behind the u/s face. Mean effective head @ the line of drains, Zd can be expressed as

Zd = Z2+Kd (Z1-Z2) m

Kd is function of drain geometry (i.e. diameter, special & relative

Location with u/s face.)
Kd = 0.33 (USBR)
Kd = 0.25 Tennessee valley Authority
Kd= 0.25-0.5 appropriate to the site by the U.S crops of Eng’s

The standard provision of deep grout curtain below the u/s face intended to limit seepage
also serves to inhibit pressure within the foundation. However, less certain than efficient
draw system & its effect is commonly disregarded in uplift reduction.

b. Secondary loads
i. Sediment load: (Refer fig. 1.8, 3.1 page 6)

Accumulated silt etc, generates a horizontal thrust, Ps. Tthe magnitude additional to
Pwh is a function of sediment depth, Z3, submerged unit weight s’ & active lateral
pressure coefficient. Ka:

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 s1.Z32
Ps  K a & acting @ Z3/3 above plane
2
s’ = s-w where s is sediment saturated unit weight.

1  Sin s
Ka 
1  Ain s
Where s is angle of shearing resistance

For representative values of s 18-20KN/m3

s 300
3 Z 32
Ps 
2

ii. Hydrodynamic wave Load (Refer fig. 1.8, 3.1 page 6)

Transient load, Pwave, generated by wave action against the dam. It is not normally
significant & depends on the fetch & wind velocity.

Hs F

Pwave =2w Hs2

Where Hs - significant wave height (is the mean height of the highest third of
the wave in train)

Hs range from 0.75 Hs for concrete dams to 1.3Hs for earth dams.

H  0.32 UF  0.76  0.24 4 F

U= in km/hr
F= in km

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iii) Wind load: when the dam is full, wind acts only on the d/s side thus
contribute to stability. When empty the wind can act on the u/s face but in
significant compared to hydrostatic load. For buttress dams load on the
exposed surface has to be considered.

iv) Ice load: Not a problem in Ethiopia. It can be significant where ice sheets
form to appreciable thickness & persist for lengthy periods.
Pice =145 KN/m2 for ice > 0.6m thick, other wise neglected

v) Thermal & dam /foundation interaction effect: Cooling of large pours of

mass concrete following the exothermic hydration of cement & the subsequent
variation in ambient & water temperatures combine to produce complex &
time dependent temp. Gradients within the dam equally. Complex interaction
develops as a result of foundation deformation.

C. Exceptional Loads (Refer fig. 1.8, 3.2 page 6)

Seismic load: Horizontal & vertical inertia loads, are generated with respect to the dam
& the retained water by seismic disturbance. Horizontal & vertical accelerations are not
equal, the former being of grater in density. For design purposes both should be
considered operative in the sense last favorable to stability of the dam, under reservoir
full conditions the most adverse seismic loading will then occur when the ground shock is
associated with.

1) Horizontal foundation acceleration operating u/s, and

2) Vertical foundation acceleration operating downwards and vice-verse for
reservoir empty condition

Seismic coefficient analysis

Seismic acceleration coefficient. h for horizontal

v = 0.5h for vertical

Representative seismic coefficient applied in design

Coff. h Modified mercali scale General damage level U.S seismic zone
0.0 - Nil 0
0.25 VI Minor 1
0.10 VII Moderate 2
0.15 VIII-IX Major 3
0.20 great 4

For more extreme circumstances eg. h=0.4 has been employed for dams in high risk
region in Japan, h =0.5 & h =0.6-0.8 damaged Koyna gravity dam, India ( 1967) &
Pacima arch dam USA (1971) respectively.

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WRIE - 32171 Chapter 2 – Design Principle of Concrete Dams

Inertia forces: Mass of dam

Horizontal Pemh =  h Pm
Vertical Pemv =  v Pm operating through centroid of the dam
Hydrodynamic forces: water action

Relative to any elevation @ depth Z1 below the water surface, the pressure pewh

Pewh = Ceh.w Z1. KN/m

Z1= Max. Water depth

Z = the depth @ section considered
Ce= dimensionless pressure factor
= f (Z/Z1 , u ) where u -inclination of u/s face to vertical

Total hydrodynamic load is given by.

Pewh = 0.66 Ce h Z1 w Z1 Z max . & acts @ 0.4 Z above section

pressure factor Ce.

Ratio z/z1 u =00 u = 1500
0.2 0.35 0.29
0.4 0.53 0.45
0.6 0.64 0.55
0.8 0.71 0.61
1.0 0.73 0.63

The vertical hydrodynamic load, Pewv ,is

Pewv = v Pwv

Uplift load is assumed unaltered.

Resonance: results when period vibrations of the structure & earth quake period are
equal. For a concrete gravity dam of triangular X- section base thickness T

600T Eeff
Fn  HZ or  HZ ( Eeff  14GN / m2 )
hh 0.012h
As an example, the natural frequency of vibration of monolithic gravity profiles with
nominal height of 20m & 50m are 15-25 & 6-9 HZ respectively ( if major seismic

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WRIE - 32171 Chapter 2 – Design Principle of Concrete Dams

shock frequency of 1-10 HZ). Thus it is only of concern for large dams & vulnerable
portion of the dam.
Load combinations
Different design authorities have differing load combinations. A concrete dam should
be designed with regard to the most rigorous groupings or combination of loads
which have a reasonable probability of simultaneous occurrence.

Three nominated load combinations are sufficient for almost all circumstances. In
ascending order of severity we can have normal, unusual & extreme load combination
(NLC, ULC, ELE respectively) (see table)
With probability of simultaneous occurrence of load combination decreases, factor of
safety should also decrease.

Load Source Qualification Load Combination

NLC ULC ELC
PRIMARY
Water DFL 
NML  
Tail water TWL  
Minimum 
Self weight -------   
Uplift Drains functioning  
Drains inoperative  
SECONDARY
Silt   
Ice Discretionary   
Concrete Minimum normal  
Temperature Min. @ time of event 
EXCEPTIONAL
Seismic CME (control max. 
EQ)

1. DFL: Design flood level

NML: Normal maximum level
CME: Control maximum earth quake
2. ULC should also be investigated for the ‘drains inoperative’ condition
3. studies and investigations may be appropriate with respect to:
a. Nominated load combinations in relation to foundation stability
b. Any other loading combination which is considered appropriate to analyze
for the dam considered.

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WRIE - 32171 Chapter 2 – Design Principle of Concrete Dams

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WRIE - 32171 Chapter 2 – Design Principle of Concrete Dams

2.2 GRAVITY DAM DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

Criteria & Principles

The conditions essential to structural equilibrium & so to stability can be summarized as

 H  V  o &
M  o
Assessed in relation to all probable conditions of loading, including reservoir empty
conditions the profile must have sufficient safety factor w.r.t:

a) Rotation & overturning.

b) Translation & sliding and
c) Overstress & material failure.

Over turning

Sliding

X Stres X
s

a) Overturning stability
Factor of safety against overturning, Fo, in terms of moment about the d/s toe of the dam

Fo 
M  ve
M inclusive of moment generated by uplift )
M
ve
 ve

Fo > 1.25 may be acceptable, but Fo > 1.5 is desirable.

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WRIE - 32171 Chapter 2 – Design Principle of Concrete Dams

b) sliding stability
Factor of safety against sliding, Fs, estimated using one of the three definitions:

1) Sliding factor, FSS;

2) Shear friction factor, FSF or
3) Limit equilibrium factor, FLE.

The resistance to sliding or shearing which can be mobilized across a plane is

expressed through parameters C & tan.

1) Sliding factor, Fss

FSS 
H
V
If the foundation plane inclined @ small angle o

 H  tan
Fss 
V
 H 
1   tan  .
 V 
 

Fss should not permitted to exceed 0.75, but under ELC up to 0.9 is acceptable.

2) Shear friction factor, FSF.

: is the ratio of total resistance to shear & sliding which can be mobilized on a plane to
the total horizontal load.

s
Fsf  
H
CAh
s  V tan(   ) KN / m.
cos  (1  tan  tan  )kN / m
forhoriontalplane (  0)
s  cAh  V tan  .
CS h  V tan 
 Fsf 
 H.

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In some cases it may be appropriate to include d/s passive wedge resistance, pp, as a
further component of the resistance to sliding which can be mobilized.

Ww =weight of passive wedge.

Rw = sliding resistance in inclined plane.
=CAAB +(Ww cosα+H sinα) tan

This is affected by modifying the above equation, hence,

s  pe CAas
Fsf  Where pp   Ww tan(  
H cos  (1  tan  tan  )

In the presence of horizon with low shear resistance it may be advisable to make S=0.

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WRIE - 32171 Chapter 2 – Design Principle of Concrete Dams

Recommended shear friction factor, FSF (USBR 1987)

Load combination
Location of sliding plane Normal Unusual Extreme
Dam concrete, base interface 3.0 2.0 >1.0
Foundation rock 4.0 2.7 1.3

C. Limit Equilibrium factor, FLE.

This follows conventional soil mechanics logic in defining FLE, as the ratio of shear
strength to mean applied stress across a plane i.e

f
FLE =


 f is expressed by Mohr coulomb failure criteria, accordingly

c   n tan 
FLE   n . is stress acting normal to plane of sliding
æ
Referring the above figure, for single plane sliding mode.

FLE 
CAh  V cos    H sin  tan
 H cos   V sin  .
Note for  = 0 FLE =FSF.

This equation can be the developed for complicated failure plane

 FLE =2.0 normal operation & FLE =1.3 under transmit condition embracing
seismic activity)
C. Stress analysis in gravity method (Refer Figures 3.7 page 16)

Gravity method is useful to analyses stress in straight dams which are not geometrically
complex. It is founded on 2-D elastic dam on uniformly rigid foundation & linear
variation of stress from u/s to d/s.

The stresses evaluated in a comprehensive analysis are:

1) Vertical normal stress, z, on horizontal planes.

2) Horizontal & vertical shear stress,  zy ,&  yz
3) Horizontal normal stress, y ,on vertical planes and
4) Principal stress, 1 & 3 (direction & magnitude).

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WRIE - 32171 Chapter 2 – Design Principle of Concrete Dams

1. Vertical normal stress z.

Analysis is based on modified beam theory which is by combining axial & bending load.

z 
V   M * 1
y
Ah I

Where, v- resultant vertical load above the plane considered exclusive of uplift.
M* - summation of moments expressed w.r.t the centroid of the plane.
y’ - distance from the centroid to point of considerations.
I - second moment of area of the plane w.r.t centroid.

For 2-D plane section of unit width Parallel to the dam axis, & with thickness T normal to
the axis:

V vey1
z   12 3 and at y’=T/2
T T
v  6e 
 z  1  
T  T 

For reservoir full condition

v  6e 
At the u/s face  zu 1  
T  T
v  6e 
At the d/s face  zd  1
T  T 
Where e is the eccentricity of the resultant load, R, which must intersect the plane d/s of
its centroid for the reserve full condition
(The sign convention is reversed for reservoir empty condition of loading)

M *
e Where v - excludes uplift
V

For e> T/6, at u/s face –ve stress is developed, i.e. tensile stress. In design, tensile stress
has to be prohibited, but difficult to totally eliminate low tensile stress in gravity dam.
Total vertical stresses at either face are obtained by the addition of external hydrostatic
pressure.

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WRIE - 32171 Chapter 2 – Design Principle of Concrete Dams

2. Horizontal & vertical shear stresses

Numerically equal & complementary horizontal (zy) & vertical (yz) shear stresses are
generated @ any point as a result of variation of vertical normal stress over a horizontal
plane.

or u/s d/s face angle u & d respectively &

Pw hydrostatic pressure @ u/s end

 u  Pw   zu  tan u
&
 d   zd t tan d

The variation b/n u/s & d/s stress is parabolic, & depend on rate of change of variation of
normal stress

3. Horizontal normal stress, y

It can be determine by consideration of the equilibrium of the horizontal shear force

operating above & below a hypothetical horizontal element through the dam. The
difference in shear forces is balanced by the normal stresses on vertical planes.

 yu  Pw   zu  Pw  tan 2u
 yd   zd tan 2 d

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WRIE - 32171 Chapter 2 – Design Principle of Concrete Dams

4. Principal stresses

1 & 3 may be determined from knowledge of z & y & construction of Mohr’s circle
diagram to represent stress conditions at a point, or by application of the equation given
below.
z y
Major Principal Stress  1    max
2
 y
Minor principal stress  3  z   max
2
z  y
Where  max   2
2

The boundary values, 1 & 3 are determined by:

For upstream face

1u= zu (1+ tan2u)-Pw tan 2u
3u=Pw

For downstream face assuming no tail water

1d=zd (1+tan 2d)
3d=0

Permissible stresses & cracking

The following table gives permissible compression stresses factor of safety for gravity
dam body & rock foundations. (USBR 1976)

load combination Minimum factor of safety on compressive strength

Fc(concrete) Fr, (rock)
2
Normal 3.0 (max & 10 MN/m ) 4.0
2
Unusual 2.0 (max &15 MN/m ) 2.7
Extreme 1.0 maxm allowable stress 1.3
Horizontal cracking assumed to occur if zu min (without uplift) below limit set by
 z   t1
 zu min  kd w
Ft 1

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WRIE - 32171 Chapter 2 – Design Principle of Concrete Dams

Fig. Combined base pressure & uplift pressure diagram.

When the uplift is introduced & the uplift pressure @ the U/s face is < A1, the final stress
may be computed by the above formula. If the uplift pressure @ the upstream face is
greater than A1. i.e. less than permissible tension stress. Revise as follows.

1. A horizontal crack is assumed to exist & extend from the u/s face toward the d/s face
to a point where the vertical stress of adjusted diagram is equal to the uplift pressure @
the u/s face.
2. Taking moments about center of gravity & check whether the section is adequate for
over turning, sliding & material failure.

M
e1 
V  A3.T
T 
T1  3  e1 
2 
2V  A3.T 
B5   A3
T1
Kd= 0.4 if drains are effective
= 1.0 if no drains.
t’ = tensile bond strength of concrete.
Ft’= Factor of Safety [Ft’ =3 for NLC,
=2 for ULC,&
= 1.0 for ELC

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WRIE - 32171 Chapter 2 – Design Principle of Concrete Dams

Design Gravity Dam profile

U/s face flare: the u/s face of a gravity profile is frequently modified by the introduction
of a significant flare.

Design of small dams associated with provision of’ standard’ trianngular profile of u/s
vertical face & d/s slope of 0.75 horizontal to 1.0 vertical.
In the case of large dams a unique profile should be determined to match the specific
conditions applicable. Two approaches are possible; the multi stage & single stage.

Single stage: is based on definition on a suitable & uniform d/s slope. The apex of the
triangular profile is set @ or just above DFL & initial base thickness T is determined for
each loading combination in terms of F0. The critical value of T is then checked for
sliding stability & modified if necessary before checking heel & toe stress @ base level.

For no tension @ u/s vertical face

1
tan d  Take  =1.0
 c 
   
w 

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WRIE - 32171 Chapter 2 – Design Principle of Concrete Dams

The multistage approach defines a profile where the slopes are altered at suitable
intervals.

Design commences from crest level, & descends downwards through profile stages
corresponding to pre determined elevations. Each stage is proportioned to as to maintain
stress level within acceptable limits. E.g. no tension under any condition of loading. The
resulting profile allows marginal economics on concrete, but more expensive to construct
than the single –stage. Multi-stage profiles are now seldom employed, even on large
dams.

Advanced Analytical methods

When interaction b/n adjacent monolith result in loads transfer & complex structural
response, and further differential settlement exist, then alternative analytical approaches
called trial loads twist analysis & finite element analysis exist.

Stabilizing and heightening (Refer fig. 3:10 & 3:11 page 16)

Remedial action to improve stability can be taken by pre-stressing provides an additional

vertical load with a resultant line of action close to the u/s face.
This improves F0 or Fs by operating adjunct to Pm.

Overturning design pre-stress required; Pps  F0

M   M  KN / m
 ve  ve

y2

Where y2 is moment arms of Pps

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WRIE - 32171 Chapter 2 – Design Principle of Concrete Dams

FSF H  CAh
Sliding Pps   V
tan 
The pre-stressing tendons are typically located @ 3 to 7m centers to centers along the
crest. The pre-stress load required for each, PT (kN) is the appropriate multiple of Pps .
Pre-stressing also useful for heightening of the dam.

Downstream shoulder (Refer figure 3.11 pages 16)

 Contribution by weight of fill & rest pressure Pds

WF =f*A
Pds= Ko..f . ZAB.Z KN/m

Where, ZAB & Z as shown in the figure 3.11.

f unit weight of the fill
Ko is at ‘rest’ pressure coefficient
Pds acts ZAB/3 above the base plane

Illustrative values of ko.

Shoulder fill Coeff. Ko

Compacted rock fill 0.2 – 0.3
Compacted sand 0.45 – 0.55
Compacted clay 1.0 – 2.0
Heavy compacted clay > 2.0

Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering Department 2-19

 Buttress and Arch Dam

3.1 Buttress dams

A buttress dam consists of a slopping u/s membrane which transmits the water load to
a series of buttress at right angle to the axis of the dam.

Buttress dam principally fall in to two groups, massive diamond or round-headed buttress
dams. The earlier but now largely obsolete flat slab (Amburson) & decked buttresses
constitute the minor types.

Relative to gravity dam, buttress dam has the advantages of saving in concrete, major
reduction in uplift and also offers greater ability to accommodate foundation deformation
without damage. However, the advantages offset by considerably higher finished unit
costs as a result of more extensive & non repetitive formwork required. It also requires
more competent foundation because of stress concentration.

1
 Buttress and Arch Dam

Buttress analysis & profile design

Buttress dam analysis parallels gravity dam practice in being conducted in two phases
 Stability investigation
 Stress within the profile
2
 Buttress and Arch Dam

The form of buttress dam has two important consequences w.r.t. primary loads.
 Uplift pressure confined to buttress head & result in modified uplift pressure
distribution; pressure relief drains are only necessary in exceptional cases
 Pwv vertical component of water load enhanced. The concept of stability against
overturning is no longer valid.

In structural terms, massive buttress constructed of a series of independent units, each

composed of one buttress head & a supporting buttress or web (length along the axis of
the dam of about 12-15 m for each unit). Structural analysis is therefore conducted w.r.t
the unit as a whole.
FSS or more usually FSF shear friction factor analyzed in same way as gravity profile with
comparable minimum values for these factors.
Stress analysis of a buttress unit is complex & difficult. Modern practice is to employ
finite element analysis to assist in determining the optimum shape for the buttress head to
avoid undesirable stress concentrations @ its function with the web.

Approximate analysis is possible by modified gravity method for parallel sided d/s webs.
The root of the buttress is usually flared to increase sliding resistance & control the
contact stress.
Profile design for buttress is not subject simplification as gravity dam. A trial profile is
established on the bases of previous experience. The profile details are then modified &
refined as suggested by initial stress analysis.

3.2 Arch Dams

The single –curvature arch dam & the double curvature arch or cupola were introduced
with concrete dams previously and the rock & valley conditions which various arch dam
were outlined in the first chapter.

Valley suited for arch dams

 Narrow gorges
 Crest length to dam height ratio should be less than / equal to 5
b  H ( Sec1  Sec 2 ) B
Sr   For Sr ≤ 5, arch dam may be feasibly
H H
B

F1
F2 H

Arch dam transfers its loads to the valley sides than to the floor. Overturning & sliding
stability have little relevance here. If the integrity & competence of the abutment is
assured, failure can occur only as a result of overstress. Arch dam design is therefore

3
 Buttress and Arch Dam

centered largely up on stress analysis and the definition of an arch geometry which avoids
local tension stress concentration and /or excessive compressive stress. The area of
cupola dam offer great economics in volume of concrete.

Associated with saving may also be realized in foundation excavation & preparation, but
the sophisticated form of arch dam leads to very much increased unit costs. In case of
complex geology of abutment saving can also be negated by requirement of ensuring
abutment integrity under all conditions.

Arch geometry and profile.

The horizontal component of arch thrust must be transferred in to the abutment at a safe
angle β as shown in the figure below. In general abutment entry angle of 450 to 700 is
acceptable.

average rock cont our

a
Foundat ion rock cont ours
t
en
ng

ί
ta

F
Fig.: Angle between arch thrust and rock contour

Arch & cupola profiles are passed on a member of geometrical forms.

i) Constant radius profile: is the simplest geometry, U/s face of the dam is of
constant radii with a uniform radial d/s slope. It is apparent that central angle, 2θ,
reaches a max. @ Crest level.

In symmetrical valley minimum concrete volume when 2θ =1330, but entry angle
preclude this & 2θ ≤ 110. The profile is suited to relatively symmetrical U-shaped valley.

ii) Constant angle profile: Central angle of different arch have the same magnitude
from top to bottom & uses up to 70% of concrete as compared to constant radius
arch dam. But it is more complex as demonstrated in the figure. It is best suited to
narrow & steep-sided V-shaped valleys.

4
 Buttress and Arch Dam

iii) Cupola profile. Has a particularly complex geometry & profile, with constantly
varying horizontal & vertical radii to either face.

Design & Analysis of Arch Dams

Loads on arch dams:

- Loads on arch dams are essentially the same as loads on gravity dams.
- Uplift forces are less important, if no cracking occurs it can be neglected.
- Internal stresses caused by temperature change, ice pressure, and yielding of
abutment are very important.
- An arch dam transfers loads to the abutments and foundations both by cantilever
action and through horizontal arches.

The design /analysis can be based on.

-The thin cylinder theory
-The thick cylinder theory.
-The elastic theory.

Thick & thin Ring (cylinder) theory.

- The theory envisages that the weight of concrete & that of water on the dam is
carried directly to the foundation not to the abutment
- The horizontal water load is borne entirely by arch action.
- The discrete horizontal arch elements are assumed to form part of a complete ring
subjected to uniform radial pressure, Pw, from the water load & hence it is
assumed to have uniform radial deformation.

Thin Cylinder Theory

The theory assumes the arch to be simply supported @ the abutments & that the
stresses are approximately the same as in a thin cylinder of equal outside radius.
Consider thin ring 1-2 of unit height h = @ a depth of h below water surface.
Hydrostatic pressure acting radially against the arch is wh.

5
 Buttress and Arch Dam

Ri t
dh
Ru

F
F

B/2 B/2

Let Ru = extrados radius Ri = intrados radius

Forces parallel to stream axis
2F sin  = 2Ru sin. wh.
F = wh Ru
F  h.R
The transverse unit stress    w u
T *1 T
 hR
For given stress the required thickness is T  w u

 w hRc  hR
Since Ru = Rc+0.5T = Ri + T ; T  w i
  0.5 w h    w h
Condition for least volume of concrete

V= A.R2θ = T*1*R2θ
 hR  h
T w  KR ; K w
 
2
 B 
V  KR   K 
2 2 
 sin  / 2 
 
dV
 0 , gives  = 1330341. (Most economical angle of arch with minimum volume)
d

For 2 =1330341; R= 0.544B

Thick cylinder theory

At Radius R, the compressive ring stress is given by

6
 Buttress and Arch Dam

Ru
Ri

T
Ru
R

Ri
T

Pu
pi

 Ru2  Ru2 Rd 2 / R 2 
  p w  

 Ru
2
 R 2
d 
 ring stress is max @ d / s face
T  Ru  Rd is uniform at any elevation .
2 w Z 1 Ru
2

  h max  ( for R  Rd ) For design

Tr ( Ru  Rd )
2 w Z 1 Ru
2

Tr  For analysis
 ( Ru  Rd )

Note in theory, T should diminish towards crown & increase towards abutments. In
practice, T usually is constant at any elevation on a simple arch profile, and correction for
maximum stress at abutment made by factor, Kr, determined as a function of θ & Ru /T
from curves.
For thin rings theory, therefore,

K r  w Z1 Ru
h  at abutment .
Tr

Elastic Arch theory

This theory also assumes complete transfer of load by arch action only. Horizontal arch
rings are assumed fixed to the abutments, but acting independently of neighboring rings.
Effects of temperature variation on arch stress is considered. This method can be used for
preliminary design to determine adequacy of the section designed by the (cylinder theory)
The following formulae (modified by Cans equation) are used for calculating thrusts &
moments at the crown & abutments.

7
 Buttress and Arch Dam

crown

h
*
w Ho
?
p=
Mo

Ru
R

Rd
?
Ma abu
tm ent

Ha
Thrust @ crown

PR T2
H o  PR  2 sin   is in radians.
D R
1 T 2   sin 2 
where D     
2     2 sin 
2
if shear is neglected .
 12 R   2 
 T2   sin 2  T2 sin 2
D  1        2 sin   3
2
 (  ) if shear is included .
  2 
2 2
 12 R 12 R 2
 sin  
M 0   PR  H o R1  
Moment @ crown:   

Thrust @ abutments: H a  PR  PR  H o  cos  .

 sin  
Moment @ abutments: M a  R PR  H o   cos  
  

After calculating thrusts & moments, stresses at intrados & extrados are calculated from

 H 6M 
   2 .
T T 

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 Buttress and Arch Dam

Advanced method of analysis /design

The assumptions made in elastic ring analysis simplified & discrete & independent
horizontal rings which are free of any mutual interaction and the uniform radial
deformation are both untenable. Early recognition of the importance of arch- cantilever &
arch- abutment interactions led to the development to trial load analysis (TLD) which is
similar to trial load twist analysis used in gravity dam. Finite element analysis (FEA) is
also extensively applied in arch dam analysis .Although FEA is most powerful reliable &
well proven approach it is a highly specialist analytical method demanding experience.

2.5 Concrete dams design features & construction

All analysis are founded mainly based on assumption w.r.t loading regime, material
response, structural mechanism etc. Application of the analytical methods introduced in
the preceding sections represents only the initial phase of the design process. The 2nd
phase is to ensure by good detailed design the assumptions made are fulfilled.

Design features divide in to three major categories

 Those related to seepage
 Those which accommodate deformation or relative movement
 Features related to structural continuity i.e. load transfer devices & possibly-
Those which facilitate construction

Cut-off & foundation grouting

 Cut-offs are formed by grouting

 Shallow trenches constructed under heel of dam contribute to seepage control

Uplift relief drains

 Drainage holes d/s of grout curtain
 Holes are 75-100min.  & spacing of 3-5 centers & are drilled from inspection
gallery
 Uplift with in the dam relived by holes running full height & of at least 150
mm  to inhibit blocking by leached out material & located near to u/s face &
spaced at about 3m.
 Relief drain efficiency is a function of drain geometry i.e. spacing ,  distance
form u/s face

Internal design features

 Inspection gallery
 Collects inflow from seepage & inspection gallery.
 Also gives access to appurtenance structures
 Should not be less than 2x1.2m
 Adequate ventilation & lighting is required
 Transverse contraction joints ( inter- month invites)
 Vertical contraction joints are formed @ regular intervals of 12-15m.

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 Buttress and Arch Dam

 They permit minor differential moment

 They are made necessary by shrinkage & thermal characteristics conc.

Construction joints (inter-lift joints)

 This is provided to prevent post construction shrinkage & cracking
 Lift height is generally 1.5- 2.0m
 Lift surface is generally constructed with a fall of about 4% towards the u/s face

Load transfer & continuity

Although gravity dams designed on the basis of free standing vertical cantilevers,
load transfer is affected by interlocking vertical shear keys on the construction joint
face. In the case of arch & cupola dams it is essential to provide horizontal continuity
to develop arch action. The construction joint are grouted after the structure is load

Pulvino
Pulvino or pad, which is heavy perimentral concrete, is constructed between the shell
of a cupola dam & the supporting rock to assist in distributing load in to the
abutments and foundation.

Concrete zoning
Different concrete mix can be need in facing & hearting of concrete dam.
14A
13A
3rd year 12A
11A
10A
9A 12-15m
8B
8A
2nd year 7B
7A
6B
6A 5C
5B
5A 4C
4B
4A 3C
3B
1st year 3A A,B,C= variable concrete quality
2A 2B 2C

1A 1B 1C

Fig:Concrete zoning

Construction planning & excution

Detailed pre of all activities involve must be prepared well in advance of sit preparation,
with the objective of ensuring optimum availability & utilization of all resources the
acting divided in to:

Initial phase - site preparation

Second phase -river diversion
Third phase - foundation excavation & preparation
Fourth phase – construction operation
Final phase- completion of ancillary work

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 Buttress and Arch Dam

Concrete for dams

The desirable characteristics comparable to concrete strength in concrete dams are
a) satisfactory density n& strength
b) durability
c) low thermal volume change
d) resistance to cracking
e) low permeability &
f) economy
The primary constituents of concrete are cement, mineral aggregate & water. Secondary
constituents employed for dams include pozzolans & selected other admixtures.

Cement: the hydration of unmodified ordinary Portland cement (ASTM) type I)

equivalent) is strongly exothermic. It is preferable to employ a low heat (ASTM type IV)
or modified ordinary Portland cement (ASTM) type II) if available. Thermal problems
can also be alleviated by the use of pozzolan- blended Portland cements (ASTM type 1P).
In the absence of special cements, partial replacement with pulverizing fuel ash (PFA)
and or/ cooling are also effective in containing heat build up.

Aggregates: used to act as cheap inert bulk filler in the concrete mix. Maximum size
aggregate (MSA) 75 -100mm is optimum, with rounded or irregular natural gravels etc,
preferable to crushed rock aggregates.
In the fine aggregates, i.e. < 4.67mm size, natural sands are preferable to crushed one’s.
Aggregates should be clean & free from surface weathering or impurities

Water: A general standard is that the water should be fit for human consumption.
Pozzolana: are siliceous aluminous substances which react chemically with calcium
hydroxide from the cement to form additional cementations compounds. PFA, an
artificial pozzolan is now universally employed. If available in partial replacement of
(25-50%) of cement. PFA reduces total heat of hydration & delays the rate of strength
gain. Long-term strength is generally enhanced, but strict quality control of PFA is
required.

Admixtures: The most common admixtures are air entraining agents (AEA). They are
employed to generate some 2-6% by volume of minute air bubbles, significantly
improving the long term freeze-thaw durability of the concrete. They also reduce the
water requirement of the fresh concrete & improve its handling qualities. Water reducing
admixtures (WRA) are sometimes employed to cut the water requirement, typically by 7-
9%. They are also effective in delaying setting time under condition if ambient
temperatures.

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 Buttress and Arch Dam

Characteristics of mass concrete for dams

Concrete mix
Characteristics heating Facing
Cement (C )+ PFA (F) kg/m3 150-230 250-320
F
% 20-35 0-25
CF
Water ( C+F) ratio 0.50-0.70 0.45-0.65
NM
90 day compressive strength, c ( ) 18-30 25-40
m2
tesile strength  t
( 0.10-0.15 0.07-0.10
Compressive c)
Unit weight , c kN/m3 23-25
Modules of elasticity ,E (GN/m2) 30-45
Poisson ratio 0.15-0.22
Shrinkage (% at 1 year) 0.02-0.05
Coefficient of thermal expression (x10-6 per 0C) 9-12
Roller Compacted Concrete Dams (RCC dams)
This is recent idea to improve concrete dam construction. The volume instability of mass
concrete due thermal effects imposes severe limitations on the size and rate of concrete
pour, causing disruption and delay through the need to provide contraction joints and
similar design features.
Variant of RCC
1. Lean RCC  Rolled dry lean concrete (RDLC)
Conceiving RCC as low cost fill material, offering the maximum possible economy
constituent with satisfactory strength and durability and suitability to continuous
construction technique
USA uses cement + Pozzolan (PFA) < 40%, 300mm layers
2. RCD method  closer to conventional hearting concrete developed in Japan.
Uses 700 – 1000mm layers
3. High past RCC  concept of dense, high past content material, and is
exemplified by high PFA content concrete. Used in USA & UK
Variant of RCC
RCC Type
Characteristics of RCC dams Lean RCC RCD High past Convention
(RDLC) RCC al hearting
3
Cement (c)+ PFA (F) (kg/m ) 100-125 120-130 >150 150-230
F/C+F (%) 0-30 23-35 70-50 20-35
Water: (C+F) ratio 1.0-1.1 0.8-0.9 0.5-0.6 0.5-0.7
c (MN/m ) 2
8-12 12-16 20-40 18-40
3 23—25 22-25
unit wt (c) (KN/m )
layer thickness 0.3 lift lift
0.7-1.0 1.5-2.5
contraction joints sawn sawn formed

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 Buttress and Arch Dam

The technique of RCC is advantageous compared with the traditional construction

technique of concrete dams, since it makes possible.
a) A reduction of the construction time due to
 High efficiency of the work site & high rate of placing of the concrete
 Possibility of increasing the number of machines
b) A reduction of construction cost due to:
 Low cement content
 Reduced formwork costs
 Elimination of cooling system for the concrete
 High degree of use of equipment & machinery

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Chapter-Three Embankment Dams

3. Embankment Dam
Embankment Dams are of two types:
(i) Earth-fill or Earth Dams
(ii) Rock fill or earth- rock Dams

3.1. Earth – Fill Dam

The bulk of mass in an earth fill dam consists of soils while in the rock fill dam it consists
of rock materials. Depending upon the method of construction, earth dam can be divided
in two categories:
(i) Rolled fill Dam
(ii) Hydraulic fill Dam

In the Rolled fill Dam, the embankment is constructed in successive, mechanically

compacted layers. The suitable materials are transported from borrow pits to the
construction site by suitable earth moving machineries. It is then spread by Bulldozers,
and sprinkled to form layers of limited thickness having proper water content. They are
then thoroughly compacted and bonded with the preceding layer by means of power
operated rollers of proper design and weight.

In the case of Hydraulic fill dam the materials are excavated, transported and placed by
Hydraulic fill method. In this method the flumes are laid at a suitable falling gradient
along the outer edge of the embankment. The material mixed with water at borrow pits, is
pumped into these flumes. The slush is discharged through the outlets in the flume, at
suitable interval along their length. The slush thus flows towards the center of the bank.
The course material of the slush settles at the outer edge while finer material settles at the
center. No compaction is done. At present the method is not in general use.

Rolled fill earth dams can further use subdivided into the following types
(i) Homogeneous embankment type
(ii) Zoned embankment type
(iii) Diaphragm embankment type
Embankment Dam

Earth Dam Rockfill Dam Composite

Type

Accordint to design
According to method of
Constructuion

Homogenous Zoned Diaphriagm Rolled Hydraulic Semi Hydraulic

fill type fill type fill type

(1) Homogeneous Earth Dams: are constructed entirely or almost entirely of

one type of earth material (exclusive of slope protection). A homogeneous
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Chapter-Three Embankment Dams

earth dam is usually built when only one type of material is economically
available and/or the height of dam is not very large.
a) Homogeneous (figure 3.1)

b) Modified homogeneous

a) With horizontal blanket b) With rock toe

Figure 3.2
(2) Zoned Earth Dam, however, contains materials of different kinds in different
parts of the embankment. The most common type of an earth dam usually adopted
in the zoned earth dam as it leads to an economic & more stable design of the
dam. In a zoned earth dam, there is a central impervious core which is flanked by
zones of more pervious material. The pervious zones, also known as shells,
enclose, support and protect the impervious core. The U/s shell provides stability
against rapid draw downs of reservoirs while the down stream shell acts as a drain
to control the line of seepage and provides stability to the dam during its
construction and operation. The central impervious core checks the seepage.

Figure 3.3
(3) Diaphragm embankment type: In this the bulk of the embankment is
constructed of pervious material and a thin diaphragm of impermeable material is
provided to check the seepage. The diaphragm may be of impervious soils,
cement concrete, bituminous concrete or other material and may be placed either
at the centre of the section as a central vertical core or at the u/s face as a blanket.

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Figure 3.4: Diaphragm embankment

3.2. Rock Fill Dam

The designation ‘rock fill embankment’ is appropriate where over 50% of the fill material may
be classified as rock pieces. It is an embankment which uses large size rock pieces to provide
stability and impervious membrane to provide water tightness.
Modern practice is to specify a graded rock fill heavily compacted in relatively thin layers by
heavy plants. The constructions method is essentially similar to that of Earth fill Dams. Materials
used for membrane are earth, Concrete steel, asphalt and wood. The impervious membrane can
be placed ether on the upstream face of the dam or as a core inside the embankment. Such a
construction therefore becomes similar to diaphragm type. Rock fill embankments employing a
thin u/s membrane are referred to as decked rock fill dams.

3.3. Causes of Failure of Earth Dams

In spite of taking great care in construction of earth dams, some failures have occurred in the
past. However, knowledge of the principal lessons learned from failures and damages in the past
is an essential part of the training of earth dam designer.
On the basis of investigation reports on most of the past into three main classes:
1. Hydraulic failures : 40%
2. Seepage failures : 30%
3. Structural failures: 30%

Hydraulic Failures: Hydraulic failures include the following:

(i) Overtopping
(ii) Erosion of U/S face
(iii)Erosion of D/S face
(iv) Erosion of D/S toe

Seepage failures: Seepage failures may be due to

(a) Piping through the body of the dam
(b) Piping through the foundation of the dam
(c) Conduit leakage
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Chapter-Three Embankment Dams

(d) Sloughing of downstream toe.

Structural Failures: Structural failures may be due to the following reasons:

(i) Upstream and Downstream slope failures due to pore pressures
(ii) Upstream slope failure due to sudden draw down
(iii) Down stream slope failure during full reservoir condition.
(iv) Foundation slide: Spontaneous liquefaction
(v) Failure by spreading
(vi) Failure due to Earth quake
(vii) Slope protection failures
(viii) Failure due to damage caused by burrowing animals
(ix) Damage caused by Water soluble materials

Figure 3.5

3.4. Criteria for Safe Design of Earth Dam

An earth dam must be safe and stable during phases of construction and operation of the
reservoir. The practical criteria for the design of earth dams may be stated briefly as follows.
1. No overtopping during occurrence of the inflow design flood.
a. appropriate design flood
b.Adequate spillway
c. Sufficient outlet works
d. Sufficient free board
2. No seepage failure
a. Phreatic (seepage) line should exit the dam body safely without sloughing
downstream face.
b. Seepage through the body of the dam, foundation and abutments should be
controlled by adapting suitable measures.
c. The dam and foundation should be safe against piping failure.
d.There should be no opportunity for free passage of water from U/S to D/S both
through the dam and foundation.
3. No Structural failure
a) Safe U/S & D/S slope during construction
b) Safe U/S slope during sudden draw down condition.
c) Safe D/S slope during steady seepage condition
d) Foundation shear stress within the safe limits.
e) Earth quake resistant dam
4. Proper slope protection against wind & rain drop erosion.
5. Proper drainage
6. Economic section
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3.3. Selection of an Earth Dam

The preliminary design of an earth dam is done on the basis of past experience and on the basis
of the performance of the dams built in the past. We shall discuss here the preliminary selection
of the following terms:
1) Top width
2) Free board
3) Casing or outer shells
4) Central impervious core
5) Cut-off trench
6) Downstream drainage system.
1) Top width. The crest width of an earth dam depends on the following considerations:
Nature of the embankment materials and minimum allowable percolation
distance through the embankment at the normal reservoir level.
Height of the structure
Importance of the structure
Width of highway on the top of the dam
Practicability of construction
Protection against earthquake forces.

Following are some of the empirical expressions for the top width b of the earth dam, in terms of
the height H of the dam:
H
b 3 For very low dam (H<10m)
5
b=0.55H1/2 + 0.2H For medium dam (10m<H<30m)
1/3
b=1.65(H+1.5) For large dam (H>10m)

2) Free board. Free board is the vertical distance between the horizontal crest of the
embankment and the reservoir level. Normal free board is the difference in the level
between the crest or top of the embankment and normal reservoir level. Minimum free
board is the difference in the elevation between the crest of the dam and the maximum
reservoir water surface that would result and spillway function as planned. Sufficient free
board must be provided so that there is no possibility whatsoever of the embankment
being overtopped.

The U.S.B.R suggests the following free boards:

Table 3.1: U.S.B.R practice for free board

Nature of spillway Height of dam Free Board

Free Any Minimum 2m and maximum 3m over
the maximum flood level
Controlled Less than 2.5 above the top of gates
Controlled Over 60m 3m above the top gates

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3) Casing or outer shells. The function of casing or outer shells is to impart stability and
protect the core. The relatively pervious materials, which are not subjected to cracking on
direct exposure to atmosphere, are suitable for casing. Table 10.2 (a) gives
recommendations for suitability of soils used for earth dams as per IS: 8826-1978.

Table 3.2 (a) Suitability of Soils for Construction of Earth Dams

Relative Suitability Homogenous Zoned earth dam

section Previous casing Impervious core
1. very suitable GC SW,GW GC
2. Suitable CL,CI GM CL,CI
3. Fairly suitable SP, SM,CH SP,GP CM,GC,SM SC,CH
4. Poor - - ML,MI,MH
3. Not suitable - - OL, NI, OH ,Pt

The design slopes of the upstream and downstream embankments may vary widely, depending
on the character of the materials available, foundation conditions and the height of the dam. The
slopes also depend up on the type of the dam (i.e. homogeneous, zoned or diaphragm).
The upstream slope may vary from 2:1 to as flat as 4:1 for stability. A storage dam subjected to
rapid drawdown of the reservoir should have an upstream zone with permeability sufficient to
dissipate pore water pressure exerted outwardly in the upstream part of the dam. If only materials
of low permeability are available, it is necessary to provide flat slope for the rapid drawdown
requirement. However, a steep slope may be provided if free draining sand and gravel are
available to provide a superimposed weight for holding down the fine material of low
permeability. The usual downstream slopes are 2:1, where embankment is impervious.

Table 3.2(b): Side slopes for earth dams according to Terzaghi

Type of material Upstream Downstream slope

slope
Homogeneous well graded 2:1 2:1
material
Homogeneous coarse silt 3:1 1
2 :1
2
Homogeneous silty clay or clay
H less than 15 m 1 2:1
2 :1 1
2 2 :1
H more than 15 m 3:1 2
Sand or sand and gravel with 3:1 1
clay core 2 :1
2
Sand or sand and gravel with 1 2:1
R.C core wall 2 :1
2

Table 3.2 (c): Preliminary dimensions of earth dams (According to strange)

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Height of dam above Height of dam Top width U/S slope D/S
foundation level (m) above H.F.L (m) (m) slope
Up to 4.5 1.2 to 1.5 1.8 1:1 1
1 :1
2
4.5 to 7.5 1.5 to 1.8 1.85 1 3
2 :1 2 :1
2 4
7.5 to 1.5 1.85 2.5 3:1 2:1
15 to 22.5 2.1 3.0 3:1 2:1

3.6. Seepage Analysis

Seepage analysis: is used
 To determine the quantity of water passing through the body of the dam and
foundation.
 To obtain the distribution of pore water pressure.

Assumptions to be made in seepage analysis

 The rolled embankment and the natural soil foundation of the earth dam are
incompressible porous media. The size of the pore spaces do not change with
time, regardless of water pressure (Isotropic).

 The seeping water flows under a hydraulic gradient which is due only to gravity
head loss, or Darcy’s law for flow through porous medium is valid.

 There is no change in the degree of saturation in the zone of soil through which
the water seeps and the quantity flowing in to any element of volume is equal to
quantity which flows out in the same length of time.
(Steady flow)
 The hydraulic boundary conditions at entry and exit are known.

3.7 Laplace equation for two dimensional flows

In earth dams, the flow is essentially two dimensional. Hence we shall consider only two
dimensional flows.
Vy+(∂Vy/∂y)∆y

∆y
Vx Vx+(∂Vx/∂x)∆x
∆x

Vy

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Consider an element of soil is size x, y and of unit thickness perpendicular to the plane of the
paper. Let Vx and Vy be the entry velocity components in x and y direction. Then
 v 
 v x  x x  and
 x 
 v 
 v y  y y 
 y 
will be the corresponding velocity components at the exit of the element. According to
assumption 3 stated above, the quantity of water entering the element is equal to the quantity of
water leaving it. Hence, we get

 v   v y 
vx y.1  v y x.1   vx  x x y.1   v y  x.1
 x   y 
From which

v x v y
 0 … (i)
x y
This is the continuity equation.

According to assumption 2:
h
vx  K xix  K x * … (ii)
x
h
And VY  kY IY  Ky …(iii)
y
Where h = hydraulic head under which water flows.
Kx and Ky are coefficient of permeability in x and y direction.
Substituting (ii) and (iii) in (i), we get

 2 K x h   ( K y .h)
2

 0 … (3.1)
x 2 y 2
For an isotropic soil,
Ky = Kx = K
Hence we get from eq. (3.1)

 2h  2h
 0
x 2 y 2
Substituting velocity potential =  = K*h , we get
 2  2
 0 … (3.2)
x 2 y 2

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Chapter-Three Embankment Dams

This is the Laplace equation of flow in two dimensions. The velocity potential  may be defined
as a scalar function of space and time such that its derivative with respect to any direction gives
the fluid velocity in that direction.
This is evident, since we have
=Kh
 h
K  K .i x  v x
x x
 h
Similarly , K  K .i y  v y
y y

The solution of Eq. 3.2 can be obtained by

i) analytical methods
ii) graphical method
iii) experimental methods

The solution gives two sets of curves, know as equipotential lines and stream lines (or flow
lines), mutually orthogonal to each other, as shown in Fig. below. The equipotential lines
represent contours of equal head (potential). The direction of seepage is always perpendicular the
equipotential lines. The paths along which the individual particles of water seep through the soil
are called stream lines or flow lines.

Figure 3.6: Flow net

. 3.8. Computation of rate of seepage from flow net

A network of equipotential lines and flow lines is known as a flow net. Fig.3.6 shows a portion
of such a flow net. The portion between any two successive flow lines is known as flow channel.
The portion enclosed between two successive equipotential lines and successive flow lines is
known as field such as that shown hatched in Fig. 3.6.

Let: b and l be the width and length of the field.

h = head drop through the field.
q = discharge passing through the flow channel.
H = total head causing flow

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= difference between upstream and downstream heads

Then, from Darcy’s law of flow through soils:

h
q  K . (bx1) … (i) (Considering unit thickness)
l
If Nd = total number of potential drops in the complete flow net,

h
Then h 
Nd

h b
 q  K   … (ii)
Nd  l 
Hence the total discharge through the complete flow net is given by

h b Nf b
q  q  k .  .N f  kh .
Nd  l  Nd l
Where Nf = total number of flow channels in the net. The field is square and hence b=l
Nf
Thus, q  kh
Nd

This is the required expression for the discharge passing through a flow net, and is valid only for
isotropic soils in which
k x  k y  k.

3.9. Seepage discharge for anisotropic soil

Let us now consider the case of an anisotropic flow medium in which kx  ky
 2h  2h
For such a case, the flow equation (3.1) becomes kx 2  k y 2  0
x y
This is not a Laplace equation. Hence flow net can not be drawn directly. Rewriting, it we get
k x 2h  2h
 0
k y x 2 y 2
ky
Let us put xn  x
kx
Where xn is the new co-ordinate variable in the x - direction.
Then the above equation becomes,
 2h  2h
 0 … (3.3)
xn2 y 2

This is in Laplace form.

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Chapter-Three Embankment Dams

Figure 3.7:
To plot the flow for such a case, the cross-section through anisotropic soils is plotted to a natural
scale in the y-direction, but to a transformed scale in the x-direction, all dimensions parallel to x-
ky
axis being reduced by multiplying by the factor . The flow net obtained for this transformed
kx
section will now be constructed in the normal manner as if the soil were isotropic. The actual
flow net is then obtained by re- transforming the cross- section including the flow net, back to
k
the natural scale by multiplying the x- coordinates by factor x . The actual flow net thus will
ky
not have orthogonal set of curves. As shown in figure 10.17, field of transformed section will be
a square one, while the field of actual section (retransformed) will be a rectangular one having its
Kx
length in x direction equal to times the width in y direction.
Ky
Let kx = permeability coefficient in x- direction, of the actual anisotropic soil field.
K’ = equivalent permeability of the transformed field.
Then, for the transformed section
h
q  k '' (lx1) … (a)
l
For the actual field,
h
q  k x (lx1) … (b)
kx
(l )
ky
Since the quantity of flow is the same,
h h
k' (l )  k x (l )
l kx
l
ky … (3.4)
ky
Hence k '  kx  kxk y
kx
Nf Nf
Hence the discharge is given by q  k ' h  Kxky h
Nd Nd …………..(3.5)
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3.10. Phreatic Line in Earth Dam

Phreatic line / seepage line / Saturation line is the line at the upper surface of the seepage flow at
which the pressure is atmospheric.

Figure 3.8: Phreatic line in Earth dam

Phreatic line for a homogeneous Earth dam with horizontal

Drainage blanket
Figure below shows a homogeneous earth dam with horizontal drainage blanket FK at its toe.
The phreatic line in this case coincides with the base parabola ADC except at the entrance. The
basic property of the parabola which is utilized for drawing the base parabola is that the distance
of any point p from the focus is equal to the distance of the same point from the directrix. Thus
Distance PF = Distance PR where, PR is the horizontal distance of P from the
Directrix EG

Figure 3.9
Graphical method
Steps:
 Starting point of base parabola is @ A AB = 0.3L
 F is the focal point
 Draw a curve passing through F center @ A
 Draw a vertical line EG which is tangent to the curve
 EG is the directrix of the base parabola
 Plot the various points P on the parabola in such a way that PF = PR

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Chapter-Three Embankment Dams

Analytical method
PF = PR
x 2  y 2  x  yo
From point A (known), x = b and y = h

 yo  b 2  h 2  b

x2  y 2  x  b2  h2  b Equation of parabola … (3.6)

Discharge through the body of Earth dam

v  k *i
q  v * A  k *i * A
dy
qk y *1
dx

From parabola equation, y  2 xy o  y 0

2

d ( y 0  2 xy o )
2

qk ( y o  2 xy o )
2

dx

yo
q  k( )( y o  2 xy o )
2

y o  2 xy o …………. (3.7)
2

q  kyo

Phreatic line for a dam with no filter

General solution by Casagrande
Figure below shows a homogeneous dam with no horizontal drainage filter at the d/s side.
The focus in this case will be the lowest point F of the d/s slope.

Fig 3.10: Dam with no drainage filter.

And the base parabola BKC will evidently cut the d/s slope at K and extend beyond the limits
of the dam, as shown by dotted line. However, according to exit conditions, the phreatic line
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Chapter-Three Embankment Dams

must emerge out at some point M, meeting the d/s face tangentially at J. The portion JF is
then known as discharge face and always remains wet. The correction a, by which the
a
parabola is to be shifted downwards, is found by the value of given by Casagrande
a  a
for various values of the slope  of the discharge face. The slope angle  can even exceed the
value of 900. Thus we observe that
a
= value found from table … (i)
a  a
a+ a=KF from Fig 3.10 … (ii)

Solving (i) and (ii), the value a and a can be found.

a
Table for the value of with slope angle 
a  a

 a
a  a
300 0.36
600 0.32
900 0.26
1200 0.18
1350 0.14
1500 0.10
1800 0.0

Discharge through the body of Earth dam

Figure 3.11

a. Analytical Solution of Schaffernak and Van Iterson for < 300 (Fig.3.9)
In order to find the value of a analytically, Schaffernak and Van Iterson assumed that the energy
gradient

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Chapter-Three Embankment Dams

dy
i  tan   . This means that the gradient is equal to the slope of the line of seepage, which is
dx
approximately true so long as the slope is gentle (i.e. <300).

For the vertical section JJ1

dy
qK y
dx
dy
but  i  tan 
dx
and y= JJ1= a sin 
Substituting in (i), we get

q = k (a sin) (tan) … (3.8)

This is the expression for discharge.

Again
dy
qk y  k (a sin  )(tan  )
dx
a( sin  ) (tan  )dx  ydy

Integrating between the limits:

x= a (Cos ) to x = b
y= a (sin  ) to y = h , we get

b h
a sin  tan   dx
a cos
   ydy
a sin

and
h 2  a 2 sin 2 a
 a sin  tan  (b  a cos  ) 
2

From which, we obtain, after simplification,

b b2 h2
a   … (3.9)
cos  cos 2  sin 2 

b. Analytical solution of Casagrande for 300< <600

It will be observed that the previous solution gives satisfactory results for slope < 300. For
steeper slopes, the deviation from correct values increases rapidly beyond tolerable limits.
Casagrande suggested the use of sin  instead of tan. In other words, it should be taken as
(dy/ds) instead of (dy/dx), where s is the distance measured along the phreatic line.

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Chapter-Three Embankment Dams

Figure 3.12

dy
Thus q  kiA  k A (3.10)
ds
dy
At J, s= a and y = a sin   sin 
then,
ds
Where s = distance measured along the curve.
Substituting in (3.10), we get

q = k. (sin) (a sin ) = k(a sin2) …(3.11)

This is the expression for the discharge.

dy
Again q  k y  kasin 2 
ds
 a (sin ) ds = ydy
2

Integrating between the following limits (s = a to s =S)

Where S = total length of the parabola
And (y = a sin to y=h), we get

S h
a sin 2   ds   ydy
a a sin 

h 2  a 2 sin 2 
a sin 2  .( S  a) 
2
h2
or a 2  2aS  0
sin 2 

h2
From which a  S  S2  …. (3.12)
Sin 2

Taking S (h2+b2)1/2 we get

h2
a  h2  b2  h2  b2 
sin 2 
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Chapter-Three Embankment Dams

a  b 2  h 2  b 2  h 2 cot 2  … [3.13]

Phreatic line for homogenous Earth dam with rock toe

Figure 3.13

Phreatic line for zoned Earth dam with central core

0
Figure 3.14

3.12 Characteristics of Phreatic line (Seepage line)

Based on the above discussions, the characteristics of the phreatic line may be summarized
below:
1. At the entry point, the phreatic line must be normal to the upstream face since the
upstream face is a 100% equipotential line. For other entry condition (Fig.3.15),
the phreatic line starts ta11ngentially with the water surface.

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Chapter-Three Embankment Dams

Fig 3.15: Entry conditions of phreatic line

2. The pressure along the phreatic line is atmospheric. Hence the only change in the
head along it is due to drop in the elevation of various points on it. Due to this, the
successive equipotential lines will meet it at equal vertical intervals.
3. The focus of the base parabola lies at the break out point of the bottom flow line,
where the flow emerges out from relatively impervious medium to a highly
pervious medium.
4. When horizontal filter or drainage toe is provided, the phreatic line would tend to
emerge vertically.
5. In the absence of any filter, the seepage line will cut the downstream slope at
some point above the base. The location of this point, and the phreatic line itself,
is not dependent on the permeability or any other property, so long as the dam is
homogeneous. The geometry of the dam alone decides these.
6. The presence of pervious foundation below the dam does not influence the
position of phreatic line.
7. In the case of a zoned dam with central impervious core, the effect of outer shells
can be neglected altogether. The focus of the base parabola will be located at the
downstream. Toe of the core (Fig. 3.14)

3.13. Graphical determination of flow net

After having located phreatic line in an earth dam the flow net can be plotted by trial and error
by observing the following properties of flow net (Fig 3.16), and by following the practical
suggestions given by A Casagrande.

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Chapter-Three Embankment Dams

Fig 3.16: Flow net by graphical method

Properties of flow net

1. The flow lines and equipotential lines meet at right angles to each other.
2. The fields are approximately squares, so that a circle can be drawn touching all the four
sides of square.
3. The quantity flowing through each flow channel is the same similarly, the same potential
drop occurs between two successive equipotential lines.
4. Smaller the dimensions of the field, greater will be the hydraulic gradient and velocity of
flow through it.
5. In a homogeneous soil, every transition in the shape of curves is smooth, being either
elliptical or parabolic in shape.

Arthur Casagrande gives the following excellent hints for the beginner in flow net sketching:

1. Use every opportunity to study the appearance of well constructed flow nets. When the
picture is sufficiently absorbed in your mind, try to draw the same flow net with out
looking at the available solution: repeat this unit you are able to sketch this flow net in a
satisfactory manner.
2. Four or five flow channels are usually sufficient for the first attempt; the use of too many
flow channels may distract the attention from the essential features.

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Chapter-Three Embankment Dams

3. Always watch the appearance of the entire flow net. Do not try to adjust details before the
entire flow net is approximately correct.
4. The beginner usually makes the mistake of drawing too sharp transitions between straight
and curved sections of flow lines or equipotential lines. Keep in mind that all transitions
are smooth; of elliptical or parabolic shape. The size of the squares in each channel will
change gradually.

3.14. Stability Analysis

Stability analyses under the following four heads are generally needed:
1. Stability analysis of down stream slope during steady seepage.
2. Stability of up stream slope during sudden Draw down.
3. Stability of up stream & down stream slope during and immediately after construction.
4. Stability of foundation against shear.

1. Swedish Circle Method of Slope Stability

It is one of the most generally accepted methods of checking slope stability. In this method the
potential surface is assumed to be cylindrical, and the factor of safety against sliding is defined
as the ratio of average shear strength, as determined by Coulomb’s equation
S = C +  tan to the average shearing stress determined by static’s on the potential sliding
surface. In order to test the stability of the slope, a trial slip circle is drawn, and the soil material
above assumed slip surface is divided in to a convenient number of vertical strips or slices. The
trail sliding mass (i.e. the soil mass contained with in the assumed failure surface) - is divided in
to a number (usually 5 to8) of slices which are usually, but not necessarily, of equal width. The
width is so chosen that the chord and arc subtended at the bottom of the slice are slice passes
through material of one type of soil.
The forces between the slices are neglected and each slice is assumed to act independently as a
column of soil of unit thickness and width b. The weight W of each slice is assumed to act at its
centre. If this weight of each slice is resolved in normal (N) and tangential (T) components, then
the normal component will pass through the center of rotation (O), and hence does not cause any
driving moment on the slice. However, the tangential component T cause a driving moment
= T (T*r), Where r is the radius of the slip circle. The tangential components of the few slices at
the base may cause resisting moment; in that case T is considered negative.
If c is the unit cohesion and  L is the curved length of each slice, then resisting force from
Column’s equation is = c  L + N tan 
For the entire slip surface AB, we have
Driving moment Md = rT
Resisting moment Mr = cL  tan N  Where T = sum of all tangential components
N = sum of all normal components
2r
L= L= length AB of slip circle
3600

Hence factor of safety against sliding is

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Chapter-Three Embankment Dams

M r cL  tan  N  Shear Strength available

Fs   = ….(3.14)
Md T shear Strength required for Stability

Figure 3.17: A portion of slip surface for slices

Method of locating center of critical slip circle

Fellenius gave the method of locating the locus on which probable centers of critical slip circle
may lie. He gives direction angles  to be plotted at heel measured from the outer slope and  to
be plotted from horizontal line above the top surface of the dam. These two lines plotted with
given direction angle intersect at point P. Point P is one of the centers. To obtain the locus we
obtain point Q by taking a line H m below the base of the dam and 4.5 H m away from toe.
When the line PQ is obtained, trial centers are selected around P on the line PQ and factor of
safety corresponding to each centre calculated from Equation given above as ordinates on the
corresponding centers, and a smooth curve is obtained. The centre corresponding to the lowest
factor of safety is then the critical centre.
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Chapter-Three Embankment Dams

Figure 3.18: Location of center of critical slip circle

Stability of downstream slope during steady seepage

Critical condition for d/s slope occurs when the reservoir is full and percolation is at its
maximum rate. The directions of seepage forces tend to decrease stability. In other words, the
saturated line reduces the effective stress responsible for mobilizing shearing resistance.

cL  tan  ( N  U )
F .S .  ….. (3.15)
T
When U is the total pore pressure on the slope surface

Fig 3.19: Stability of down stream slope during steady seepage

The pore-water pressure at any point is represented by the piezometric head (hw) at that point.
Thus the variations of pore water pressure along a likely slip surface is obtained by measuring at
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Chapter-Three Embankment Dams

each of its intersections with an equipotential line, the vertical height from that intersection to the
level at which the equipotential line cuts the phreatic line. The pore pressure represented by
vertical height so obtained are plotted to scale in a direction normal to the sliding surface at the
respective point of intersection. The distribution of pore water pressure on the critical slope
surface during steady seepage is shown hatched in fig.3.19.The area of U- diagram can be
measured with help of a planimeter.

In the absence of a flow net, the F.S of the d/s slope can approximately be from the equation
cL  tan  N '
F .S .  … (3.16)
T
The following unit weights may be used for the calculation of  N ' and  T when pore
pressure are otherwise not included in the stability analysis, however the Phreatic line needs to
be drawn.

Location Driving force Resisting force

Below phreatic surface Saturated weight Submerged weight
Above phreatic surface Moist weight Moist weight

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5. SPILLWAY
It is a structure constructed to pass surplus flood water on the D/S of reservoir and Dam.

Essential requirements of a spillway

(i) The spillway must have sufficient capacity.

(ii) It must be hydraulically and structurally adequate.
(iii) It must be so located that it provides safe disposal of water i.e., spillway
discharge will not erode or undermine the D/S toe of the dam.
(iv) The bounding surface of spillway must be erosion resistant to withstand high
scouring velocity created by the drop from reservoir surface to tail water.
(v) Usually some devices are needed for energy dissipation on the D/S side of
spillway.

Spillway Capacity

The required capacity of spillway i.e., maximum outflow rate through spillway must
be determined by flood routing knowing (i) Inflow rate v/s time (ii) Reservoir
capacity curve (reservoir surface elevation v/s reservoir storage) (iii) Discharge curve
(out flow v/s reservoir water surface elevation). However the required capacity of a
spillway depends on the following factors:
(i) Inflow flood
(ii) Available storage capacity
(iii) Discharge capacity of outlet works
(iv) Whether gated or un-gated spillway
(v) Possible damage if a spillway of adequate capacity is not provided.

Note that large dam with inhabited area on the D/S side needs large protection.
Whereas, Small dams with uninhabited area on its D/S side needs limited protection.

Size of Dam Inflow flood for safety of Dam

Small 100 years of flood
Intermediate Standard Project flood
Large Probable maximum flood (PMF)

However, floods of large or smaller magnitude may be used if the hazard involved in the
eventuality of a failure of a particular dam is high or low. A reservoir with larger storage
capacity will normally require a smaller out flow rate through the spillway. If the out
flows through the spillway are supplemented by release through the outlets then the
required capacity of spillway may be reduced. For gated spillway more water is stored.
By proper operation of gate higher heads may be developed so that greater out flow
through the spillway is possible to pass the flood.

1
Types of Spillway

Classification based on the time when the spillways come into operation
(a) Main or service spillway
(b) Auxiliary spillway
(c) Emergency spillway

Main or service spillway

Main spillway is the one which comes into operation and is designed to pass the entire
spillway design flood.

Auxiliary spillway
It is provided as a supplement to the main spillway and its crest is so located that it comes
into operation only after the floods for which the main spillway is designed is exceeded.
Thus it is provided in conjunction with the main spillway. Conditions favorable for the
provision of auxiliary spillway are the existence of a saddle or depression along the rim
of the reservoir which leads into a natural water way. On the crest of auxiliary spillway
instead of a control gate a fuse plug (earth dam or dyke) may be provided, which allows
the water surface in the reservoir to rise above the crest of spillway and is so designed
That when overtopped it automatically washes out thus releasing excess flood water.

Emergency spillway
It is also provided in addition to main spillway but it comes into operation only during
emergency which may arise at any time which may not have been considered in the
normal design of main spillway. Some of the situations which may lead to emergency
are:
(i) an enforced shut down of the outlet works
(ii) a malfunctioning of spillway gates.
(iii) The necessity of bye passing the regular spillway because of damage or failure
of some part of the structure
(iv) Further an emergency may also arise if a recurring flood occurs before a
previous flood is evacuated by the main spillway and outlet works.

Emergency spillways are also provided in the saddles or depressions if available. It is

often provided as breaching section which is a portion of the dam with its crest lower
than the main dam and is so designed that it is washed out when the water in the reservoir
reaches a predetermined elevation. The breaching section is also called fuse plug spillway

Classification according to flow through the spillway

(i) controlled or gated spillway
(ii) un controlled or un-gated spillway

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Classification based on the prominent features pertaining to the various component
of the spillway:

The various components of a spillway are

 Control structure,
 Discharge channel
 Terminal structures – energy dissipaters
 Entrance & outlet channels.

With respect to control structures discharge channel etc. the spillway is classified into
following types.

(i) Free over-fall or straight drop spillway

(ii) Over flow or Ogee spillway
(ii) Chute or open channel or trough spillway
(iii) Side channel spillway
(iv) Shaft or morning glory spillway
(v) Conduit or tunnel spillway
(vi) Siphon spillway

Free over fall or straight drop spillway

A free over fall spillway is the one for which the control structure is low height narrow
crested weir having its down face vertical or nearly vertical. The over flowing water may
be discharged as in the case of a sharp crested weir. Water flowing over the crest drops as
a free jet clearly away from the down stream face of the spillway. Occasionally the crest
of this spillway is extended in the form of an overhanging lip to direct small discharges
away from the D/S face.

Over flow or Ogee spillway

Overflowing water in this case is guided smoothly over the crest of the spillway and is
made to glide over the down stream face of the spillway.
The profile of the ogee weir is generally confined to the lower nappe that would be
obtained for maximum head over spillway. The control structure is a weir which is ogee
or S shaped.
The shape of such a profile depends upon the
Head
The inclination of U/S face of the overflow section and
The height of the overflow section above the floor of the entrance channel.

The ogee profile should provide maximum possible hydraulic efficiency, structural
stability and economy and also avoid the formation of objectionable sub-atmospheric
pressure at the crest. The ogee profile may be categorized into three groups:

3
 (i) Overflow dams with vertical U/S face

The following equation as given by U.S. corps of engineers may be used for finding
coordinates (X,Y) for the D/S profile

X1.85 = 2 (Hd) 0.85*Y

Where X & Y are coordinates as shown in the figure and Hd is the design head.
For U/S profile following coordinates with origin at crest are recommended

(ii) Over flow dams with sloping U/S face

The D/S profile may conform to the following equation:

Xn = K (Hd)n-1 Y

Where: n., K are variable parameters which depends on the inclination of U/S face of the
dam. Hd is the design head. These are called standard “WES standard spillway shapes”
Values of constant K,n , R1,R2, a and b
Shape of K N R1/Hd R2/Hd a/Hd B/Hd
U/S face
Vertical 2.000 1.850 0.5 0.20 0.175 0.282
3V: 1H 1.936 1.836 0.68 0.21 0.139 0.237
3V: 2 H 1.939 1.810 0.48 0.22 0.115 0.240
3V: 3H 1.873 1.776 0.45 0.00 0.119 0.000

4
The curved profile of the crest section is continued till it meets tangentially the straight
sloping portion of the overflow dam section (spillway).The slope of the d/s face of the
overflow dam usually varies in the range of 0.7(H):1(V) to 0.8:1 and is basically decided
on the basis of stability requirements. The location of the point of tangent depends upon
the slope of the d/s face, where the value of dy/dx for the curved profile and the straight
segment must be equal at the end of the sloping surface of the spillway.

U/S profile of the Weir Crest

(a) Vertical U/S face: The u/s profile should be tangential to the vertical face and
should have zero slope at the crest axis to ensure that there is no discontinuity
along the surface of the flow. The u/s profile should conform to the following
equation:
y = {0.724 (x+ 0.270 Hd)1.85/(Hd )0.85 }+ 0.126 Hd - 0.4315(Hd)0.375(x + 0.270 Hd)0.625

Alternatively the u/s slope may be considered to consist of compound circular curve with
values of R1= 0.50 Hd and R2 = 0.20 Hd
The chord length up to R1, and R2 is given as a = 0.175 Hd and b = 0.282 Hd

Discharge Computation of over ogee crest

The discharge over ogee spillway is computed from the basic equation of weir given
below:
Q = Cd Le H1.5
Where, Q = Discharge in cumec
Cd = coefficient of discharge, its value varies from 2.1 to 2.5
H = Head of over flow in meters including velocity of approach head.
H = Hd + Ha
Le = effective length of overflow crest in meters
Le = L -2(N*kp+ka)*H
L = Net length of the crest
N = Number of piers
kp = piers contraction coefficient
ka = abutment contraction coefficient

Pier Contraction coefficient kp Abutment Contraction coefficient ka

Pier condition kp Abutment condition ka
Square nosed piers with corners Rounded abutment where R>0.5Hd
Rounded on a radius equal to 0.1 & wall is placed not more than 45o
of pier thickness 0.02 to direction of flow 0.0
Rounded abutment with head wall at
Rounded nose piers 0.01 900 to the direction of flow when
0.5Hd > R > 0.15Hd 0.10
Pointed nose piers 0.0 Square abutment with head wall at 90o
to the direction of flow 0.2

5
The discharge coefficient is influenced by a number of factors:
(i) Height of spillway above stream bed or depth of approach
(ii) relation of the actual crest shape to the ideal nappe shape
(iii) upstream face slope
(iv) downstream apron interference, and
(v) down stream submergence
(vi) Ratio of actual total head to the design head
(vii) effect of head due to velocity of approach

The effect of these factors is discussed below:

Height of spillway or Effect depth of approach

The height of spillway above stream bed or approach channel affects the velocity of
approach which in turn affects the coefficient of discharge. With increase in height of
spillway the velocity of approach decreases and the coefficient of discharge increases.
Model tests indicate that the coefficient of discharge becomes fairly constant when height
of spillway > 3.0 Hd, where Hd is the design head including the head due to velocity of
approach.
Various text books give a plot of Cd versus Hd which is reproduced here in the form of a
table
P/Hd Cd P/Hd Cd P/Hd Cd
0.0 1.7 0.1 1.875 0.2 1.97
0.3 2.025 0.4 2.06 0.5 2.09
0.6 2.12 0.7 2.135 0.8 2.15
0.9 2.16 1.0 2.17 1.5 2.185
2.0 2.195 2.5 2.2 3.0 2.205
4.0 2.210
In the table P is the height of spillway.
When u/s face is inclined the above Cd values gets multiplied by a factor from 0.995 (for
P/ Hd = 1.5) to 1.04 (for P/ Hd = 0.2)

6
Negative Pressure over spillway surface
H > Hd the pressure on the crest will be negative (sub atmospheric) may lead to
cavitation. Model tests show that till H < 1.25 Hd there is no harmful cavitation
effect.
H < Hd the pressure on the crest is positive. Lower nappe of the jet attaches itself
to the boundary. Also when H > Hd lower nappe may leave the boundary for some
distance on d/s face and may attach again as the air mass in between the boundary
and the lower nappe gets sucked out. This may lead to the vibration of the
structure.

Avoid negative pressure as:

(i) It increases overturning moment at the crest
(ii) It increases the force required for lifting of the gates
(iii) It causes decrease in the capability for automatic control
(iv) It causes vibration which extends all over the structure. The vibration also
causes cracks in the mortar of stone lining of the crest.

7
Problem:
Design ogee spillway for the following data:
(i) Height of the spillway crest = 100.0 m
(ii) Number of spans = 10
(iii) Length of each span (clear) = 12.5
(iv) Thickness of each pier = 3 m
(v) D/s slope of spillway = 0.8(H): 1(V)
(vi) Rock condition = good
(vii) Design discharge = 8500 m3/s

Design (i) Head over crest & coefficient of discharge

(a) Clear Water Way = 10x12.5 = 125
Let us assume Cd =2.21 maximum value
(b) Effective length of spillway = Le = L - 2[N Kp+ Ka]Hd
Cut water (90o) nosed piers are supposed to be used with rounded abutments.
Kp = 0.01 and Ka = 0.1 and hence Q= 2.21[125 - 2(9x0.01 + 0.1) Hd] Hd3/2
(c) By trial and error Head over the crest Hd =10.024
(d) P/ Hd = 100/ 10.024 = 9.976 > 4.0 Hence Cd =2.21

(e) D/S profile

The profile recommended is X1.85 = 2 (Hd)0.85Y = 2(10.024)0.85Y = 14.188 Y
or, Y = X1.85 /14.188
The calculated coordinates of d/s profile are

Xm Ym Xm Ym
1.0 0.0705 7.0 2.5793
2.0 0.2540 9.0 4.1061
3.0 0.5380 11.0 5.9519
4.0 0.9159 13.0 8.1072
5.0 1.3841 14.28 9.6455

The slope of d/s glacis = 0.8(H):1(V)

Differential equation of d/s profile dy/dx = 1/0.8 = 1.25
d/dx [ X1.85 /14.188] = (1.85/14.188) X0.85 = 1.25
so, X= 14.28 and Y = 9.6455

(f) U/S profile R1 = 0.5 Hd = 0.5x 10.024= 5.012

and R2= 0.2 Hd = 0.2x10.024= 2.00048
b= 0.282 Hd = 2.827 a = 0.175 Hd = 1.754
Alternatively calculate the profile from the given equation.
Equation for u/s profile
0.27 Hd = 2.706 Hd 0.85 = 7.09 Hd0.375 = 2.373
0.126 Hd = 1.264 0.4315 Hd0.375 = 1.024
y = [{0.725 (x+2.706 ) }/ 7.09] + 1.264 - 1.024 (x + 2.706)0.625
1.85

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Chute Spillway or Trough Spillway
An ogee spillway is mostly suitable for concrete Gravity dam when the spillway is
located within the body of dam. For Earth & Rock-fill dam, a separate spillway is
generally constructed in a flank or saddle, away from main valley. Some times even for
gravity dams a separate spillway is required because of the narrowness of the valley. In
such circumstances a separate spillway may have to be provided. The trough spillway or
chute spillway is the simplest type of spillway which can be easily provided
independently and at low costs. It is lighter & adoptable to any type of foundation and
hence provided easily on Earth & Rock-Fill dam. It is also called at times Waste Weir. If
it is constructed in continuation of the dam at one end, it may be called a Flank weir. If it
is constructed in a natural saddle in the bank of the river separated from the main dam by
a high ridge it is called a Saddle Weir.

A chute spillway essentially consists of a steeply sloping open channel placed along a
dam abutment or through a flank or saddle. It leads the water from the reservoir to the
downstream channel below the base of the channel is usually made of reinforced concrete
slabs 25 to 50 cm thick. Light reinforcement of about 0.25% of concrete area is provided
in the top of the slab in both directions. The chute is some times of constant width but is
usually narrowed for economy and then widened near the end to reduce the discharging
velocity. Expansion joints are usually provided in the chutes at intervals of about 9to 12m
in either direction. The expansion joint s should be made water tight so as to avoid any
under seepage and its troublesome effects. Under drains are also provided, so as to drain
the water which may seep through the trough bottom and side walls. These drains may be
in the form of a perforated steel pipes, clay tiles or rock filled trenches.

Slope of chute can conform to available topography leading to minimum excavation, but
the slope should be steep enough to maintain supercritical flow to avoid unstable flow

9
conditions. When a vertical curve is provided at a point where chute slope changes it
must be gradual & designed to avoid any separation of flow.

Side Channel Spillway

In a side channel spillway, the crest of the control weir is placed along the side of the
discharge channel. The crest is approximately parallel to the side channel at the entrance.
Thus the flow after passing over the crest is carried in a discharge channel running
parallel to the crest. Water flows over the crest into the narrow trough of the discharge
channel opposite the weir; it turns approximately at right angle and then continues in the
discharge channel.
The side channel spillway is usually constructed in a narrow canyon where sufficient
space is not available for an overflow spillway, and where there is neither a suitable
saddle, nor there is a availability of a wide flanks to accommodate a chute spillway. In
such cases, if a crest of length required for the flow to occur perpendicular to the crest is
provided, heavy cutting would be required making the cost of constructing a chute
spillway or an overflow spillway prohibitive.
The crest of a side channel spillway is usually an ogee- shaped section made of concrete.
Sometimes it consists of a flat concrete pavement laid on an earthen embankment or the
natural ground surface.

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11
 Saddle Siphon Spillway

The saddle Siphon spillway consists of an air tight reinforced concrete cover called
“Hood” or “cowl” provided over an an ogee shaped body wall to form a siphon duct.
Hence this spillway is also known as „Hood siphon spillway‟ or „Hood siphon‟.The top of
the body wall forms the crest of the siphon spillway and hence it is located at full
Reservoir level.The entrance and the exit lips of the hood are so shaped that siphon duct
has bell mouthed entry and exit. The inlet of the siphon duct is kept submerged well
below the full reservoir level so that floating debris etc., does not enter the siphon duct
and also the formation of vortices and draw downs which might break the siphonic action
is avoided. Thr outlet of the siphon duct is kept submerged in a cup like basin which
forms a water seal so that air cannot enter the siphon duct from this end. However,
instead a cup like basin a cistern may be created by constructing a low weir a little away
from the outlet on the down stream of the outlet. A small de-primer hood is provided
above the main hood and both these hoods are connected through an air vent. The inlet of
the de-primer hood is kept slightly above the full reservoir level

At full reservoir level water stands up to the crest of the spillway and hence there is no
flow. When the water level rises above the full reservoir level i.e., above the crest of
spillway, water starts flowing over the crest and the inlet of the de-primer hood gets
submerged with the result that entry for air into the de-primer hood and the main hood
gets sealed. Thus air cannot enter from both the inlet and outlet of the siphon duct and the
air remaining entrapped in the top portion of the siphon duct above the sheet of the water
flowing over the crest is gradually sucked by the flowing water. As the air is sucked the
pressure drops to less than atmospheric in the top portion the siphon duct which was
having atmospheric pressure at the starting of the flow. Thus a difference of pressure
develops between the outside atmosphere and the air inside the siphon duct which creates
a suction pull and draws in more water over the crest. This in turn takes in more air along
with it which further increases the suction pull and draws in more and more water over
the crest. This sucking action which increases progressively and gradually creates the
necessary pull for the commencement of the syphonic action and the siphon duct start to
run full. The action of the siphon spillway from the moment the water just starts to flow

12
over the crest to the instant when the siphon duct starts flowing full is known as
„PRIMING‟, (or it is said to have „primed‟). It may however difficult to expel the
entrapped air from the siphon since it has to be forced through the water in the sealing
basin and hence it may not get primed quickly. Moreover relatively large rise in water
level above the crest of spillway may be needed before it gets primed. To assist quick
priming many priming devices can easily be fitted along with the siphon.

The siphoning action once initiated will continue as long as water level in the reservoir is
above the full reservoir level. The operating head for the spillway is then equal to the
difference between water levels on the U/S and the D/S of the spillway. When the water
level in the reservoir drops to such a level that the inlet of the de-primer hood gets

13
exposed then the air enters the siphon duct and breaks the siphoning action thus stopping
the flow. This action is called de-priming of the siphon spillway.

Another form of saddle siphon spillway provided in the body of Dam is called „Tilted
Outlet type‟. It has a vertical lower limb and hence the draught of falling water is enough
to cause priming and no other device is needed for its priming. However the outlet is
tilted upwards in order to develop water seal at the bend and thus facilitate early priming.
For De-priming air inlet pipe is provided.

Advantage The main advantages of the siphon spillway are

(i) Its automatic operation without any mechanical device ,and
(ii) Its ability to pass higher discharge at relatively low surcharge head resulting in
lower height of dam as well as less surrounding area to be acquired for
submergence.
Disadvantage
(i) It is an expensive structure and has limited capacity.
(ii) It has a serious disadvantage due to occurrence of sudden surges and
stoppages of out flow as a result of erratic siphonic action, thus causing severe
fluctuations in the down stream river stage.
(iii) A minor crack in the cover of the siphon would interfere with the siphon
Therefore the siphon spillway is always constructed in batteries so that entire
spillway is not affected even if cracks have developed either in one or few
units.
(iv) The structrure and foundation have to be strong enough to resist the vibration.
(v) There exists a possibility of clogging of the siphon due to debris and floating
material.
(vi) Like other type of closed conduit spillways, a siphon spillway too is
incapable of handling flows appreciably greater than the designed capacity.
Hence, siphon spillways must be provided in conjunction with an auxiliary or
emergency spillway.

Shaft Spill Way

In shaft spillway water enters a horizontal crest, drops through a vertical or a sloping
shaft and then flows to the down stream river channel through a horizontal or nearly
horizontal conduit or tunnel. A rock out crop projecting into the reservoir slightly
upstream of the dam would be an ideal site for a shaft spillway. Depending on the level of
out crop and the required crest level, a spillway may have to be either constructed or
excavated. The diversion tunnels if available can be utilized for discharge tunnels of
spillway. Radial piers provided on the spillway crest ensure radial flow towards spillway
and also provides support to the bridge connecting spillway and the dam or the adjoining
hill.

A shaft spillway with a funnel shaped inlet is called 'Morning Glory' or Glory Hole
spillway. One of the distinguishing characteristics is that near maximum capacity of the
spillway is attained at relatively low heads. Therefore a shaft spillway is ideal when
maximum spillway discharge is not likely to be exceeded. Because of this feature,

14
however, the spillway becomes unsuitable when a flow larger than the selected inflow
design flood occurs. This disadvantage can be got rid of by providing an auxiliary or
emergency spillway and using the shaft spillway as service spillway.

Depending upon the type of crest, the shaft spillway can either be standard crested or
flat crested. In a standard crested spillway, the water begins its free fall immediately
upon leaving the crest where as in flat crested spillway water approaches upon the crest
on a flat slope before beginning its free fall. The standard crested spillway would have a
smaller diameter crest since its coefficient of discharge is greater than a flat crest.
Therefore if the shaft spillway is to be constructed in the form of a tower, it would be
economical to have a standard crested spillway. However a flat crested shaft spillway has
a smaller funnel diameter and is therefore more advantageous when the spillway is to be
excavated in rock.

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 EENERGY DISSIPATERS 2012

6. ENERGY DISSIPATERS

In hydraulic engineering numerous devices like stilling basins, baffled aprons, and vortex
shaft etc., are known under the collective term ENERGY DISSIPATERS. Their purpose
is to dissipate hydraulic energy (convert to heat). These are also called downstream
protection works and occupies a vital place in design of spillways, weirs and barrages.
The problem of designing energy dissipaters is one essentially of reducing the high
velocity flow to a velocity low enough to erosion, abrasion of hydraulic structures,
generation of tail water waves or scouring. There are several methods of dissipating the
energy of shooting flow of water. They can be classified as below:

Hydraulic Jump type Stilling Basin

(i) Horizontal apron type
(ii) Sloping apron type
Jet Diffusion & free jet stilling basin
(i) Jet diffusion basin
(ii) Interacting jet diffusion basin
(iii) Free jet stilling basin
(iv) Hump stilling basin
(v) Impact stilling basin
Bucket type energy dissipaters
(i) Solid roller bucket type
(ii) Slotted roller bucket type
(iii) Sky jump Bucket type (trajectory or shooting or flip)
Energy dissipation process can be achieved in five separate stages some of which
may be combined or may be absent
(i) On the spillway surface
(ii) In a free falling jet
(iii) At impact into a Down stream pool
(iv) In the stilling basin
(v) At the out flow into a river

Factors affecting the design of energy dissipaters

(i) Nature of foundation
(ii) Magnitude of flood & their occurrence
(iii) Velocity of flow
(iv) Orientation of flow
(v) Depth discharge and its relationship at the site of structure
Last factor is most important. A thorough knowledge of its implications on the design of
energy dissipaters is a pre-requisite for the most efficient and cheapest type of structure.
For example the relationship of tail water depth and discharge play a crucial rule in
efficient energy dissipation.

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 EENERGY DISSIPATERS 2012

Relationship of tail water curve(TWC) to Jump height curve(JHC)

The JHC may be related to TWC in five different ways:
Jump height curve (JHC) always above the tail-water curve(TWC)
This means that the depth of flow in the river in particular section is in sufficient for all
discharges for formation of jump at the toe of structure. The jump will try to sweep
across the apron at a high velocity and attack the bed down stream. The energy
dissipation can be achieved in any of the following ways:

(a) Lowering the floor level D/S of the spillway so as to make the tail water depth in the
stilling basin equal to jump height curve for all discharges. This may lead to three cases:
(i) Horizontal floor but depressed below the river bed level
(ii) A depressed floor but rising towards the Downstream end
(iii) A depressed floor but sloping away from the toe of spillway
(b) Stilling basin with baffles or sills at river bed level
(c) Stilling basin with a low subsidiary dam downstream.
(d) Bucket type structure---- If under the conditions of low tail water depth there is a bed
of solid rock which can withstand the impact of water, Ski Jump bucket energy dissipater
may be adopted. Such a device will throw the high velocity flow passing over the
spillway upwards so it travels some distance from the toe of the spillway before it falls
back and strikes the river bed. Here the energy is dissipated by the aeration of the jet and
impact of the water on the river bottom. Though some scour takes place, it is too small or
too far from the dam to endanger it.

2. Jump height curve always below the tail water rating curve
with higher depth of tail water, the tendency of high velocity flow is to drive under the
water and travel a long distance along the bottom and forming only a very imperfect
jump. The energy dissipater can be done in the following ways:
(i) Providing a sloping apron
(ii) Roller bucket type energy dissipater

3. Jump height curve above tail water rating curve at low discharges and below it at
higher discharges.
A horizontal apron in river level in this case provides an insufficient depth at low
discharges and extra depth for high discharges to form a suitable Hydraulic Jump. The
solution therefore, lies in creating artificially enough water depth to make the jump form
on apron at low discharges.
The following may be adopted:
(a) Stilling basin with a low secondary dam
(b) Stilling basin with baffle piers or some form of dentated sill

4. Jump height curve below the tail water curve at low discharges and above it at
higher discharges
The main condition to be met in this case is the provision of sufficient depth of tail water
for formation of jump in high flows.
Construction of a secondary dam or a sloping will serve the purpose.

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 EENERGY DISSIPATERS 2012

5. Jump height curve corresponds to post jump depth for all discharges
Provide a horizontal concrete apron and stilling basin

USBR TYPE STILLING BASINS

(1) stilling basins for Froude's number between 1.7 and 2.5.
For this case only a horizontal apron needs to be provided. As the flow in this case does
not have much turbulence usually no accessories are required to be provided. However,
the apron should be sufficiently long to contain the entire jump over it.
Length of apron = Length of jump = 5 Y2, where Y2 is the sequent depth.

(2) Stilling basins for Froudes number between 2.5 and 4.5
For this range of Froudes number Type IVstilling basin has been found to be effective for
dissipating the energy of flow. The basin is provided with chute blocks. The length L of
the stilling basin may be obtained for different values of F1 from the following table:

F1 2 3 4 5
L/Y2 4.3 5.3 5.8 6
In this case due to oscillating jump being developed, wave action is produced which
cannot be entirely dampened. However in order to suppress the wave action the floor of
the basin should be so set that the tail water depth in the basin is 10 % greater than the
sequent depth Y2. This will also check the tendency of the jump to sweep out of the
basin.

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 EENERGY DISSIPATERS 2012

(3) Stilling basins for Froudes number higher than 4.5

For this case depending upon the velocity of incoming flow, two types of of stilling basin
have been developed as indicated below.

(a) when the velocity of incoming flow is less than 15m/s, Type II stilling basin have
been adopted. This basin utilizes CHUTE BLOCKS, BAFFLE BLOCK and an
ENDSILL. The size, spacing and location of the chute and baffles blocks are shown in
figure. The length L of the stilling basin and the heights h3 and h4 of the baffle blocks and
end sill respectively may be obtained for different values of F1 from the following table:

F1 5 6 8 10 12 14 16
L/Y2 2.3 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8
h3 /y 1 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.0 3.3
h4 /Y 1 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

Where Y1 and Y3 are initial and sequent depths

By providing the baffle blocks the length of the stilling basin is considerably reduced
because the dissipation of energy is accomplished by the hydraulic jump as well as by the
impinging action of the incoming flow against these blocks. However, the baffle blocks
will be subjected to large impact forces due to impingement of incoming flow. Moreover
on the downstream face of the baffle blocks usually suction or negative pressure will be
developed which will further increase the forces acting on these blocks. Hence, baffle
blocks should be properly anchored at the base. Further the floor of the basin will also be
subjected to additional load due to the dynamic forces created against the upstream face
of the baffle blocks, which should be considered in the design of the floor of the basin.

(b) When the velocity of the incoming velocity exceeds 15 m/s, TYPE III STILLING
BASIN may be adopted. In this basin only chute blocks are provided and instead of a
solid end sill a dentate sill is provide. In this basin baffle blocks are not provided because
(i) Due to high velocity of incoming flows these blocks will be subjected to
excessive large impact forces and
(ii) There is a possibility of cavitation along the downstream face of theses blocks
and adjacent floor of the basin due to large negative pressure developed in the
region.
However, due to baffle blocks being eliminated in this case the dissipation of the energy
is primarily accomplished by hydraulic jump and hence the length of the basin will be
greater than that indicated for the TYPE II BASIN. The length of TYPE III stilling basin
may be obtained for different values of F1 from the following table:

F1 5 6 8 10 12 14
L/Y2 3.85 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.3 4.3
Again in this case also in order to check the tendency of the jump to sweep out of the
basin the floor of the basin is so set that the tail water depth in the basin is 5% greater
than the sequent depth.

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 EENERGY DISSIPATERS 2012

Bucket type energy dissipaters

A bucket type energy dissipaters consists of an upturned bucket provided at the toe of the
spillway. The bucket type energy dissipaters may be used only for overflow type
spillways. This type of energy dissipation becomes more economical than the method of
stilling basins when the Froude number F1 of the incoming flow exceeds 10, because in
such cases the difference between initial and sequent depths being large a long and
stilling basin would be required. Moreover the bucket type energy dissipaters may be
used with any tail water condition. However, this type of energy dissipater may be used
only when the river bed is composed of stiff rock. The bucket type energy dissipaters are
of the following three types:
(i) Solid roller Bucket
(ii) Slotted roller Bucket
(iii) Ski jump ( or flip or trajectory bucket)
The solid or slotted roller bucket may be used where the tail water depths are too large as
compared to the sequent depths required for the formation of the hydraulic jump. Both
these buckets remain submerged in tail water and hence these are also termed as
submerged bucket type energy dissipaters. The solid and slotted roller buckets are
discussed as under:
(i) Solid roller Bucket
A solid roller bucket consists of a bucket like apron with a concave circular profile of
large radius and a deflector lip as shown. When the water flows over the bucket the entire
sheet of water leaving the bucket is deflected upward by the bucket lip and two elliptical
rollers are developed as shown in the figure. One of the roller which moves in the counter
clock wise direction is developed on the surface of the bucket and is contained within the
region above the bucket. This is known as bucket roller ( or surface roller). The other
roller moving in the clock wise direction is developed on the ground surface immediately
downstream of the bucket, which is known as ground roller, the movement of the rollers,
along with the intermingling of the incoming flows causes the dissipation of the energy.

The upward deflection of water by the bucket lip creates a high boil on the water surface
and a violent ground roller. This ground roller continuously pulls the loose bed material
backwards and deposits the same against the lip of the bucket. Some of the materials may
move into the bucket, which may get trapped there and damage the surface of the bucket
by abrasion. Moreover due to severe surface boil the turbulent flow persists for a
considerable distance on downstream side thus resulting in the erosion of the river banks.
These drawbacks of the solid roller bucket are removed in slotted roller bucket.
__________
Radius of the Bucket: R= 0.6 H/ *Hd
Where H/ = fall from crest of spillway to bucket invert in meter.
And Hd =Head over crest in meters
Vente Chow’s Formula R = 0.306 *10k
Where k = (v1+6.4 Hd +4.88)/(3.6 Hd + 19.5)
V1 = velocity of flow at the toe of spillway in m/s

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 EENERGY DISSIPATERS 2012

Slotted Roller Bucket

A slotted roller bucket also consists of a bucket like apron with a concave circular profile
of large radius but it has a slotted (or dentated) deflector lip. In general the hydraulic
action of the slotted bucket has the same characteristics as that of a solid bucket. Thus in
the case of the slotted bucket also the same two rollers are developed. However in this
case the water leaves the lip of the bucket at a flatter angle and only a part of it is
deflected upwards. Thus surface boil is considerably reduced, and less violent ground
rollers occurs which results in a smoother flow on the downstream side. Moreover in this
case the bed material is neither deposited nor carried away from the bucket lip, also any
debris which might get into the bucket is immediately washed out through the slots.
However the performance of the slotted bucket is considerably affected by tail water
depth. At low tail water depths the bucket roller will be swept out of bucket and will
produce high velocity flow on the downstream side which will scour the river bed. On the
other hand when the tail water depths becomes excessively large the jet water leaving the
bucket will get depressed and drive to the river bed which will scour the river bed at the
point of impingement. Thus the slotted roller buckets are suitable only for alimited range
of tail water depths

SKI JUMP BUCKET

A ski jump bucket may be used where the tail water depth, is less than sequent depth
required for the formation of hydraulic jump and the river bed is composed of stiff rock.
The lip of the bucket is so shaped that the entire sheet of the water flowing over the
bucket is deflected as a free jet which falls back into the river channel at a safe distance
away from the spillway. Thus in this case energy is dissipated by air resistance, breaking
of the jet into bubbles and the impact of the falling jet against the river bed and tail water.
BUCKET INVERT level is decided mainly from the structural point of view. If the
power house is situated below the ski jump bucket, then the invert should be fixed higher
than the roof top of power house. In some cases bucket is lower than the tail water the
bucket invert then is so decided so as to provide a concrete cover of 1.5m to 3.0m over
the bed of rock. The pure ski jump or flip as it is often called is provided such that
bucket lip is always higher than the maximum tail water depth.
Bucket Radius has the same formula as the solid roller bucket.
Entrance and exit slope:
For the entrance slope, the steepest spillway slope that should be used is 4 vertical to 1
horizontal. The exit angle  is an important factor in determining the length of the
trajectory. Theoretically if friction, air retardation etc., are neglected, the formula to be
used to evaluate the horizontal component of the jet trajectory

X= (Vo2/g) sin 2
Jet trajectory height is given by Y = h sin2 = (Vo2/2g) sin2
A judicious selection of exit angle is necessary, an exit angle of 30 o to 35o is a good
choice. When the maximum tail water is lower than the bucket lip shape of the lip is kept
flatter for ease of construction. High sub atmospheric pressure at down stream lip has to
be avoided by aeration or provide a curved or sloping lip.

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7. OUT LET WORKS

7.1 Introduction to Dam out lets

Most of the water, which is stored in a reservoir for irrigation water supply or power penetration
purposes, is stored below the spillway crest level. The spillway is provided at normal pool level,
such that the floods are discharged safety above the spillway. But, in order to draw water from
the reservoir as and when needed, for irrigation, water supply, power generation etc it is
absolutely necessary that outlet works are provided either through the body of the dam or
adjacent to it through some hillside at one end of the dam, or adjacent to it through some hillside
at one end of the dam, this water may be discharged to the dome stream channel below the dam
or may be transported at distances where required (to some power house, etc) through pipes or
canals. The opening a pipe or tunnel provided for this withdrawal of water is known as a dam
out let.

In certain instances the out let works of a dam maybe used as a service spillway in conjunction
with an auxiliary or secondary spillway. In this event the usual outlet works installation might be
modified to include a by pass overflow, so that the structure can serve both as an outlet work and
spillway.

An outlet works may also act as a flood control regulator, to release waters temporarily stored in
flood control storage space or to evacuate storage in anticipation of flood inflows. Further, the
outlets may serve to empty the reservoir to permit inspection, to make needed repairs, or to
maintain the upstream face of the dam or other structures normally inundated.

Fig. Typical section of out let

7.2 Determination of required dam outlet capacities

Outlet works controls are designed to release water as specific rates, as indicated by downstream
needs, flood control regulation, storage canted regulation, storage considerations, or legal
requirements. Delivery of irrigation water is usually determined from project or form needs and
is related to the consumptive use and to any special water requirements of the irrigation system.
Delivery for domestic are can be similarly established. Release of flows to satisfy prior rights
must generally be included with other needed releases. Minimum d/s flows for pollution
abatement, fish preservation, and other companion needs may often be accommodated through
other required releases.

Flood control releases generally can be combined with the irrigation outlet release if the out let
empties in to the river instead of into a canal. The capacity of the flood control outlet is
determined by the required time of evacuation of a given storage space considering the inflow
into the reservoir during this emptying period.

1
If an outlet is to serve as a service spillway in releasing surplus inflows from the reservoir, the
required discharge for this purpose may fix the outlet capacity. Here again, the inflow into the
reservoir during the emptying period must be considered.

7.3 Selection Criteria

Outlets must be designed to safely and effectively satisfy all of their functional requirements.
Because of their high cost, outlets should be included in economic studies used to optimize dam
design concepts. The costs of operation, maintenances, modification, and possible replacement
should be included in these economic studies.

Project requirements are a primary consideration. Project requirements will include; properly
positioning intakes gating, and terminal structures; sizing components; selecting appropriate
components including operation controls; providing adequate means for maintenance and
replacement of components.
Site conditions involve topography, climate, geology and seismcity. Each of these conditions
influences the selection of outlet type and components.

The type of dam (concrete or embankment) greatly affects the design and the cost of an outlet.
The lengths of waterways and the requirements for energy dissipation have important effects on
costs.

7.3 Outlet works Position in relation to Reservoir Storage Levels

In order to attain the required discharge capacity, the outlet must be placed sufficiently below
minimum reservoir operating level to provide head for effecting outlet works flows.

Outlet works for small detention dams are generally constructed near river bed level since
permanent storage space, except for silt retention, is ordinarily not provided. For dams which
impound water for irrigation, domestic are, or other conservation purposes, the outlet works must
be placed low enough to draw the reservoir down to the bottom of the allocated storage space;
however it might be placed at some level above the river bed, depending on the elevation of the
established minimum reservoir storage level.

It is usual practice to make an allowance in a storage reservoir for inactive storage for sediment
deposition, fish and wildlife conservation, and recreation. The positioning if the intake sill then
becomes and important consideration, since it must be high enough to prevent interference from
the sediment deposits, but at the same time low enough to permit either a partial or a complete
drawdown below the top of the inactive storage.

Fig. (S=0.4V D )

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7.5 Location of out let controls

Where an outlet work is ungated, as will be the care with many detention dams, flow in the
conduit will be similar to that in a culvert spillway. Where water must be stored and the release
regulated at specific rates, control gates or values will need to be installed at some point along
the conduit.

Operating gates and regulating valves are used to control and regulate the outlet works flow and
are designed to operate in any position from closed to fully open. Emergency gates are designed
to be utilized only to effect closure in the event of failure of the operating gates, or when on
watering is required either to inspect the conduit below the emergency gates or to inspect &
repair the operating gates.

A) Control at upstream and of the conduit

For an out let works with an upstream control discharging in to a free- flowing conduit, part full
flow will occur through out the length of the structure. Ordinarily, the operating head and the
conduit slope will result in flow at super critical stage.

With controls placed at the u/s end of a conduit, fish screens, stop log, slots, trash racks,
emergency gates, and regulating gates or valves can all be combined in a single intake structure.
In this case, the entire conduit may be readily un watered for inspection or repair. The intake will
consist of a towel rising from the base of an outlet conduit to an operating deck placed above
maximum reservoir water level, with the towel located n the reservoir area near the upstream toe
of the dam.

B) Control at intermediate point along the conduit

Where a control gate is placed at an intermediate point along a conduit and discharges freely in
to the d/s section, the internal pressure u/s from the control will be approximately equal to full
reservoir head. The structural design and safety aspects of the u/s portion will then be concerned
with the effects of both the external loadings and the internal hydrostatic pressure acting on the
conduit shell.

The control gates or valves for a conduit through a concrete dam can be positioned at any point,
either u/s to afford full flow or at the d/s end to provide pressure pipe flow. Where the sluices are
provided in the overflow section of the dam (spillway), u/s gates controlling the entrance or
valves operated from an interior gallery in the dam are ordinary employed. Where the outlets are
place in the non-overflow section, either u/s gates or d/s valves are utilized.

7.6 Hydraulic design of outlet works

The hydraulics of out let works usually involve either one or both of two conditions of flow-open
channel (or free) flow and full conduit (or pressure) flow. Analysis of open channel flow in

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outlet works, either in an open water way or in a part full conduit, is based on the principle of
steady non uniform flow confirming to the low of conservation of energy. Full pipe flow in
closed conduits is based on pressure flow, which involves a study of hydraulic losses to
determine the total heads needed to produce the required discharges.

Hydraulic jump basin, baffle or impact block dissipaters or other stilling devices normally are
employed to dissipate the energy of flow at the downstream end of the outlet works. Many of
these devices are designed on the basis of the low of conservation of momentum.

A) Open channel flow in outlet works

Flow in an open channel outlet works will be similar to that in open channel spillways. Where un
submerged radial or slide gates are used, discharge through the control with the gates completely
opened will be computed by:
Q= CLH3/2
When open channel outlet flow is controlled by partly opened surface gates, sluice flow will
result. Discharges for such flow are given by the equation:

2 g CL  H1 2  H 2 2 
2 3 3
Q
3  
where c is the discharge coefficient, L is the crest length & H is differential head causing flow.

In instances where there is high tail water due to canal water surfaces or to d/s influences in the
streambed, the control openings may be partly or entirely submerged. For such conditions the
discharge through the control will be in accordance with submerged orifice or tube flow as
computed by the equation:

Q  CA 2 gH
Where A = area of the opening
H= d.ce d/n the u/s & d/s openings
C= coefficient of discharge

B) Pressure flow in outlet conduits

If a control gate is placed at some point down stream from the conduit entrance, that portion
above the control gate will flow under pressure an un gated conduit may also flow full depending
on the inlet geometry for a flow in a closed pipe system, Bernoulli’s equation can be written as
follows:
V2
H T  h2 
2g
Where HT is the total head needed to overcome the various head losses to produce discharge and,
h2= the cumulative losses of the system.
V2
is velocity head at exit.
2g

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The above equation can be expanded to list each loss, as follows,
V2
HT=ht+he+hb+hf+hex+hc+hg+ 1
2g
Where ht= trash pack loss
he=entrance loss
hb= bend loss
hc =constraction loss
hex =expansion loss
hg =gate or valve loss
hf= friction loss, and
V12
= velocity head exit loss at the out let.
2g

For a free discharging out let, HT is measured from the reservoir water surface to the center of
the outlet gate (opening). If the out flowing jet is supported on a d/s floor the head is measured to
the top of the emerging jet at the point of greatest contraction; if the outlet portal is submerged
the head is measured to the tail water level. When various losses are related to the individual
component, hi is written as
V2
H I  Ki 1
2g
Where Ki is the summation of loss coefficients with continuity combined. Therefore the above
equation can be written as

v12 2 gH T
HT  K L Then Q  a1
2g kL

7.7 Hydraulic Design Considerations

Inlet and outlet channels

Inlet channels are primarily associated with bottom-level intakes. In some geological and
topographical settings they are extremely vulnerable to clogging with sediment and material
from unstable excavated and natural slopes. Where the accumulation of such material occurs at
or near an intake structure. The intake may become plugged. And its capacity may be greatly
reduced.

Where inlet channel velocities are sufficient to move material into an outlet, the adverse result
may be the erosion by abrasion of conduit linings gate and valve waterways, and steel pipes.

Intakes

Outlet intake structures have numerous configurations and features needed to satisfy project
equipments and optimize site conditions. Intakes are positioned with respect to various reservoir

5
levels. Such as the lowest level required for reservoir evacuation, the bottom of active storage,
the minimum level for power generation. The bottom of flood control storage, the temperature
and dissolved oxygen level, the sediment deposition level, or some other specified operating
level. Intakes are also positioned laterally as required by the delivery point downstream from the
dam, or to make best use of topography and geology.

Intake gating may be required in intake towers to satisfy selective withdrawal requirements, and
in any type of in take for upstream control, emergency closure, and inspection of upstream
conduits or other waterways. For such inspection, bulkheads may suffice. Where upstream
control is used depends primarily on economic and operating considerations. Guard or
emergency gates may be installed at or near the intake, as is commonly done for power outlets or
penstocks.

Trashracks are required for most outlets. The size of trashracks is governed by limiting velocities
and the size of the downstream water ways and gates. Where as the limiting velocities are
governed by head loss and blockage considerations. In general, these velocities are limited to 3
to 4 ft/ sec, or even higher for large outlets used for flood releases.

The shape of intake flow surfaces varies from sharp-edged entrances where slide gates are
mounted on the face of a concrete structure to carefully designed streamlined shapes where head
losses must be minimized, as for power outlets.

Conveyance Structures

Conveyance structures include conduits, tunnels, chutes, pipes, and other water ways. These
structures must be compatible with the upstream and down stream structures. Conduits and
tunnels may be designed for free flow or pressure flow. Many outlets include a combination of
two or more of the types of conveyance structures mentioned. A common type of outlets is
composed of a pressure conduit or tunnel from an intake structure an emergency gate chamber
near the axis of the dam, from which the flow is carried in a free- standing steel pipe with in a
concrete access and maintenance conduit to a control structure. Downstream from the control
structure, a concrete chute may be used to convey the flow to a stilling basin or flip bucket.
Another common type has the emergency and the control gates located in the gate chamber and a
free-flow conduit or tunnel downstream.

Gate Chambers ands Shafts

The hydraulic design of gate chambers include the waterways connecting the upstream and down
stream conveyance structures. Gate chambers are normally located near the axis of a dam and
under or with in the dam section or in on both of the abutments. When the conveyance system
pressurized throughout, the gate chamber houses an emergency or guard gate. A properly sized
air vent is required at the gate to prevent collapse of the downstream portion when a down
stream portion of the conveyance system vides for free flow, the gate chamber houses both gate
and regulating (control) gates.

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The waterways are normally transitioned from the stream conduit or tunnel configuration in the
gate frames downstream to the configuration of the downstream tunnel or conduit. The
downstream transition may increase where the flow changes from pressure flow to free flow.

Control Structures

Control structures for outlets may be located in the intake in a terminal structure, or at an
intermediate point conveyance system. The location selected depends on economies, function,
type of dam, and safety considerations.

It is good practice to provide guard or emergency gates upstream from control gates and valves
to satisfy maintenance and inspection requirements. For control use when the control gate or
valve is not available for use, and for replacement of certain types of control gates or valves.

Conveyance Structures

Conduits for concrete dams are typically located along the centerline of a spillway monolith.
Alignments close to monolith joints are avoided. Air vent intakes for the conduits can be e
located in crest piers. The air vents should never be interconnected. Dividing outlet release
requirements among two or more conduits is preferable to concentrating the releases in one
conduit, so that inspection and maintenance can be performed in one conduit.

Gate Chambers and shafts

Gate chambers and shafts located under and within embankment dams and in abutments are
suitable alternatives to intake towers in many cases. These chambers and shafts should be located
at or upstream from the dam axis at the location of the grout curtain, if one is provided Gate
shafts constructed in an embankment dam should be located at a sufficient distance from an
abutment to ensure that lateral tilting will not result from settlement of the embankment toward
the center of the mass.

7.8 Structural Design Consideration

General

The structural design of outlet works should be developed concurrently with the hydraulic
design. By using a combined process. Starting with the conceptualization stage, extremely
difficult structural design problems, and possibly redesign. Can be avoided, with considerable
savings of time and effort. The design engineer should be constantly a ware of the need for
economical, safe and reliable designs.

The operating life outlet works must be considered to be indefinite as replacement of most
components is difficult and expensive. Hence, outlet works should be conservatively designed,
and maintenance provisions should be carefully developed.

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Design loads, temperature loads static live loads, dynamic live loads, temperature loadings, and
unexpected and unusual loads caused by improper operation of gates and valves.

Static live loads include water pressures on interior and exterior surfaces. Embankment and
backfill loads. Ice loads on intake structures and other structures exposed to ice loadings. Frost
heave, temperature loadings, expansive soil loadings and construction loadings.

Dynamic loads include seismic loadings, impact loads from flowing water, hydraulic transient
loadings, vibration loads from equipment and from fluctuating water pressures, wind loadings,
and in some cases, loadings from reservoir wave action.

Inlet and Outlet channels

The structural design of inlet and outlet channels is similar to that for approach and exit channels
for spillways. Channel protection for the inlet channels for outlet works in usually less important
than protection for the approach channels for spillways because of the lower operating velocities
of the inlet channels, except during the initial filling period or when the inlet channels are used
for diversion flows during construction.

Outlet channels for outlet works should be more conservatively designed than exit channels for
spillways, because of the greater frequency and longer duration of operation of the outlet
channels.

Intakes

Intakes for outlet works frequently are subjected to differential water loads caused by partial
blockage of trashracks. Intakes located near the water surface are more subject to trash
accumulations than are deeply submerged intakes. However, waterlogged material tends to
accumulate over time and should be considered a potential cause of area reduction of the
trashracks. Many designers use arbitrary amounts of differential head, depending on the amount
of submergence. A minimum of 5 ft (1.5 meters) and a maximum of 40ft (12.2 meters)
differential head are some times used. Another approach is to compute the actual amount of head
loss across the trashracks. Based on an assumed percentage of net trashracks area.

In locations of high seismcity, tower-type intake must be designed for earthquake is in the range
of 0.2 to 0.3g or above, alternatives to towers should be considered to reduce intake costs.

Location of Control Gates

Control gates can be place in an intake structure, a downstream control structure, or a centrally
located gate chamber or shaft. The choice location depends on the outlet’s function and
economic of these factors. Where the release of water is to be through a pressure system, such as
a pipeline or a penstock, the control should be at a downstream location. For deliveries to a
canal, an outlet channel, or the river, the control gate may be located at the intake, at a
downstream control structure, or at an intermediate location.

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The choice between an intake tower equipped with control gates and a central control shaft or
chamber should depend on an evaluation of the several factors involved.

The downstream control-structure location for free-flow outlet releases is selected when an
evaluation of he various applicable factors favors this location. Usually economic factors control
the selection. But indirectly the alignment of the waterway with respect to the river and use of
the most suitable type of energy dissipater are important considerations.

Submerged Intakes

Intakes for embankment dam out-let works frequently are submerged shafts and ho9rizontal
intake types. These are simple and economical structures. They usually have trash racks or trash
beams and stream lined entrances to a conduit or a tunnel. Where used primarily for flood
control, they would not be deeply submerged, except during periods of flood control operations:
so unwatering the conduit or tunnel for routine examination and maintenance would be relatively
simple. However, if the intake must be located below a deep conservation pool, the problems
associated with unwatering are more difficult. In either case, bulkheads are required.

Combined Intake and Gate Structure

The use of gated intake is appropriate where an upstream control is required for the outlet
concept hat has been selected. Up-stream gating is common for sluices in concrete dams and for
selective-level withdrawal intakes. The advantages and disadvantages of locating control gates in
outlet intakes are discussed in the preceding subsection on ‘’Location of Control Gates.’’

Selective Withdrawal Intakes

These intakes are designed to draw water from various levels in a reservoir for the purpose of
satisfying water quality requirements. In some cases, upstream control is provided. Whereas in
other cases a means of opening or closing of intake ports is provided with flow regulation
performed at a downstream gate. The difference in these concepts is due to the system required
for conveying the water to a point of final use, a pressurized conveyance system usually will
require down stream regulating gates. The type of intake selected will depend on the type of
dam, foundation conditions and economic considerations. An intake tower makes installation of
gates at several elevations a simple matter and provides a convenient location for an operating
deck for the servicing of gates and cleaning of trash racks.

Gates and valves

Wide variety of gates and valves is used in outlet woks. Their use depends on their purposes,
operating characteristics, servicing requirements, life expectancy, and cost. Large gates and
valves for high-head installation may require special designs. Gates intended for temporary use
for the purpose of unwatering the outlet conduit or tunnel are usually of the bulkhead type, which
frequently are designed for removal and on-land storage. These gates are constructed of
reinforced concrete or steel, and require gate slots equipped with embedded metal sealing and
bearing surfaces and slot covers for deeply submerged installations.