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 Structural
Analysis

Nabeel Abdulrazzaq Jasim

Professor of Civil Engineering

University of Basrah

Meyyada Yahya Mohammed

University of Basrah
Preface

This book is devoted to introduce the elementary

fundamentals of structural analysis for beams, trusses, and
rigid frames. The text is intended to be used primarily at the
undergraduate level. The subject matter is presented in
simple language, which could be easily understood by all
students. A good number of typical problems is solved with
which the students could grasp the subject well. At the end of
each topic, a few exercises have been added, for the students
to solve them independently.

Although every care has been taken to check mistakes

and misprints, yet it is difficult to claim perfection. Any
errors, omissions, and suggestions, for the improvement of
this book brought to our notice, will be thankfully
acknowledged.

Authors
 III

Contents

Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Structures 1
1.2 Structural Members 1
1.3 Loads 5
1.4 Structural Analysis and Design 8
1.5 Actual and Idealized Structures (Line
Diagrams) 9
1.6 Supports and Reactions 9
1.7 Framed Structures 12
1.8 Principle of Superposition 13
1.9 Free-Body Diagrams 14
1.10 Computation of Reactions 16

Chapter Two: Stability and

Determinacy of Framed Structures
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Stability 24
2.3 Types of Structures 27
2.4 Degree of Indeterminacy of Trusses 28
2.5 Degree of Indeterminacy of Rigid Frames 31

Chapter Three: Statically Determinate

Trusses
3.1 Introduction 39
IV

3.2 Member Forces 40

3.3 Method of Joints 41
3.4 Method of Sections 47

Chapter Four: Statically Determinate

Beams and Frames
4.1 Introduction 59
4.2 Method of Computation of Internal Forces 61
4.3 Sign Conventions 62
4.4 Axial Force, Shearing Force and Bending
Moments Diagrams 65
4.5 Relationships between Load, Shearing Force,
and Bending Moment 66

Chapter Five: Influence Lines

5.1 Introduction 93
5.2 Definition of Influence Line 94
5.3 Properties of Influence Line 95
5.4 Influence Lines for Beams 98
5.5 Influence Lines for Trusses 113
5.6 Absolute Maximum Shearing Force and
Bending Moment in Simply Supported
Beams 123
5.6.1 The Case of Several Concentrated
Loads 124
5.6.2 The Case of Uniform Load of Specific
Length 130
 V

Chapter Six: Approximate Analysis of

Statically Indeterminate Structures
6.1 Introduction 141
6.2 Parallel Chord Trusses with Two Diagonals
in Each Panel 142
6.3 Building Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads 146
6.4 Building Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads 171

Chapter Seven: Deflection of Beams

7.1 Introduction 183
7.2 Conjugate Beam Method 184

Chapter Eight: Energy Methods

8.1 Introduction 205
8.2 Conservation of Energy 206
8.3 External Work 207
8.4 Strain Energy 211
8.5 Principle of Virtual Work 218
8.6 Castigliano's Theorems 235
8.7 Application of Castigliano's Second Theorem
to Statically Indeterminate Structures 254

Chapter Nine: Slope-Deflection

Method
9.1 Introduction 277
9.2 Slope-deflection Equations 278
VI

9.3 Procedure of Analysis 288

9.4 Structures with Cantilever Overhangs 303
9.5 Analysis of Frames: No Sideway 304
9.6 Analysis of Frames: with Sidesway 317
Chapter Ten: Moment-Distribution
Method
10.1 Introduction 341
10.2 General Principles and Definitions 342
10.3 Procedure for Analysis 348
10.4 Hinged or Simple Supports at Ends 358
10.5 Structures with Cantilever Overhangs 361
10.6 Moment Distribution for Frames: No
Sidesway 365
10.7 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 371
10.8 Analysis of Multistory Frames 381

Chapter Eleven: Method of Consistent

Deformations
11.1 Introduction 385
11.2 General Steps of the Method 386
11.3 General Discussion 392
11.4 Structures with Multiple Degrees of
Indeterminacy 416
 Chapter
ONE

Introduction

1.1 Structures
A structure may be defined as an assembly of members. The
main purpose of a structure is to resist external loads while
performing its intended function in an acceptable fashion and
to transmit these loads to the foundation.

The emphasis throughout this book is upon two-

dimensional, or planar, structures. These include trusses,
beams, and frames.

1.2 Structural Members

Structural members are the smallest units into which
structures can be divided. Several types of structural
members exist depending on how the forces are transferred
throughout them. The primary types are illustrated below.
 2 Chapter One

Columns
Columns are compression elements that carry forces
primarily in direct compression of the member material.
Commonly used names for columns include studs, struts,
posts, piers, piles, and shafts. Every common construction
material is used for column construction, including steel,
concrete, masonry, and timber. Figure (1.1-a) shows a
column.

Ties
Ties are elements that carry load in axial tension, or
stretching of the member material. The requirement for high
tensile strength normally dictates the use of steel for
constructing these members. Figure (1.1-b) shows a tie.

Cables
Cables are tension elements, but unlike ties, cable loads are
usually applied at an angle to the cable axis. Cables are
almost perfectly flexible members, and are characterized by a
geometry that incorporates a definite sag, from which the
cable derives its load-carrying ability. High tensile strength
wire is usually the construction material used for cables.
Figure (1.1-c) shows a cable under concentrated loads.

Beams
Beams are bending elements, they carry loads primarily
 Introduction 3

normal (transverse) to their longitudinal axis and transfer

these loads from support to support by flexural bending of
the member material. Beams are constructed from steel,
reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, or wood. Figure
(1.1-d) shows simply supported beam.

Beam-Columns
Beam-columns carry loads in combined axial load and
bending, Fig. (1.1-e). Moments may be induced by beams,
lateral wind loads, or eccentric connections.

Arches
Arches are curved elements that use their geometrical shape
to carry loads (across horizontal spans) primarily in
compression. The distribution of internal forces in an arch
depends upon: (1) the loads applied, (2) the support
conditions, (3) the shape of the arch, and )4( the details of
internal construction. Figure (1.1-f) gives two examples of
arches. If a proper shape is selected for the arch for a given
distribution of applied load, the arch will have neither
internal shearing force nor bending moment. Arches tend to
flatten out under load and must be fixed against horizontal
movement at their supports. Replacing the hinge with roller
at one end of the two-hinged arch in Fig. (1.1-f), makes the
structure statically determinate and it would not be an arch,
but it would be curved beam.
4 Chapter One

(a) (b) (c)

(d)
(e)

Fixed arch Two-hinged arch

(f)

Plate Shell
(g)

Figure (1.1) Types of structural members (a) column, (b) tie,

(c) cable, (d) beam, (e) beam-column, (f) arches, (g) plate and
shell
 Introduction 5

Plates and Shells

A plate is a three dimensional element one of whose
dimensions (thickness) is considerably less than the other
two. The plate is flat or plane element, while the shell is
curved. In shells the basic resistance to load is through
tension and compression, however, plates resist transverse
loads by two dimensional bending and shear. Figure (1.1-g)
depicts examples for a plate and a shell.

1.3 Loads
Loads are applied to a structure during carrying out the
purpose for which it is designed. Various codes are available
that define the different types of loads. These codes give the
minimum values of loads or the equations for calculating
them, and specify the manner of load distribution on
structures. There are many types of load; some typical ones
are discussed below.

Dead loads
Dead loads are loads of constant magnitude that remain in
one position. They consist of the weight of all members
making up the structure and the mechanical, electrical, and
other service equipments supported by the structure.
 6 Chapter One

Live Loads
Live loads are loads that vary position and/or magnitude.
Live loads that move under their own power are said to be
moving loads, such as trucks and people. They are usually
applied rather rapidly and therefore exert an impact effect on
the structure. Other live loads that may be moved are called
movable loads, such as furniture and warehouse materials.
They are usually applied gradually and without impact.

Attention must be given to the placing of live loads on a

structure so that the internal forces in the structural members
or connections will have their maximum possible values.

Wind Loads
Wind is air in motion. Obstacles in the path of the wind, such
as buildings and other structures, deflect and stop the wind,
converting the wind kinetic energy into the potential energy
of pressure, thereby creating the wind load. Wind flow
around structures is similar to the flow of fluids; therefore,
many of the laws of fluid mechanics are applicable to wind
action.

Earthquake Loads
During an earthquake there is an acceleration of the ground
surface. This acceleration can be broken down into vertical
and horizontal components. Usually the vertical component
 Introduction 7

of the acceleration is assumed to be negligible but the

horizontal component can be severe. If the structure is
assumed to act as a rigid body it will accelerate horizontally
at the same rate as its foundation. Hence each part of the
structure will be acted upon by a horizontal inertia force
equal to its mass multiplied by its horizontal acceleration. In
active earthquake zones, the maximum rate of horizontal
acceleration of the foundations may reach values having a
magnitude between 0.5 and 1.0 times g, the acceleration due
to gravity.

Soil Load
Soil, as a compressible material, responds to confining
pressure by consolidation and exerting a resisting force
analogous to a spring. This force imposes a load on structures
either by exerting lateral earth pressure or by exerting an
upward foundation bearing pressure on foundation elements.

Thermal Loads
Changes in temperature produce deformations in the
structures. If the changes in shape due to temperature
encounter restraint, as is often the case in a statically
indeterminate structure, member internal forces will be
developed throughout the structure. The forces set up in a
structure as a result of temperature changes are often called
thermal forces.
 8 Chapter One

Hydrostatic Pressures
A liquid (such as water, oil, etc) at rest exerts a pressure
(hydrostatic load) on all structures in contact with it.
Hydrostatic loads constitute a significant loads that must be
resisted by dams, storage tanks, and retaining structures.
These loads may be easily computed in accordance with the
elementary principles of hydraulics.

Marine Loads
Marine loads are loads created by ocean currents and waves
and by ocean-going vessels. These loads are imposed on
structures such as piers and docks.

1.4 Structural Analysis and Design

The primary function of a structure is to receive loads at
certain points and transmit them safely. In performing this
function, the structure develops internal forces in its
members and undergoes deformations. The determination of
these internal forces and deformations is called structural
analysis.

The selection of suitable sections to resist these forces

such that the allowable stresses and specified displacements
are not exceeded is called structural design.
 Introduction 9

1.5 Actual and Idealized Structures (Line

Diagrams)
An actual structure consists of members that are three-
dimensional bodies. Also loads actually act over finite
dimensions. For structural analysis the system of members
and loads is usually idealized into a series of line diagrams
called idealized structure. This representation does cause
differences from actual conditions, but the errors are
generally within reasonable limits. Figure (1.2-a) shows a
column supported by a beam which itself is supported by
walls. A line diagram for the beam, its supports, and the
loads applied to it is drawn in Fig. (1.2-b).
C C

Column
Beam
L
Wall
L
(a) (b)

Figure (1.2) (a) Actual structure, (b) idealized structure

1.6 Supports and Reactions

Forces applied to a structure have internal and external
effects. The external effects are the reactive forces
(reactions). These reactions, which are exerted on the
structure by the foundation, maintain the external equilibrium
of the structure. A planer structure is capable of exhibiting
01 Chapter One

three independent components of motion. With orthogonal

cartesian coordinates the structure can translate in both the x
and y directions (in the plane of the paper) and rotate about
an axis parallel to the z axis (perpendicular to the plane of the
paper). The points where the reactions are applied to the
structure to stabilize it are called the supports.

Types of Supports
There are different types of supports which may be
encountered in plane structures. The generic types include
roller, hinged, fixed and link supports.

Roller Support
This type of support constrains movement only in a direction
perpendicular to the supporting surface beneath the roller.
There is only one unknown at a roller: the magnitude of the
reactive force normal to the supporting surface. The idealized
behavior of roller can be envisioned as consisting of a simple
cylinder placed between the structure and an unyielding flat
surface in such a way that normal to this surface motion is
constrained. The symbolic form of roller is shown in Fig.
(1.3).

Figure (1.3) Symbols for roller support

Introduction 00

Hinged Support
This type of support prevents movement in a horizontal and a
vertical direction but does not prevent rotation about the
point of attachment. There are two unknowns at a hinge: the
magnitude of the horizontal reactive force and the magnitude
of the vertical force. The symbols used to represent a hinge
are shown in Fig. (1.4).

Figure (1.4) Symbols for hinged support

Fixed Support
This type of support prevents movement horizontally and
vertically and also prevents the rotation about the support.
There are three unknowns, which can be considered to be
two components of force (in the x and y directions) and a
couple. A sketch of this type of support is presented in Fig.
(1.5).

Figure (1.5) Symbol for fixed support

Link Support
This support consists of a member which is capable of
transmitting only tension or compression (because of the
02 Chapter One

hinges at both ends of link). If the link has negligible weight,

the line of action of the reactive force must be in the
direction of the link. Only the magnitude of this force is
unknown. Figure (1.6) shows the sketch of a link.

Figure (1.6) Symbol for link support

1.7 Framed Structures

Framed structures are composed of straight members whose
lengths are significantly larger than their cross sectional
dimensions. There are two basic types of framed structures
that will be treated in this text. These include trusses and
rigid frames.

Truss
A truss is a structure that consists of a group of straight
members connected at their ends with frictionless hinges.
The members usually form one or more triangles in a single
plane and are so arranged that the external loads are applied
at the joints and cause only axial forces in the members,
either tensile or compressive. The hinges at the ends allow
the members to rotate slightly with respect to each other.
Figure (1.7) shows a common type of truss.
Introduction 03

Figure (1.7) A planer truss with applied loads

Rigid Frame
A rigid frame is a structure in which the members are rigidly
connected at their ends so that the angles between the
members at joints remain unchanged under load. Axial force,
shearing force, and bending moment can exist at an arbitrary
point along a member of such structure. Several rigid frames
are shown in Fig. (1.8).

Figure (1.8) Rigid frames with applied loads

1.8 Principle of Superposition

The principle of superposition can be stated as follows: the
total effect at some point in a structure due to a number of
04 Chapter One

loads applied simultaneously is equal to the sum of the effect

for the loads applied individually.

According to this principle, if a structure is acted upon

by a number of individual loads, the loads may be separated
and the structure is analyzed for each of the individual load.
The final results can then be obtained by adding up the
individual results.

This principle can be used if the structure is constructed

from a material whose structural behavior is linearly elastic.
It applies to reactions, shearing forces, bending moments,
stresses, strains, and displacements.

1.9 Free-Body Diagrams

Free-body diagrams can be constructed for various parts of a
structure, and also for the entire structure.

A free-body diagram of the entire structure is drawn by

isolating the structure from its supports and showing it acted
upon by the applied loads and all the possible reaction
components that the supports may supply to the structure.
Such a diagram is illustrated in Fig. (1.9-b). In this manner,
any portion of the structure can be isolated by passing any
desired section through the structure and a free-body diagram
can be drawn showing this portion acted upon by the applied
loads and reactions, together with any forces that may be on
Introduction 05

the faces of the members cut by the isolating section. Any

force the magnitude of which is unknown may be assumed to
act in either sense along its line of action. The assumed sense
is used in writing any equation involving such a force. When
the magnitude of such a force is determined from the
solution; if the sign is positive, the force is then known to act
in the assumed sense; if negative, in the opposite sense.

Q2 Q3

B C
Q1
w

A D
(a)

Q2 Q3

B C
Q1
w

A D
HD
RA MD RD
(b)
Q2 V M Q3
F F
B C
Q1 M V w

A HD D

RA MD RD
(c)

Figure (1.9) Free-body diagram

06 Chapter One

Sometimes it becomes desirable to isolate several

portions of the structure and to draw free-body diagrams of
these portions. In such cases, it is necessary to show the
internal forces acting on the internal faces that have been
exposed by the isolating section. If free-body diagrams are
drawn for two adjacent portions of the structure and the
internal forces have been assumed to act in certain senses on
an internal face of one portion, the corresponding forces must
be assumed to act with the same numerical values but in
opposite senses on the face of the adjacent portion. Such
free-body diagrams are shown in Fig. (1.9-c).

1.10 Computation of Reactions

A body that is initially at rest and remains at rest when acted
upon by a system of forces is said to be in a state of static
equilibrium. For such a state to exist, the resultant of all
forces must be zero. Not only must the sum of all forces (or
their components) acting in any possible direction be zero but
also the sum of the moments of all forces about any axis
must be zero. The three following conditions must therefore
be fulfilled simultaneously by the forces of a planar body for
the structure to remain in a state of static equilibrium:

∑ (1.1)
∑ (1.2)

∑ (1.3)
Introduction 07

Equations (1.1) and (1.2) state that the algebraic sum of

the components parallel to the x and y axes, respectively, of
all the forces must be equal to zero. Equation (1.3)
necessitates that the algebraic sum of the moments of all
forces about any axis normal to the plane of the structure
must also be equal to zero. Therefore, if the supports of a
planar structure are replaced by the reactions that they
supply, the structure will be acted upon by the known
external loads and the unknown reactions. If the structure is
in a static equilibrium under these forces, Eqs. (1.1) to (1.3)
of static equilibrium may be written in terms of the known
loads and the unknown reactions. For structures having three
unknown reactions, the simultaneous solution of these three
equations will determine the magnitude of the unknown
reactions.

Example 1.1: Calculate the reactions for the frame shown in

Fig. (1.10).
20 kN/m 20 kN/m
10 kN B 10 kN B
RB 3m
20 kN 20 kN
3m
HA A A
8m
RA
(a) (b)
Figure (1.10) (a) Loaded frame, (b) free-body diagram
08 Chapter One

Solution:
From Fig. (1.10-b) and using Eqs. (1.1) to (1.3), the reactions
are
+
∑ :

kN

∑ +

kN

∑ +:

kN

Example 1.2: Calculate the reactions for the beam shown in

Fig. (1.11).

Solution:
From Fig. (1.11-b) and using Eqs. (1.1) to (1.3),
+
∑ :

∑ + :

∑ +:

From Fig. (1.11-c),

+
∑ :
Introduction 09

60 kN 20 kN/m

roller C
(a) A B
D
6m 4m 6m
10 m

20 kN/m
(b) HC
D C
RD RC

60 kN RD

(c) HB
A B
RA RB

Figure (1.11) (a) Loaded beam, (b) free-body diagram for

upper part, (c) free-body diagram for lower part

∑ + :

∑ + :

Problems
1.1 through 1.10: Determine the reactions at the supports for
the structures shown.
20 kN/m

A B C
8m 8m 8m 8m
Figure P1.1
21 Chapter One

4
4
3
3 kN/m
3 25 kN
25 kN
B
A
30 m 15 m 15 m 15 m

Figure P1.2

2 kN/m
10 kN

15 m
4 kN/m
20 kN

15 m

20 m

Figure P1.3

150 kN
40 kN/m
B

8m

20 kN/m A
6m 6m 6m

Figure P1.4
( kN , kN , kN )
Introduction 20

30 kN/m

200 kN 1.6 m

10.4 m

A B
12 m 6m 6m

Figure P1.5

( kN , kN , kN ,
kN )

4m
500 kN/m

A
7m 3m

Figure P1.6

( kN , kN , kN )

400 kN/m 6000 kN.m

A C
B
20 m 15 m

Figure P1.7

( , kN , kN.m , kN )
22 Chapter One

8 kN 3 kN/m

2m B C
1.5 m
A
2m 2m

Figure P1.8

( kN , kN , kN ,
kN )

60 kN/m 20 kN/m
3m

60 20
kN/m kN/m 3 m

3m 3m

Figure P1.9

( kN , kN , kN ,
kN )

15 kN

15 m
B
A

12 kN 24 kN 24 kN 24 kN 24 kN
6 @ 20 m = 120 m

Figure P1.10
( kN , , kN )
 Chapter
TWO

Stability and Determinacy of

Framed Structures

2.1 Introduction
In performing the function for which the structure is
designed, the structure develops internal forces in its
members. At any cross section of a member of a plane rigid
frame loaded in its own plane, there are only three internal
forces, viz, the axial force N, the shearing force V and the
bending moment M, all of which act in the plane of the
structure. In the members of trusses, the shearing force and
bending moment are absent. Hence at any cross section of a
member of a truss, there is only one internal force, viz, the
axial force N.

Another effect of the external applied loads on a

structure appears through the development of the reactive
forces (reactions) at the supports. For static equilibrium, the

32
46 Chapter Two

resultant of all applied loads is equal in magnitude and

opposite in sign to the resultant of the reactive forces. It must
also be mentioned that if the entire structure is in static
equilibrium, every part of it must be in equilibrium. Hence,
the equations of static equilibrium apply not only to the
structure as a whole but also to every part of it.

In the case of plane structures subjected to in-plane

external loads, only three equations are sufficient for static
equilibrium. Assuming that the structure and all the external
loads lie in the x-y plane, the equations of static equilibrium
are Eqs. (1.1) to (1.3), and they will be repeated as

∑ (2.1)

∑ (2.2)

∑ (2.3)

2.2 Stability
The stability of a structure can be divided into

(i) external stability

(ii) internal stability

A structure is externally stable if the supports can

provide the required number of independent reaction
components for static equilibrium of the structure. The
support system shown in Fig. (2.1) is stable, while those in
 Stability and Determinacy of Framed Structures 47

Fig. (2.2) are not stable. The support system shown in Fig.
(2.2-a) can provide only three parallel reaction components
(R1, R2, R3). It cannot, therefore, resist a force perpendicular
to the direction of the reactive forces. In Fig. (2.2-b), the
three reactive forces (R1, R2, R3) are concurrent. Hence, the
support system cannot resist a force whose line of action do
not pass through point a. It follows that for stability, the three
reactive forces should be: (i) non-parallel and (ii) non
concurrent. In other words, the stability of a structure is
determined not only by the number of reaction components
but also by their arrangement.

60 kN
10 kN/m

1.5 m
a b

2m 4m

60 kN
10 kN/m

a b
Hb

Ra Rb

Figure (2.1) Stable support system

48 Chapter Two

R3
3

60 kN 60 kN
4
2

1 5
R1 R5
(a)
R3
60 kN 3 60 kN 3

4 2 a 4
2

1 5 1 5
R1 R5
(b)

Figure (2.2) Unstable support systems

A structure is internally stable if it can maintain its

geometry under the action of all kinds of forces tending to
deform it. Significant internal forces are produced in the
members of the structure as a result of even small changes in
the geometry. On the other hand, the geometry of unstable
structures, known as mechanisms, can change substantially
without generating appreciable internal forces. Figure (2.3)
shows unstable structures.
 Stability and Determinacy of Framed Structures 49

Figure (2.3) Unstable structures (mechanisms)

2.3 Types of Structures

In general, followings are the two types of structures:

(i) Statically determinate structures, and

(ii) Statically indeterminate structures.

Statically Determinate Structures

If the internal forces in the members of a structure as well as
its reactions can be found by the equations of static
equilibrium, it is known as a statically determinate structure.

Statically Indeterminate Structures

If the internal forces in the members of a structure as well as
its reactions cannot be found out by the equations of static
equilibrium, it is known as a statically indeterminate
structure.

These structures are also known as hyperstatic

structures. Additional equations, based on compatibility of
4: Chapter Two

deformations, must be written in order to obtain a sufficient

number of equations for the determination of all the
unknowns. The number of these additional equations,
necessary for the solution of the problem, is known as the
degree of static indeterminacy or the degree of redundancy of
the structure.

2.4 Degree of Indeterminacy of Trusses

Every member of a truss carries one internal force, viz, an
axial force. This internal force represents one unknown, and
a truss with actual number of members m gives rise to m
unknowns. Also replacing the supports by the reactions that
they supply to the structure will give the additional
unknowns representing the magnitude of these reaction
components. If the number of the independent reaction
components is r, the total number of unknowns of a truss will
be . Now if the truss is in equilibrium, every isolated
portion must be in equilibrium. For a truss having j joints, the
entire truss may be separated into j free bodies, in which each
joint yields two equations of static equilibrium, ∑ and
∑ . From this a total of 2j independent equations are
obtained. Hence, the degree of static indeterminacy Dt of a
plane truss may be written as

(2.4)
 Stability and Determinacy of Framed Structures 4;

Also a criterion may be established to specify the

stability and determinacy of a truss as:

(i) If the truss is unstable

(ii) If the truss is statically determinate

(iii) If the truss is statically indeterminate

However, the satisfaction of condition does

not ensure a stable truss. As previously explained, for the
truss to be stable requires fulfillment of further conditions.
First, the value of r must be equal to or greater than the three
required for statical stability of supports. Next, there must be
no inadequacy in the arrangement of supports and members
so as to avoid both external and internal geometric
instability.

Basically, a stable truss can usually be obtained by

starting with three members pinned together at their ends in
the form of a triangle and then by extending from it by
adding two new bars for each new joint, as shown in Fig.
(2.4). Shapes can also be made stable by using a member to
tie the unstable truss to a stable support, as shown in Fig.
(2.5).

Figure (2.4) Stable shapes of trusses

53 Chapter Two

(a) (b)

Figure (2.5) (a) Unstable shapes, (b) stable shape

Example 2.1: Determine the degree of static indeterminacy

and the type of trusses.

Solution:
The trusses and the solution are given in Table (2.1).

Table (2.1)

Truss m r j Classification

Stable and
7 3 5 10=10 statically
determinate

6 3 5 9 >10 Unstable
Stability and Determinacy of Framed Structures 53

Table (2.1) continued

Truss m r j Classification
Statically
indeterminate,
the degree of
8 4 5 12 <10
static
indeterminacy
is 2

Unstable
(internal
b c geometric
6 4 5 10=10 instability due
to lack of lateral
a d resistance in
panel abcd)

2.5 Degree of Indeterminacy of Rigid Frames

Every member of a rigid plane frame carries three unknown
internal forces, viz, an axial force, a shearing force, and a
bending moment. If the number of members in a rigid frame
is m and the number of the independent reaction components
replacing the supports is r, the total number of unknowns in
the frame will be . For each isolated rigid joint there
are three equations of static equilibrium. Thus if the total
number of rigid joints is j, then 3j independent equations may
be written for the entire frame. Hence, the degree of static
54 Chapter Two

indeterminacy Df of a frame with all joints as rigid may be

written as
(2.5)
In hybrid type of frames, having some of the joints as
hinged and other as rigid, additional equations are provided.
Each hinged joint provides equations, where n is the
number of members meeting at that joint. This is right since
to convert a hinge joint to a rigid one, n bending moments
must be applied, one at each of the n members meeting at the
joint under consideration. As the sum of all these bending
moments must be zero, of these moments are
independent.
If there are k hinged joints in the frame, a total of
∑ independent equations exist, and the degree
of static indeterminacy is given by
(2.6)

A criterion may also be established to specify the

stability and determinacy of a frame as:

(i) If the frame is unstable

(ii) If the frame is statically

determinate provided that
it is also stable

(iii) If the frame is statically

indeterminate
Stability and Determinacy of Framed Structures 55

Example 2.2: Determine the degree of static indeterminacy

and the type of frames.

Solution:
The frames and the solution are given in Table (2.2)

Table (2.2)

Truss m r j c Classification

Statically
10 9 9 3 53 <53 indeterminate,
(Df =9)

Statically
11 9 10 1 64 <53 indeterminate,
(Df =11)

Statically
9 8 10 0 35 <30 indeterminate,
(Df =5)

Statically
6 6 6 2 24 <20 indeterminate,
(Df =4)
56 Chapter Two

A rigid frame is statically determinate internally if its

members form an open configuration resembling the
structure of a tree as shown in Fig. (2.6). If a rigid frame does
not have an open configuration, it is statically indeterminate
internally. A statically indeterminate frame may be converted
into stable and statically determinate parts by making
sufficient number of cuts so that the resulting configurations
are open. At each cut three internal forces will be released.
Therefore, the degree of static indeterminacy will be three
times the number of cuts.

Figure (2.6) Tree structure

Example 2.3: Determine the degree of static indeterminacy

for the rigid frame shown in Fig. (2.7).

Solution:
Open configuration can be obtained by introducing four cuts
in members 2-5, 3-4, 5-8, and 4-9. Thus the degree of static
indeterminacy Df is given by
 Stability and Determinacy of Framed Structures 57

This result can also be obtained by using Eq. (2.5). For this
frame , , which give

3 4 9

2 5 8

1 6 7

(a) (b)

Figure (2.7) (a) Actual frame, (b) resulting open configuration

Problems
2.1 through 2.10: Classify each of the plane trusses shown
as unstable, statically determinate, or statically indeterminate.
If the truss is statically indeterminate, then determine the
degree of static indeterminacy.

Figure P2.1 Figure P2.2 Figure P2.3

(Unstable) (Determinate) (Determinate)

58 Chapter Two

Figure P2.4
(Determinate)

Figure P2.5 Figure P2.6

(Indeterminate to 1º) (Determinate)

Figure P2.7

(Unstable)

Figure P2.8

(Unstable)
Stability and Determinacy of Framed Structures 59

Figure P2.9 Figure P2.10

(Determinate) (Indeterminate to 3º)

2.11 through 2.14: Classify each of the structures shown as

statically determinate, statically indeterminate, stable or
unstable. If the truss is statically indeterminate, then
determine the degree of static indeterminacy.

Figure P2.11
(Unstable)

Figure P2.12

(Indeterminate to 1º)
5: Chapter Two

Figure P2.13 Figure P2.14

(Indeterminate to 8º) (Indeterminate to 9º)

 Chapter
THREE

Statically Determinate Trusses

3.1 Introduction
A truss is a structure whose members are joined only at their
ends and arranged to give efficient transfer of forces to the
supports. Trusses are used extensively for bridges and roofs.

In analyzing trusses the following assumptions are

made:

1. The members are connected together with smooth

frictionless pins.

2. The individual members of the truss are straight.

3. The loads and reactions are applied to the truss only at

the joints.
04 Chapter Three

The effect of these assumptions is to produce an ideal

truss, whose members have only axial forces (tension or
compression).

3.2 Member Forces

One of primary tasks of the analysis of trusses is to calculate
the forces developed in individual members. Typically, the
entire truss is first considerd, and the reactions at supports are
calculated. The equations of static equilibrium, Eqs. (1.1) to
(1.3), are applied to the free-body diagram for the truss as a
whole to obtain the reactions. The important part of truss
analysis is then started and a portion of the truss is separated
by an imaginary section. This portion of the truss is removed
and studied independently. The loads applied to this free
body include the axial forces of the members that have been
cut by the section and any loads and reactions that may be
applied externally. Application of the equations of static
equilibrium to the isolated free body enables one to
determine the forces in the cut members if the free body is
carefully selected so that the section do not pass through too
many members whose forces are unknown.
Since neither the direction nor magnitude of the member
forces is known a priori, it is therefore necessary at the
beginning to indicate a direction for each of the member
forces. After the calculations have been carried out, the
Statically Determinate Trusses 04

assumed direction of a force is correct if the algebraic sign of

the result is positive and incorrect if the sign is negative.
Throughout this book, all member forces will initially be
assumed to be in tension. Arrows are used throughout the
text to represent the character of forces. The arrows indicate
what members are doing to resist the axial forces applied to
them by the remainder of the truss. The arrow convention for
members in compression is ( ), while that for
members in tension is just the opposite ( ).
If each joint is individually isolated and analyzed, this
procedure is called the method of joints. However, if the
selected section separates the truss into two portions and one
portion of the truss is analyzed, the method is called the
method of sections. These two methods will be discussed
individually in the next two sections.

3.3 Method of Joints

An imaginary section may be passed around a joint in a truss,
isolating it from the remainder of the truss. The joint has
become a free body that is in equilibrium under the forces
applied to it. Since the joint forces form concurrent planar
force system, two independent equilibrium equations,
∑ and ∑ , can be formulated at the joint. It is
possible to calculate the member forces by investigating the
04 Chapter Three

joints in a sequence that gives only two unknowns at the joint

under consideration.

Example 3.1: Calculate the forces in all members of the

truss shown in Fig. (3.1) using the method of joints.

60 kN

3m

2m
(a)

8m

60 kN

F23 F34 8
θ2 2
2 θ1
F25 F14 4 √68
F12 F45
θ2 5
H1 5 3 θ1
(b) 1 F15
4
R1 R5

F23 F34
60 kN F12
θ1 F14
θ1 4
2 θ2 θ2
θ2 1
θ1 3 F15
F25 F14
F23 F34 F12 F45 R1
(c) (d) (e) (f)
Figure (3.1)
Statically Determinate Trusses 04

Solution:
The first step is to determine the reactions. Taking the whole
truss as a free body, Fig. (3.1-b)

∑ +

∑ +:

+
∑

The second step is to proceed with the calculation of the

member forces. Because it is no more than two unknowns
can be determined at a joint by the two available equations of
static equilibrium (∑ and ∑ ), so one can begin
with joint 3 from which the forces F23 and F34 can be
calculated. From Fig. (3.1-c)
+
∑

∑ +

or where

compression

compression
00 Chapter Three

From Fig. (3.1-d)

+
∑

or ( ) where ,
√

tension

∑ +

compression where
√

From Fig. (3.1-e)

+
∑

tension

∑ +

compression

From Fig. (3.1-f)

+
∑

compression

Example 3.2: Calculate the forces in all members of the

truss shown in Fig. (3.2) using the method of joints.
Statically Determinate Trusses 04

24 kN

1992

3m 6.40

(a)
3m
6m 3m

24 kN
F45 5 F56
4 6

F14 1992 F34

F15
6.40

F26 F36
√90
(b) 3 ф
H1 3
1 F12 2 F23 9

R1 R3
F34 F36
F56
F26 6 ф
θ 3
F12 θ=45° F23
2 F23 F26 F36 R3
(c) (d) (e)
24 kN
F45 F56 F45
5 4
ф
θ
F15 F14 F34
(f) (g)

Figure (3.2)

Solution:
From Fig. (3.2-b) the reactions can be found
+
∑
04 Chapter Three

∑ +

∑ +:

The next step is two calculate the member forces. Because it

is no more than two unknowns can be determined at a joint
by the two available equations of static equilibrium, so for
this truss the solution must begin with either joint 2 or joint 5
from which the forces F26 and F15, respectively, can be
calculated from the vertical equilibrium of the joints. Starting
with joint 2 and from Fig. (3.2-c)

∑ +:

+
∑

(1)

From joint 6, Fig. (3.2-d)

+
∑

∑ +:

From joint 3, Fig. (3.2-e)

Statically Determinate Trusses 04

∑ +:

compression
+
∑

tension

and from Eq. (1), tension

From joint 5, Fig. (3.2-f)

∑ +:

compression
+
∑

tension

Finally from joint 4, Fig. (3.2-g)

∑ +:

tension

3.4 Method of Sections

In this method, the truss is cut off into two portions by an
imaginary section passing through the members, the forces in
which are to be determined. The section should pass through
the truss in such a way that it will not cut more than three
members with unknown forces at a time. Next the conditions
04 Chapter Three

of equilibrium (∑ ,∑ , and ∑ ) are to be

applied to one portion of the truss which is assumed to be in
equilibrium under the action of the external applied loads and
the forces in cut members. The resulted equations will give
the member forces. It is convenient to determine the forces in
members by considering the equations of static equilibrium
in terms of moments, this will usually minimize the
calculations. For this the method is also known as the method
of moments.

The distinguishing feature of the method of sections is

that it enables one to determine the force in particular
member of a truss without first having to determine many
other member forces, as one might have to do with the
method of joints.

Example 3.3: Calculate the member force F15 for the truss
shown in Fig. (3.3) using the method of sections.

Solution:
In this example the reactions need not to be determined,
although the truss is statically indeterminate externally.

The possible section passing through the member 1-5 is

a section k-k. But it is clear that four members will be cut by
this section, therefore the force in one member must be
Statically Determinate Trusses 04

predetermined. So begin with the calculation of the force in

the member 1-2 by taking the section n-n and using the free-
body to the right of the section, Fig. (3.3-b)

∑ +

compression

10 kN 10 kN 5 kN
k n
6 5 4 3
3m

1 k n 2
4m 4m 4m

(a)

10 kN 10 kN 5 kN
F45 F45
6 5 ф 4 3

F14
F14

1 F12 F12 2

(b)

10 kN 10 kN 5 kN
F56 F56 8
6 θ 5 ф 4 3 ф
3
F15 F15 √73
F14
F14 4
3 θ
1 F12 F12 5
2

(c)

Figure (3.3)
44 Chapter Three

Then from section k-k and considering also the free body to
the right of the section, Fig. (3.3-c)

∑ +

compression

Example 3.4: Find the forces in all members of the truss

shown in Fig. (3.4)

Solution:
From the free-body of the whole truss, Fig. (3.4-b) the
reactions can be calculated
+
∑

∑ +

∑ +:

To find the member forces one must start with a section

passing through the members 1-4, 2-5, and 3-6 as shown in
Fig. (3.4-c). From the free body of the inner triangle, Fig.
(3.4-d)

∑ +
Statically Determinate Trusses 44

1m1m

20 kN 2

4m

4 5
2m
6
2m
30 kN
1 3
(a)
5m 5m

20 kN 2

F25
F12 F45
4 5 F23
F46 F56
(b)
F14 6
F36
1 30 kN
3
H1 F13

R1 R3
2

Selected
Section
θ3
4 5

(c) 6
θ4
θ1 θ2
1 3

5.657 5.385 4.123 9.434

4 4 8
θ1 2 θ2 θ3 θ4
4 5 1 5

Figure (3.4)
44 Chapter Three

1m 1m

F25
4
4 θ3 θ1 F45
5 θ5
θ1
F14 F46
2m
F14
6 θ2 F36
2 θ5 2.236
30 kN 1
(d) (e)

F12
F23 F25
F14 F36
θ4
1 θ1 θ4 θ3
F13 F13 θ2 3 F45 5
H1
θ5
R1 R3 F56
(f) (g) (h)

Figure (3.4) Continued

(1)

∑ +

(2)

∑ +

(3)

Solving Eqs. (1) to (3) simultaneously gives

Statically Determinate Trusses 44

compression

tension

compression

The remaining member forces may be calculated by

using the method of joints. From joint 4, Fig (3.4-e)

∑ +:

tension
+
∑

compression

From joint 1, Fig (3.4-f)

∑ +:

tension
+
∑

tension

From joint 3, Fig (3.4-g)

∑ +:

compression

From joint 5, Fig (3.4-i)

∑ +:

tension
40 Chapter Three

Problems

3.1 through 3.4: Determine the force in each member of the

trusses shown by the method of joints.
25 kN E

6m

50 kN D
C
6m

A B
Figure P3.1 5m

( kN T, kN T, kN T, kN C,
kN C, kN T, kN C)

10 kN 20 kN 10 kN

15 kN E F G

6m
8m D
C
B
A
4m 4m 4m 4m

Figure P3.2
Statically Determinate Trusses 44

(Start with joint C or D, , , kN C,

kN C, , kN C, kN C, kN C,
kN C, kN C)

3m
H F
3m
A E
B C D
10 kN 10 kN 10 kN
4 @ 4 m = 16 m

Figure P3.3

( kN C, kN T, kN T, kN T,
kN C, kN C, kN C, kN
T)

2 kN 2 kN

F E
6 kN 6 kN
3m
A B C D
4m 4m 4m

Figure P3.4

( kN C, kN C, kN T, kN C,
kN C, kN T, kN T, kN C,
kN C)
44 Chapter Three

3.5 through 3.9: Determine the forces in the members

identified by "x" for the trusses shown by the method of
sections.
6m 6m

25 kN L M
N
8m
50 kN I J
K

8m
50 kN F G
H
8m
50 kN C D
E
8m
Figure P3.5 A B

( kN T, kN C, kN C)

70 kN

G
50 kN 50 kN
3m
F H
3m
A E
B C D
4 @ 4 m = 16 m

Figure P3.6

( kN T, kN C, kN C)
Statically Determinate Trusses 44

J
I K 5m
10 m
H L
15 m
A G
B C D E F

20 kN 20 kN 20 kN 20 kN 20 kN
6 @ 20 m = 120 m

Figure P3.7

( kN C, kN T)

8 @ 4 m = 32 m
60 kN

L 40 kN
80 kN

K M
80 kN 40 kN

J G H N 8m
80 kN 40 kN

I O
40 kN 20 kN

A B C D E F
5m 5m 6m 6m 5m 5m

Figure P3.8

( kN T, kN C, kN T,
kN C)
44 Chapter Three

N O P
10 kN
10 m
20 kN J K L M
10 m
A I
B C D E F G H

30 kN 30 kN 30 kN 30 kN 30 kN 30 kN 30 kN
8 @ 10 m = 80 m

Figure P3.9

( kN T, kN T, kN T,
kN C)
 Chapter
FOUR

Statically Determinate Beams

and Frames

4.1 Introduction
As mentioned earlier, the purpose of structural analysis is to
determine the reactions at the supports and the internal forces
at any section of a structure. In beams and plane frames in
which all the forces on the structure lie in one plane, the
resultant of stresses at any section has generally three
components: an axial force N, a shearing force V, and a
bending moment M. These three components on any cross
section can be studied by passing an imaginary section that
cuts the structure along this cross section and isolates a
convenient portion of the structure as a free body. The
required internal forces acting on the cross section can be
computed by applying the equations of static equilibrium on
the isolated portion of the structure.
60 Chapter Four

To prove that a shearing force and a bending moment

will develop due to a transverse load on the structure,
consider the cantilever beam in Fig. (4.1). An imaginary
section is used to cut the beam at a distance x from the free
end. When one considers the external load W acting on the
portion of the beam to the right of the section, Fig. (4.1-b), it
is apparent that this portion is not in static equilibrium under
the external load acting alone. Since the beam as a whole is
in equilibrium, then each portion of it must be in equilibrium.
It is therefore necessary that there shall be internal forces
over the internal face which have been exposed by the
imaginary cut. These internal forces must be of such
magnitude that their resultant effect balances the external
load acting on the isolated portion and therefore maintains
the portion in a state of static equilibrium. The required
forces at the section at x from the free end may be deduced as
follows. Two forces (one upward and the other downward)
each equal W are applied at the section x as shown in Fig.
(4.1-c). Since these two forces are equal and opposite, they
will cancel each other, and they will act, as if no force has
been applied. The point load W at the free end and the
upward force W at x constitute a couple of moment .
This will lead to the load system shown in Fig. (4.1-d). This
load system is equivalent to the original load W in Fig. (4.1-
b). To balance the forces in Fig. (4.1-d) a load and a moment
Statically Determinate Beams and Frames 61

must be applied at the section x as shown in Fig. (4.1-e).

These represent the shearing force and the bending moment
required to balance the original load W.
W

x
l
(a)

W W W W W
M=W.x

x M=W.x W
W
x
(b) (c) (d) (e)
Figure (4.1) Internal force in beam

4.2 Method of Computation of Internal Forces

The procedure for computing the axial force, shearing force,
and bending moment at any section of a member can easily
be explained as follows.

Axial Force
The axial force at any transverse cross section of a straight
beam is the algebraic sum of the component acting parallel to
the axis of the member of all the loads and reactions applied
to the portion of the member on either side of that cross
section.
62 Chapter Four

For curved members the summation is done of the force

components parallel to the tangent to the curve at the selected
cross section.

Shearing Force
The shearing force at any transverse cross section of a
straight member is the algebraic sum of the components
acting transverse to the axis of the member of all loads and
reactions applied to the portion of the member on either side
of the cross section.

For curved members the summation is done of the force

components transverse to the tangent to the curve at the
selected cross section.

Bending Moment
The bending moment at any transverse cross section of a
member is the algebraic sum of the moments, taken about an
axis normal to the plane of loading and passing through the
cross section, of all the loads and reactions applied to the
portion of member on either side of the cross section.

4.3 Sign Conventions

The following sign convention will be used to designate the
directions of the axial force, shearing force, and bending
moment at any transverse cross section of a member. The
Statically Determinate Beams and Frames 63

convention is that ordinarily used in structural engineering.

As shown in Fig. (4.2), the axial force is positive when it
tends to pull the two portions of a member apart, i.e., when it

+ axial force

+ shearing force

+ bending moment

Figure (4.2) Positive sign convention

tends to produce a tensile stress on the cross section. The

shear force is positive when it tends to push the left portion
upward with respect to the right. The bending moment is
positive when it tends to produce tension in the lower fibers
of the members and compression in the upper fibers, i.e., to
bend the member concave upward. Many members are
horizontal, and this convention can be applied without
confusion. When a member is not horizontal, however, either
64 Chapter Four

side may be selected as the lower side and the previous

convention applied to correspond.

Example 4.1: Calculate the axial force, shearing force, and

bending moment at the section 1-1 for the simply supported
beam in Fig. (4.3).
50 kN
1
20 kN 4 20 kN
3

1m1
2m 2m 2m 2m

(a)

40 kN
20 kN 20 kN
30 kN
a b
Ha
Ra (b) Rb

20 kN M
Ha=30 kN a N

Ra=40 kN V
(c)
Figure (4.3)

Solution:
The applied load is decomposed to its components as
shown in Fig. (4.3-b). From this figure the reactions can be
determined as:
Statically Determinate Beams and Frames 65

+
∑

∑ +

∑ +

The axial force, shearing force, and bending moment at

section 1-1 can be calculated using either the free-body
diagram to the left or to the right of the section. The
calculations are more simpler when the portion of the beam
to the left of the section is considered. From Fig. (4.3-c)

Axial force compression

Shearing force

Bending moment

4.4 Axial Force, Shearing Force and Bending

Moments Diagrams
It is clear that the values of the axial force, shearing force or
bending moment are different at the different sections on a
structure. This means that the value of each of these internal
forces is a function of position on the members of the
structure. For a full understanding of the behaviour of the
66 Chapter Four

structure the values of various internal forces are needed at

all points on the structure. Therefore, it is important to draw
diagrams from which the value of the internal forces at any
cross section can be obtained. Such diagrams can be
constructed for each member in a structure by drawing a base
line corresponding in length to the axis of the member and
then plotting ordinates at points along this base line which
indicate the values of the internal forces. Three separate
diagrams one for each of the internal forces, the axial force,
shearing force, and bending moment, are to be plotted. The
positive values of axial force, shearing force or bending
moment are plotted as upward ordinates from the base line
and the negative values as downward ordinates. These
diagrams are called axial force, shearing force, and bending
moment diagrams.

4.5 Relationships between Load, Shearing Force,

and Bending Moment
There exist certain simple mathematical relationships
between the load, the shearing force, and the bending
moment in a member of a structure, which can be extremely
useful in the construction of the shearing force and bending
moment diagrams. To derive these relationships consider the
beam shown in Fig. (4.4-a). A differential element is cut
from the beam for which a free-body diagram is shown in
Statically Determinate Beams and Frames 67

Fig. (4.4-b). This element has a shearing force V and a

bending moment M acting on its left face and a shearing
force V+dV and a bending moment M+dM acting on its right
face. The quantities dV and dM represent the changes in the
shearing force and bending moment that occur over the
distance dx. All forces are shown acting in positive
directions.

w(x)
P0

M0
dx (a)
w(x)
P0

M M+dM M M+dM

V V+dV V V+dV
dx dx

(b) M0 (c)

M M+dM

V V+dV
dx

(d)

Figure (4.4) (a) Loaded beam, (b) differential element at

distributed load, (c) differential element at Po, (d) differential
element at M0
68 Chapter Four

Writing an equation of equilibrium for forces in the

vertical direction gives

∑ +

from which

(4.1)

This can also be written in the form

(4.2)

Equation (4.1) states that the change in the value of shearing

force between two points along the member is equal to the
area of the load diagram between these points. The minus
sign indicates that a downward load results in an algebraic
decrease in the shearing force (whenever one passes from the
left to the right of such a load). While Eq. (4.2) indicates that
the slope of the shearing force diagram at any point is equal
to the intensity of the distributed load at that point.

A second relationship is obtained by summing moments

about a point on the left-hand face of the element. Thus

∑ +

Neglecting higher order terms gives

(4.3)

or
Statically Determinate Beams and Frames 69

(4.4)

Equation (4.3) states that the change in bending moment

between two points along a member is equal to the area of
the shearing force diagram between these points. Also Eq.
(4.4) states that the slope of the bending moment diagram at
any point is equal to the shearing force at that point.

For a second differential element at the concentrated

load P0, Fig. (4.4-c), writing an equation of vertical
equilibrium gives

(4.5)

This equation states that the shearing force decreases by an

amount equal to the concentrated load whenever one passes
from the left to the right of such a load.

Similarly, by writing an equation of moment

equilibrium for the differential element in the vicinity of a
concentrated moment M0, Fig. (4.4-d), one gets

(4.6)

which states that the concentrated moment M0 results in an

abrupt change, equal to M0, in the bending moment as one
passes from the left to the right of the point of application of
the concentrated moment.
70 Chapter Four

The above ideas can be utilized most efficiently in

constructing the shearing force and bending moment
diagrams for members subjected to transverse loads. When a
member, for example, is subjected to concentrated loads,
then the following principles may be used:

1. The shearing force changes abruptly in value at each

concentrated load and remains constant in value
between loads.

2. The bending moment diagram consists of a series of

straight lines whose slopes are positive or negative
depending on whether the shearing force is positive or
negative in the given region.

3. The maximum bending moment occurs where the

shearing force changes sign.

However, for a member with uniformly distributed load

the shearing force diagram is a linear function of x and the
bending moment diagram is a quadratic function of x. In
addition, the maximum value of the bending moment occurs
either where the shearing force is zero or where it changes
sign. Although the shearing force and bending moment
diagrams must be drawn using the actual distributed load, in
calculating the reactions one can replace the distributed load
by a single concentrated force.
Statically Determinate Beams and Frames 71

Example 4.2: Draw the shearing force and bending moment

diagrams using the differential equations of equilibrium for
the beam shown in Fig. (4.5).

10 kN/m 20 kN

(a)

6m 4m 4m

10 kN/m 20 kN

H1 c d (b)
a b e
R1 R2

+34 kN
+20 kN
+ g h + (c)
f j
3.4 m — i
-26 kN

+57.8 kN.m
2 nd degree curve
+ +24 kN.m
(d)
—

-80 kN.m

Figure (4.5) (a) Loaded beam, (b) free-body diagram of beam, (c)
shearing force diagram, (d) bending moment diagram (on
compression side)
72 Chapter Four

Solution:
Reactions, from Fig. (4.5-b):
+
∑

∑ + ( )

∑ +

Shearing force diagram: from Fig. (4.5-b):

The shearing force diagram can be constructed depending on
the load diagram, Fig. (4.5-b). Starting at the left end, point a,
the shearing force diagram rises abruptly to a value of .
From point a to point b the shearing force diagram is linear.
The change in shearing force between these two points
which gives a shearing force at point b
equal to . Between these two
points the shearing force diagram must have a constant slope
equal to . From point b to point c, the change in
shearing force is zero, since , and the diagram is
horizontal. From point c to point d, an abrupt increase of
in shearing force occurs due to the concentrated load
R2. This increase will give a value of shearing force at point
d equal to . From point d to point
e, the change in shearing force is zero, since , and the
Statically Determinate Beams and Frames 73

diagram is horizontal. The shearing force diagram is given in

Fig. (4.5-c).

Bending moment diagram:

The bending moment diagram can be constructed depending
on the shearing force diagram in Fig. (4.5-c). The bending
moment diagram between points f and h is a quadratic
function of x that starts at zero at point f with a positive slope
of . Proceeding to the right toward point g, the
magnitude of slope remains positive but linearly decreases to
zero at the point of maximum bending moment, point g. The
change in bending moment between points f and g is
which gives a

bending moment of at point g.

From points g to h the slope of the diagram further linearly
decreases to a slope of at point h. The change in
bending moment between points g and h is

which gives a moment

at point h. From points h to i the
bending moment diagram is linear with a constant slope of
. The change in bending moment between these two
points is which gives a
bending moment at point i.
There is an abrupt change in the slope of bending moment
diagram from to at point i. From points i to j the
74 Chapter Four

diagram is linear with constant slope of . The change in

bending moment between points i and j is
which gives a bending moment
at point j.

Example 4.3: Draw the shearing force and bending moment

diagrams for hinged beam shown in Fig. (4.6).

Solution:
Reactions:

From Fig. (4.6-b) using the equations of condition that is the

bending moment B.M. is zero at the two internal hinges at
points 4 and 6,

B.M.=0 at hinge 4 (considering the forces to the left of

the hinge)

or (1)

B.M.=0 at hinge 6 (considering the forces to the left of

the hinge)

or (2)

Solving Eqs. (1) and (2) simultaneously gives

Statically Determinate Beams and Frames 75

12 kN/m
100 kN 50 kN 8 kN/m

6m 6m 2m 4m 6m 9m

(a)

12 kN/m M7
100 kN 50 kN 8 kN/m

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 H7
R1 R3 R7

(b)

+54 kN
+43 kN
+30 kN
+ + +
—
— -20 kN —

-57 kN 2 nd degree curve -56 kN

(c)

+258 kN.m
+120 kN.m
+ +
—
2 nd degree —
-84 kN.m curve
3 rd degree
(d) curve -396 kN.m

Figure (4.6) (a) Hinged beam, (b) free-body diagram of beam, (c)
shearing force diagram, (d) bending moment diagram (on
compression side)
76 Chapter Four

Using the equations of static equilibrium

+
∑

∑ +

∑ +

Shearing force diagram:

The shearing force diagram is constant in regions between
points 1 and 2, points 2 and 3, points 4 and 5, and points 5
and 6. It is linear in the region between points 3 and 4 with
constant slope of . From points 6 and 7 the diagram is a
quadratic function with a slope of at point 6 and increases
to zero at point 7. For the regions with constant shearing
force, one section may be selected in each region to calculate
the value of shearing force. These values are , ,
, and for the four regions mentioned above,
respectively. For region 3-4 where the shearing force
diagram is linear, two points are required to draw the straight
line. Thus two sections are selected, the first is to the right of
point 3 and the second at point 4. The values of shearing
Statically Determinate Beams and Frames 77

force at these two sections are and ,

respectively. In region 6-7 the shearing force must be
determined at some sections to draw the diagram in this
region. The value of shearing force to the left of point 7 is
. The shearing force diagram is shown in Fig. (4.6-c).

Bending moment diagram:

The bending moment diagram is linear in regions 1-2, 2-3, 4-
5, and 5-6. It is a second degree parabola in region 3-4 and
third degree parabola in region 6-7. There are extreme values
at sections 2,3, and 5 since the shearing force changes sign at
these sections. The values of bending moment at these
sections are , , and , respectively. The
bending moment is zero at the roller, point 1, and at the two
internal hinges 4 and 6. Since there is a concentrated moment
at 7, abrupt change of occurs
to the left of support 7. The bending moment diagram is
given in Fig. (4.6-d).

Example 4.4: Draw the axial force, shearing force, and

bending moment diagrams for the frame shown in Fig. (4.7).

Solution:
Reactions: From Fig. (4.7-b)

∑ +
78 Chapter Four

30 kN/m

2m
40 kN 40 kN
(a)
2m

14 m 4m
30 kN/m

5 6 7
40 kN 40 kN
3 4
(b)
H1 1 2
R1 R2
40 kN (C)
0

(c)

204.3 kN 335.7 kN
(C) (C)
204.3 kN
120 kN
6.81 m

40 kN 40 kN
(d)
80 kN 215.7 kN 0

Figure (4.7) (a) Loaded frame, (b) free-body diagram of frame, (c)
axial force diagram, (d) shearing force diagram, (e) bending moment
diagram (on compression side)
Statically Determinate Beams and Frames 79

455.6 kN.m

240 kN.m 80 kN.m

3480.28
240 kN.m 24 kN.m
160 kN.m 319.8 kN.m
(e)
0

Figure (4.7) Continued

∑ +

∑ +

Axial force diagram:

The axial force diagram is shown in Fig. (4.7-c). The axial
force is constant in member 1-5 and it is equal to R1. It is
constant in member 2-6 of value R2. Also the axial force is
constant of value in member 5-6. The value of axial
force is zero in member 6-7. In all members the axial force is
compressive.

Shearing force diagram:

The shearing force diagram is given in Fig. (4.7-d). The
shearing force is constant in regions 1-3, 3-5, 2-4, and 4-6,
80 Chapter Four

while it varies linearly in regions 5-6 and 6-7. Numerical

values can easily be computed at selected sections.

Bending moment diagram:

The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. (4.7-e). The
bending moment diagram must be linear in regions 1-3, 3-5,
2-4, and 4-6 and a quadratic function in regions 5-6 and 6-7.
Maximum bending moment occurs at a distance of 6.81m
from point 5 in member 5-6 where the shearing force is zero.

Example 4.5: Draw the axial force, shearing force, and

bending moment diagrams for the frame shown in Fig. (4.8).

Solution:
Reactions: From Fig. (4.8-b)

Bending moment B.M.=0 at internal hinge 4

or (1)

B.M.=0 at internal hinge 3

or (2)

Solving Eqs. (1) and (2) simultaneously gives

Statically Determinate Beams and Frames 81

2 kN/m

2
3 4 5
4
4m 3

1 6
3m 2m 8m 2m
(a)
2 kN/m

2
3 4 5
5
4
M1 3

H1 1 6 H6

(b) R1 R6

2
5
4
3
F1
(c) H1 1 M1

N1
R1

4 kN (C)

8.8 kN
(C) 8 kN
(C)

(d)

Figure (4.8) (a) Loaded frame, (b) free-body diagram of frame,

(c) reactions at fixed supports, (d) axial force diagram, (e) shearing
force diagram, (f) bending moment diagram (on compression side)
82 Chapter Four

8 kN

1.6 kN
4 kN
-8 kN

(e)

16 kN.m

16 kN.m
16 kN.m
16 kN.m
(f) 16 kN.m

24 kN.m

Figure (4.8) Continued

From the equations of static equilibrium

+
∑

∑ +

B.M.=0 at the internal hinge 3 (considering the forces to

the left of the hinge)
Statically Determinate Beams and Frames 83

To draw the axial force and shearing force diagrams for the
inclined member 1-2, the reactions R1 and H1 are required to
decompose, each of which to its components parallel and
transverse to the member axis. Then the resultant forces
parallel and transverse to the member N1 and F1 are
computed. From Fig. (4.8-c)

Axial force diagram:

The Axial force diagram is shown in Fig. (4.8-d). The axial
force is constant in all members 1-2, 2-5, and 5-6.

Shearing force diagram:

The shearing force diagram is given in Fig. (4.8-e). The
shearing force is constant in members 1-2, 2-3, 4-5, and 5-6.
It is a linear function in member 3-4.

Bending moment diagram:

The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. (4.8-f). The
bending moment varies linearly in regions 1-2, 2-3, 4-5, and
5-6. It is a second order parabola in region 3-4. The bending
moment is zero at the three hinges 3, 4, and 6. A maximum
value of bending moment occurs in member 3-4 where the
shearing force is zero. The section of zero shearing force is at
a distance 4m from the hinge 3. The bending moment at this
84 Chapter Four

section is . An abrupt change in bending moment

occurs at support 1 due to the presence of the concentrated
moment M1.

Example 4.6: A three hinged arch is in the form of a

parabola with , where x and y are both in meters,
as shown in Fig. (4.9). Calculate the bending moment at
points d and f.

Solution:
Reactions: From Fig. (4.9-b)

Bending moment B.M.=0 at internal hinge e

or (1)

∑ +

or (2)

Solving Eqs. (1) and (2) simultaneously gives

+
∑
Statically Determinate Beams and Frames 85

10 kN
10 kN
10 kN
d e 60 kN
c
20 m b
a f
45 m

(a) g

4@10 m=40 m 40 m 20 m

10 kN
10 kN
10 kN
d e 60 kN
c
b
Ha a f
Ra
(b)
g Hg

Rg
10 2
 1.25 m
80
x e

18.75 m

a
45 m
30 m 10 m x2
y
80

(c) g
y
60 m

Figure (4.9) (a) Loaded arch, (b) free-body diagram of arch,

(c) properties of parabola
86 Chapter Four

∑ +

Bending moment at

Bending moment at

Example 4.7: A three hinged arch is in the form of a

parabola with , where x and y are both in meters,
as shown in Fig. (4.10). Calculate the axial force, shearing
force, and bending moment at point c.

Solution:
Reactions: From Fig. (4.10-b)

Bending moment =0 at the internal hinge b

or (1)

∑ +

or (2)

Solving Eqs. (1) and (2) simultaneously gives

Statically Determinate Beams and Frames 87

5 kN/m x b
x2
y 20 m
y 80

a c

25 m

d
(a) 40 m 40 m 20 m

5 kN/m b

Ha a
Ra

d Hd
(b)
Rd

Normal to
Tangent to parabola tangent
at point c Ө
c

(c) Hd=20 kN
d
Ө

Ө
Rd=15 kN

Figure (4.10) (a) Loaded arch, (b) free-body diagram of arch,

(c) segment of arch
88 Chapter Four

To determine the internal forces at point c a section is

assumed to pass through this point and the portion of the arch
to the right of this section is isolated as shown in Fig. (4.10-
c). The reactions Rd and Hd must be decomposed to their
components parallel and transverse to the tangent of the
parabola at point c. These components will determine the
axial force and shearing force at c. This requires the
determination of the angle of inclination of the tangent line,
i.e. the angle θ in Fig. (4.10-c).

The slope of parabola

Since the slope of a curve is equal to the slope of the tangent

line at the point of contact, therefore the tangent of the angle
of inclination of the tangent line is

tan θ

The x coordinate of point c is which gives

tan θ

and

Now, the use of definitions of internal forces as explained in

article 4.2, gives:

Axial force at

compression
Statically Determinate Beams and Frames 89

Shearing force at

Bending moment at

Problems

4.1 through 4.4: Draw the shearing force and bending

moment diagrams for the beams shown.
100 kN 60 kN

A D
B C
5m 10 m 5m

Figure P4.1

( kN, kN, kN,

kN.m, kN.m)

75 kN 25 kN/m

A B C D
6m 6m 6m

Figure P4.2

( kN, kN, ,
kN.m)
90 Chapter Four

150 kN 60 kN
12 kN/m

A
B C D
6m 6m 5m
Figure P4.3
( kN, kN, kN,
kN, kN, kN, kN.m,
kN.m)

100 kN 200 kN 30 kN/m

A F
B C D E
10 m 5m 5m 5m 10 m

Figure P4.4
( kN, kN,
kN, kN, kN,
kN.m, kN.m, kN.m)

4.5 through 4.8: Draw the axial force, shearing force, and
bending moment diagrams for the frames shown.
15 m 15 m
25 kN

A B
10 m
12 kN

10 m
Figure P4.5 C
Statically Determinate Beams and Frames 91

(Member AB: kN, kN.m,

Member BC: kN, kN.m, kN)

12 kN/m
1
100 kN B C 2

4m

A
1.5 m 1.5 m 5m

Figure P4.6

(Member AB: kN, kN.m, kN

Member BC: kN, kN.m, kN)

15 kN/m

C D E
6m
12
9 m kN/m
B

A
10 m 5m

Figure P4.7

(Member AC: kN, kN.m, kN

Member BD: , kN
92 Chapter Four

Member CE: kN, kN.m, )

10 m 10 m
30 kN

B C
1.5 16 m
kN/m
24 m
D

A
3 kN/m

Figure P4.8

(Member AB: kN, kN.m, kN

Member BC: kN, kN.m, kN

Member CD: kN, kN.m, )

 Chapter
FIVE

Influence Lines

5.1 Introduction
Nearly all structures are subjected to moving loads. Perhaps
bridges with their vehicular traffic are the most noticeable
examples, but industrial buildings with traveling cranes,
office buildings with furniture and human loads, and so forth,
are in the same category.

As the applied loading on a structure changes location,

the reactions, member axial forces, shearing forces, and
bending moments change value corresponding.

Each member of a structure must be designed for the

most severe conditions that can possibly develop in that
member. Since the stresses produces in a member of a
structure by the moving load varies with the position of the
 83 Chapter Five

load on the structure, the question arises as to where to place

the moving load so that the effect on the structure is most
critical. It is therefore necessary to resort to certain criteria or
diagrams to find the load location. The most useful of these
devices is the influence line.

5.2 Definition of Influence Line

An influence line may be defined as a diagram whose
ordinate at any point equals the value of some particular
function of a structure due to a unit load acting at that point.
The functions that may be represented include reactions,
axial forces, shearing forces, bending moments, and
deflections.

Typically, a single concentrated load with a value of one

unit is positioned at every possible load application point on
the structure and the value of the required function is
calculated. Hence, this particular function can be expressed
in terms of the location of the applied loading. The results are
displayed as a graph with the abscissa representing distance
along the structure and the ordinate representing the value of
the function. If the unit applied load is considered to be
dimensionless, the ordinates representing the values of a
reaction, shearing force, and axial force are also
dimensionless, while those of bending moment is in units of
length.
 Influence Lines 84

5.3 Properties of Influence Line

For statically determinate structures, influence lines for all
functions except deflections are always made of straight line
segments. Influence lines can be used for two very important
purposes: (1) to determine what position of loads will lead to
a maximum value of the particular function for which an
influence line has been constructed; (2) to compute the value
of that function for any loading condition.

Since the ordinate of an influence line equals the value

of a particular function due to a unit load acting at the point
where the ordinate is measured, the following theorems hold.

Theorem 1
To obtain the maximum value of a function due to a single
concentrated load, the load should be placed at the point
where the ordinate of the influence line for that function is a
maximum.

It is obvious that if the maximum positive value of a

function is desired, the load should be placed at the point
where the ordinate of the influence line has its maximum
positive value, while if the maximum negative value is to be
obtained, the position of the load is determined by the
maximum negative ordinate.
 85 Chapter Five

Theorem 2
The value of a function due to the action of a single
concentrated load equals the product of the magnitude of the
load and the ordinate of the influence line for that function,
measured at the point of application of the load.

This follows from the principle of superposition.

Further, the total value of a function due to more than one
concentrated load can be obtained by superimposing the
separate effects of each concentrated load, as determined by
Theorem 2. As shown in Fig. (5.1), since y1, y2, and y3 are
the values of the function due to a unit load at the respective
positions where y1, y2, and y3 are measured, the presence of
loads W1, W2, and W3 at those positions will give a value of
the function equal to

(5.1)

W1 W2 W3

(a)

Influence line

(b) y1 y2 y3

Figure (5.1) (a) Loaded beam segment, (b) influence line

ordinates
 Influence Lines 86

Theorem 3
To obtain the maximum value of a function due to a
uniformly distributed load, the load should be placed over all
those portions of the structure for which the ordinates of the
influence line for that function have the sign of character of
the function desired.

Theorem 4
The value of a function due to a uniformly distributed load is
equal to the product of the intensity of the loading and the net
area under that portion of the influence line, for the function
under consideration, which corresponds to the portion of the
structure loaded.

This theorem can be proved as follows. If a distributed

load is applied over a portion of a structure, its effect
can be calculated by considering the distributed load as a
series of concentrated loads each of which is with magnitude
of as shown in Fig. (5.2). The effect of the
differential concentrated load at a distance x is given
by Theorem 2 as

where y(x) is the influence line ordinate at the position of the

load . The total value of the function F due to the
load between points x1 and x2 is obtained by integrating dF
between these two points, as
 87 Chapter Five

q(x)
(a)
x1
x dx
x2

q(x).dx

(b)

(c) y1 y(x) y2

Figure (5.2) (a) Beam segment loaded by distributed load, (b)

differential concentrated load at distance x, (c) portion of influence
line

∫ ∫ (5.2)

If the loading is uniformly distributed (q=constant), the value

of F according to Eq. (5.2) is

∫ (5.3)

The integral in Eq. (5.3) represents the area under the

influence line between points x1 and x2.

5.4 Influence Lines for Beams

The influence lines for reactions, shearing forces, and
bending moments for statically determinate beams are always
made of linear segments. For such structures, ordinates of the
 Influence Lines 88

influence line for a particular function may be computed by

one of the three following methods:

1. A unit load is placed successively at a number of the

positions it could occupy in a transit across the
structure. For each such position of the load, the
particular function is computed. Plotting the computed
values of the function gives the desired influence line.
This is a straightforward but laborious procedure.

2. The position of the unit load is located by the distance x

from the end or some other key point along the
structure, and the particular function of interest is then
computed in terms of x. This expression for the function
can be interpreted as the equation defining the shape of
the influence line. As soon as the unit load moves past a
support point or another key location along the
structure, the expression for the function changes. As
the load moves along into the next portion of the
structure, its position will be defined by an x distance
measured from a new convenient origin and a new
expression for the function must be computed.

3. Enough points are specified on the structure. These are

the points where discontinuities or changes in slope
occur in an influence line. Computation of the particular
function for a unit load at these key locations gives the
011 Chapter Five

corresponding key ordinates, which can then be

connected by straight-line segments to obtain the
complete influence line. The key points include the
points of supports, the ends of beam when there are
overhangs, the internal hinges if any, the point where
the influence line for bending moment is desired, and in
vicinity of the point where the influence line for
shearing force is desired (one point to left and one point
to right of this point). This method is preferred for
beams whose influence lines consist of several straight
line segments, since it requires less computation effort.

Example 5.1: Draw the influence lines for the reactions of

the beam shown in Fig. (5.3).

Solution:
From Fig. (5.3-b):

∑ +

When ,

When ,

∑ +

Since and ,

When ,
Influence Lines 010

(a)
L

P=1

(b)
1 2
R1 x R2

+1
(c)
I.L for R1

+1
(d) I.L for R2

Figure (5.3)

When ,

The influence lines for R1 and R2 are shown in Figs. (5.3-c)

and (5.3-d), respectively.

Example 5.2: Draw the influence lines for the reactions of

the beam shown in Fig. (5.4).

Solution:
From Fig. (5.4-b):

∑ +

∑ +
011 Chapter Five

When ,

When ,

The influence lines for R1 and M1 are shown in Figs. (5.4-c)

and (5.4-c), respectively.

(a)
L

P=1
M1
(b)
1 2
R1 x

+1
(c) I.L for R1

(d)
I.L for M1
-L
Figure (5.4)

Example 5.3: Draw the influence line for the shearing force
at point a for the beam shown in Fig. (5.5).

Solution:
Influence Lines 012

a
(a)
c
L

P=1
a
(b)
1 2
R1b x1 R2b

P=1
a
(c)
1 2
R1c R2c
x2

c
1
Parallel lines L
(d)
c I.L for Va

L

Figure (5.5)

It is necessary to write an expression for the shearing force at

point a (Va) when the loading is between point 1 and a and
another when it moves between points a and 2.

For is between points 1 and a, , and

from Fig. (5.5-b)

∑ +
013 Chapter Five

The shearing force at point a (Va) considering the portion of

beam to the right of a is

When ,

When ,

For is between points a and 2, ,

and from Fig. (5.5-c)

∑ +

Considering the portion of beam to the left of a, the shearing

force at a (Va) is given by

When ,

When ,

The influence line for Va is shown in Fig. (5.5-d)

Example 5.4: Draw the influence line for the bending

moment at point a for the beam shown in Fig. (5.6).

Solution:
Two expressions for the bending moment at point a must be
written: one expression is for the portion of beam between
Influence Lines 014

points 1 and a; the other is for the portion between points a

and 2.

a
(a)
c
L

P=1
(b) a M1b
2
x1 1
R1b

P=1
(c) a M1c
1
x2 R1c

(d) I.L for Ma

-c
Figure (5.6)

For is between points 2 and a, , and

from Fig. (5.6-b) by the considering the portion of beam to
the left of a the bending moment at a (Ma) is given as

When ,
When ,

For is between points a and 1, ,

and from Fig. (5.6-c) by also considering the portion of beam
to the left of a:
015 Chapter Five

The influence line for Ma is shown in Fig. (5.6-d).

Example 5.5: Draw the influence line for the shearing force
Vb at point b for the hinged beam shown in Fig. (5.7).
Calculate the extreme values of Vb if there exist: self weight
of beam of , uniformly distributed load of any length
of , and a concentrated load of .

Solution:
For the solution of this example it is preferable to use method
number 3 as explained in section 5.4. The selected key points
where the unit load must be placed to draw the
influence line for Vb are given in Fig. (5.7-b). The loads are
shown on the same drawing to reduce the occupied space, but
in the solution each load must be considered separately. The
shearing force at b depends on the reaction Ra. Therefore, the
influence line for Ra must first be drawn. The key points to
draw the influence line for Ra are a, c, d, and e only.

Influence line for Ra:

When is over a, then

When is over c, then and

When is over hinge d, then from bending moment

at d ,
Influence Lines 016

a b c d e
(a)
2m 2m 3m 3m

P1=1 P2=1 P3=1 P4=1 P5=1 P6=1

(b)
a b c d e
Ra Rc Re

+1
(c)
I.L for Ra
-3/4

+1/2

(d) I.L for Va

-1/2 -3/4

40 kN
6 kN/m
8 kN/m
(e)
(e)
Loading for
maximum Vb

40 kN
6 kN/m 6 kN/m

8 kN/m
Loading for
(f)
minimum Vb
Figure (5.7)

∑ +
017 Chapter Five

When is over e, then and

The influence line for Ra is shown in Fig. (5.7-c).

Influence line for Vb:

It should be recognized that the shearing force at b, if P is

applied at a or to the left of b, is given as

(1)

while if P is applied at the points to the right of b or at c, d,

and e, Vb is given as

(2)

When is over a, then from Fig. (5.7-b) and

When is to the left of b, then and

When is to the right of b, then and

When is over c, then and

When is over hinge d, then and

Influence Lines 018

When is over e, then and

The influence line for Vb is shown in Fig. (5.7-d)

Extreme values:

The maximum positive and maximum negative (minimum)

values of Vb can be computed by using Theorems 1 and 3 as
stated in section 5.3. From Fig. (5.7-e)

maximum * ( )

( )+ * +

From Fig. (5.7-f)

minimum * ( )

( )+ * ( )

( )+ ( )

Example 5.6: Draw the influence line for the bending

moment (Mb) at point b for the hinged beam shown in Fig.
(5.8). Compute the extreme values of Mb due to self weight
of beam of , uniformly distributed load of any
length of , and a concentrated load of .
001 Chapter Five

a b c d e f
10 m
(a) 18 m 6m 12 m 4m

P=1 P=1 P=1 P=1 P=1 P=1

a b c d e f
(b) Ra Rc Re

+1
4/9
+1/9
(c)
I.L for Ra
-1/3
+40/9

+10/9
(d)
I.L for
Mb
-10/3

80 kN
5 kN/m 5 kN/m
10 kN/m
(e)
.

Loading for
maximum Mb

80 kN
5 kN/m
10 kN/m
(f)
.

Loading for
minimum Mb

Figure (5.8)

Solution:
The selected key points where the unit load must be
applied to draw the influence line for Mb are a, b, c, d, e, and
Influence Lines 000

f. While for the influence line of Ra the points are a, c, d, e,

and f. The bending moment Mb is given by

(1)
if the load is at a and it is given by

(2)

for the other positions of

Influence line for Ra:

When is over a, then

When is over c, then and

When is over hinge d, bending moment at hinge d

∑ +

When is over e, then and

When is over f, bending moment at hinge d

∑ +
001 Chapter Five

The influence line for Ra is shown in Fig. (5.8-c).

Influence line for Mb:

When is over a, then from Fig. (5.8-c)

and

When is over b, then and

When is over c, then and

When is over hinge d, then and

When is over e, then and

When is over f, then and

The influence line for Mb is shown in Fig. (5.8-d).

Extreme values:

From Figs. (5.8-e) and (5.8-f)

Influence Lines 002

maximum * ( )

+ * +

minimum * ( )

+ * ( ) +

( )

5.5 Influence Lines for Trusses

The influence lines for the reactions of trusses and the axial
forces in truss members may be constructed in the same
manner as those for various beam functions. The unit load
moves across the truss, and the ordinates of the influence line
for the reaction or the force in the member under
consideration may be computed. The three methods for
constructing the influence lines for the various functions in
beams, as explained in section 5.4, may be used for trusses.
In method number 3 the key points, where the unit load must
be applied, include the joints at the supports, the end joints
when there are overhangs, the joints on both sides of the
panel containing the member under consideration for
003 Chapter Five

horizontal and inclined members, and for a vertical member

three joints, the one at the member and the two on both sides
of it.

Influence lines for trusses are drawn to correspond to a

unit load traveling across the loaded chord, i.e., the chord
containing the joints (panel points) at which the moving load
is applied to the truss. The influence lines are straight lines
between the joints.

Example 5.7: Draw the influence lines for the axial forces in
members 5-6 and 5-7 of the truss shown in Fig. (5.9).

Solution:
To construct the influence lines for the axial forces in the
horizontal and inclined members of this truss, the span must
be divided into three regions. The first region is the panel
containing the members. The second is to the left of that
panel and the third is to the right. These regions are depicted
in Fig. (5.9-b). The load must be applied to each
region separately and the axial forces in the two members
must be computed.

(i) For the load moves in the first region:

Assume the load is at x1 from joint 1, . The
consideration of the static equilibrium of the truss gives

∑ +
Influence Lines 004

3 5 7 9 11
(a)
4m
1 12
2 4 6 8 10
6 @ 3m = 18 m

(b) P=1 P=1 P=1

R 1 x1 x2 x3 R12

(c)
I.L for F57
-3/4
-9/8
+5/8

(d)

I.L for F56

-5/12
3 5
F57
P=1 θ x2 P=1
F56 3
1
6
θ
2 4 5 4 Q1 Q2
R 1 x1
(e) (f)

3 5 3 5
F57 F57
θ θ
F56 F56
1
1
2 4 6 2 4 6
R1 Q1 R1
(g) (h)

Figure (5.9)
005 Chapter Five

The forces in the two members may be computed by the

method of sections. A section may be used to cut the
members in question and the portion to the left of this section
is considered, as shown in Fig. (5.9-e). The equilibrium of
this portion requires:

∑ +

When ,
When , compression

∑ +

When ,

When , compression

(ii) For the load moves in the second region:

The load is assumed to be at a distance x2 from joint 4. The
equilibrium of the truss gives

∑ +

The load is transfered to the joints 4 and 6 as Q1 and

Q2, respectively, as shown in Fig. (5.9-f). Q1 may be
calculated as
Influence Lines 006

From Fig. (5.9-g)

∑ +

When , compression

When , compression

∑ +

When , compression

When , tension

(iii) For the load moves in the third region:

The load is at a distance x3 from joint 12. The equilibrium of
the truss gives

∑ +

From Fig. (5.9-h)

∑ +
007 Chapter Five

When ,

When ,

∑ +

When ,

When , tension

The influence lines for F57 and F56 are shown in Figs. (5.9-c)
and (5.9-d).

Example 5.8: Draw the influence line for the axial force in
member 4-5 of the truss shown in Fig. (5.10). Compute the
extreme values of this force if the following loads exist; the
self weight of the truss is , moving load of any length
is , and the moving concentrated load is .

Solution:
The axial force in member 4-5 may be computed by using
section n-n, as shown in Fig. (5.10-b), to isolate a portion of
the truss for which its equilibrium must be discussed. The
portion of truss to the left of the section is drawn in Figs.
(5.10-g) and (5.10-h). The value of F45 depends on the value
of the reaction R1, therefore, the influence line for R1 must be
drawn first. The key points, where the unit load must
be applied, for R1 are joints 1 and 11.
 Influence Lines 008

2 4 6 8 10

4m
1 11
3 5 7 9

(a) 5 @ 6m = 30 m

n
P=1 P=1 P=1 P=1

(b)

R1 n R2

+1 +4/5
+3/5

(c) I.L for R1

+3/4

7.5m

(d) I.L for F45

-1/4

40 kN
3.6 kN/m
6 kN/m
.

(e) Loading for

maximum F45

40 kN
3.6 kN/m
6 kN/m
.

(f) Loading for

minimum F45

Figure (5.10)
011 Chapter Five

2 4 2 4
F24 F24
P=1 P=1 θ
F45 3 F45
1 θ 1
3
F35 5 4 3
F35
R1 R1
(g) (h)

Figure (5.10) Continued

Continued

From Fig. (5.10-b), when is at joint 1, then

When is at joint 11, then and

The influence line for R1 is shown in Fig. (5.10-c). The

ordinates of the influence line at the locations of joints 3 and
5 may be calculated as and , respectively. Now, the
influence line for F45 may be constructed. The key points for
F45, as previously explained, are joints 1, 3, 5, and 11. The
vertical equilibrium of the portion of the truss in Fig. (5.10-g)
gives

∑ +

This expression gives the value of F45 when the appropriate

value of R1 is used. If is at joint 1, then and

while if is at joint 3, then and

Influence Lines 010

If the unit load moves to joints 5 and 11, the free body
diagram of the left portion of truss will be as shown in Fig.
(5.10-h). The member force F45 is given by

∑ +

With the load at joint 5, the value of is

and

and with load at joint 11, and the expression

gives

The influence line for F45 is shown in Fig. (5.10-d). The

extreme values of F45 can be calculated with the loading
distributed as given in Figs. (5.10-e) and (5.10-f). From Fig.
(5.10-e)

maximum * ( ) +

* +

and from Fig. (5.10-f)

minimum * ( ) +

* ( ) + ( )
011 Chapter Five

Example 5.9: Draw the influence line for the axial force in
member 7-8 of the truss shown in Fig. (5.11).

1 3 5 7 9 11 13

4.5 m

2 4 6 8 10 12 14
6 @ 6m = 36 m
(a)

P=1 P=1 P=1 P=1 P=1

(b)
R2 R14

0 0 0 0

(c) I.L for F78

-1

P=1
7
F57 F79 F57 F79

(d) F78 (e) F78

Figure (5.11)
Solution:
The key points, as previously explained, where the unit load
must be applied are shown in Fig. (5.11-b). The force in
member 7-8 can be obtained by using the free body diagram
of joint 7 as shown in Figs. (5.11-d) or (5.11-e). For all load
positions, except joint 7, the free body of joint 7 is given in
Fig. (5.11-d) and the vertical equilibrium of this joint gives
Influence Lines 012

With the load at joint 7, the free body of joint 7 is shown in

Fig. (5.11-e) and the equilibrium of joint gives

∑ +

The influence line of F78 is shown in Fig. (5.11-c).

5.6 Absolute Maximum Shearing Force and

Bending Moment in Simply Supported
Beams
Absolute maximum shearing force and bending moment in a
beam are defined as a largest shearing force and bending
moment which may ever occur in the beam due to the
passage of loading. The significance of this shear or moment
is apparent, as the strength of the beam must be proportioned
accordingly. The calculations required for this problem
involve the determination of both the location of the point in
the beam and the position of the loading on the beam so that
one can obtain the absolute maximum shearing force and
bending moment caused by the loads.

The beams considered in this section are simply

supported beams, and two cases of loading will be discussed.
013 Chapter Five

5.6.1 The Case of Several Concentrated Loads

Absolute Maximum Shearing Force

In a simply supported beam subjected to several concentrated
loads, the shearing force is constant for each portion of the
beam between any two successive loads. The maximum
shearing force will occur at a point next to one of the
supports. Thus, the absolute maximum shearing force can be
obtained when the loads are located as close as possible to
the support point, as shown in Fig. (5.12). The figure gives
the two locations of maximum shearing force, i.e. sections 1-
1 and 2-2. The position of loading for each section is also
depicted in the figure. The absolute maximum shearing force
is the larger of the two maxima.

1 W1 W2 W3

(a)
1

W1 W2 W3 2

(b)
2

Figure (5.12) Sections for maximum shearing forces

Generally the absolute maximum shearing force occurs

at the support having the smallest distance from the center of
Influence Lines 014

the gravity of the resultant of the concentrated loads when

the loads are located as close as possible to the support while
all the loads remain on the beam. Condition must also be
checked when one or more of the loads have moved off the
beam.

Absolute Maximum Bending Moment

For a simply supported beam loaded with a series of moving
concentrated loads, the bending moment diagram will consist
of series of straight lines that change slope at the locations of
the concentrated loads, Fig. (5.13). Therefore, the absolute
maximum bending moment must occur under one of these
loads. Two questions must be answered: (1) Under which
load does the absolute maximum bending moment occur? (2)
What is the position of this load when the absolute maximum
bending moment occurs?
W1 W2 W3

(a)

(b)

Figure (5.13) (a) Loaded simply supported beam, (b) bending

moment diagram
015 Chapter Five

The answer to the first question must often be

determined by trail, but the second question is subject to
direct analysis. If the maximum bending moment under each
load is first determined, then the largest of these maxima will
be the absolute maximum bending moment in the beam. This
gives the answer to the first question.

During the passage of a system of loads across a beam

as shown in Fig. (5.14), the bending moment under each load
varies with every position of the load. Assume that it is
required to find the position of load W2 for the maximum
bending moment to occur under W2. Let e be the distance
from W2 to the resultant of the set of the loads
∑ , and x the unknown distance from W2 to the left
support. Summing moments about 2 yields

L
C
W1 W2 W3 W4

(a)
a b c
L/2 L/2
L

L
C

W1 W2 W3 W4
(b)

4 R2
R1 R  W
x e i 1 i

Figure (5.14) Position for absolute bending moment

Influence Lines 016

∑ +

The bending moment M2 under W2 is therefore

The maximum value of M2 will occur when x is such that

dM/dx=0. Differentiating M2 with respect to x gives

Equating this to zero, yields

or

Thus the maximum bending moment will occur under the

load W2 if the centerline of the beam bisects the distance
between W2 and the resultant of all the loads.

Since there are a series of loads on the span (for

example, W1, W2, W3, and W4 in Fig. (5.14)), this principle
will have to be applied to each load in series and the
corresponding maximum bending moment computed. By
comparison, the largest bending moment is the absolute
maximum. As a general rule, the absolute maximum bending
moment often occurs under the largest load lying nearest the
resultant force of the system.
017 Chapter Five

Example 5.10: Determine the absolute maximum bending

moment and shearing force due to the passage of the three
concentrated loads over the beam in shown direction in Fig.
(5.15).

Solution:
The magnitude and position of the resultant force of the load
system are determined first. From Fig. (5.15-b) the resultant
R is given by

The distance ̅ of R from W3 is, Fig. (5.15-b)

By inspection, one can find that the absolute maximum

bending moment will take place under the load W2 (because
it is the heavier load lying nearest the resultant). For the
maximum bending moment to occur under W2, the resultant
R and the load W2 should be placed equidistance from the
centerline of the beam, as shown in Fig. (5.15-c). From this
figure, summing moments about B yields

∑ +

The absolute maximum bending moment Mabs under W2 is

given as
Influence Lines 018

10 kN 40 kN 40 kN

A B 1 2 3
3m 3m
12.5 m
(a)
10 kN 40 kN 40 kN
(b)
R
x

R=90 kN
10 kN 40 kN 40 kN

(c)
3m 2m
RA 0.5 0.5 RB
m m
5.75 m 5.75 m
6.25 m 6.25 m

10 kN 40 kN 40 kN
1

(d)
RAs RBs
R=90 kN 1
10.5 m 2m

10 kN 40 kN 40 kN

(e)

RAs RBs
R=90 kN
4m 8.5 m

Figure (5.15)
021 Chapter Five

From inspection of Figs. (5.15-d) and (5.15-e), it is clear that

support B have the smallest distance from the resultant.
Therefore, the absolute maximum shearing force will occur
near support B at section 1-1 as shown in Fig. (5.15-d).
Summing moments about A gives

∑ +

The shearing force at section 1-1 is

which is the absolute maximum shearing force.

5.6.2 The Case of Uniform Load of Specific

Length
Absolute Maximum Shearing Force
The absolute maximum shearing force in a simply supported
beam subjected to a uniformly distributed load of a specific
length will occur in the vicinity of one support when the load
is located as close as possible to this support, as shown in
Fig. (5.16). In this figure, section 1-1 is the section at which
the absolute maximum shearing force Vabs occurs. The value
of Vabs is equal to the reaction Ra at a. The reaction Ra may
be computed by summing moments about b as
Influence Lines 020

r
1 w
a b
L
1
Figure (5.16) Position of load for absolute maximum shearing
force

∑ + ( )

and therefore

Absolute Maximum Bending Moment

The distributed load can be considered as a series of
concentrated loads each of which with a value where w
is the intensity of load. Therefore, the absolute maximum
bending moment will occur under one of these loads, i.e.,
within the load length.

Assume that the absolute maximum bending moment

will occur under a differential force at distance e from
the resultant force when this differential force is at
distance x on the beam from the left support, Fig. (5.17).
Summing moments about B gives the reaction RA as
021 Chapter Five

a
a/2

(a) A B
R=w.a
L

a/2
[Link]

(b) A B
RA R RB
x e

Figure (5.17) Position of uniformly distributed load for absolute

maximum bending moment

∑ +

(1)

The bending moment at section x is

( ) (2)

Substituting Eq. (1) into Eq. (2) gives

( ) (3)

In this expression, M depends on two variables, x and e.

Therefore, for maximum M it is required that

Influence Lines 022

and

Differentiating Eq. (3) with respect to x and equating it to

zero yields

or

(4)

and equating the derivative of M with respect to e to zero

gives

(5)

Substituting for x from Eq. (4) into Eq. (5) yields

and using this value into Eq. (4) leads to

Thus the absolute maximum bending moment will occur at

the center of the load length and the center of beam span.
023 Chapter Five

Example 5.11: A moving uniform load of length and

magnitude acrosses a simply supported bridge of
length , Fig. (5.18). Find the value and position of the
absolute maximum bending moment and shearing force.

1.2 kN/m

(a) 1 2
6m 6m
R1 R2
20 m 20 m

1.2 kN/m

1 2
(b)
R1 R2
12 m
40 m

Figure (5.18)

Solution:
For the absolute maximum bending moment Mabs, the load
must be placed at position as shown in Fig. (5.18-a). Mabs
occurs at midspan when the center of the load is over it.
Summing moments about 2 gives

∑ +

Mabs can be computed as

Influence Lines 024

The absolute maximum shearing force Vabs occurs in the

vicinity of ̅ (or ̅ ) when the load is near the support as
shown in Fig. (5.18-b). From this figure

∑ + ̅

The shearing force at the point next to ̅ is

Problems

5.1: Draw the influence lines for the vertical reactions at

supports B and D and the shearing force and bending
moment at point C of the beam shown in Fig. P5.1.

A B C D

2m 4m 4m

Figure P5.1

( at A; 0 at D

at A; 0 at B; 1 at D

at A; 0 at B and D; -0.5 at CL; 0.5 at CR

at A; 0 at B and D; 2 at C)
025 Chapter Five

5.2: Draw the influence lines for the shearing force and
bending moment at point B and the shearing force at the
internal hinge C of the beam shown in Fig. P5.2.

A B C D E F

6m 6m 6m 6m 6m

Figure P5.2

( at A, C, D, F, and G; -0.5 and BL; 0.5 at BR

at A, C, D, F, and G; 3 at B

at A, CR, D, F, and G; -1 at CL)

5.3 and 5.4: Draw the influence lines for the forces in the
members identified by an "x" of the truss shown. Live loads
are transmitted to the bottom chords of the trusses.

J
I K 4m
8m
H L
12 m

A B C D E F G
6 @ 16 m = 96 m
Figure P5.3

( at A; 0 at C, D, E, F, and G

at A; 0 at C and E; -0.5 at D; 1 at G

at A; 0 at C and E; 0.534 at D; -1.067 at G

Influence Lines 026

at A and G; 0 at C and E, 0.167 at D)

F G H I

15 m

A
B C D E
10 m 10 m 10 m 10 m 10 m 10 m 10 m 10 m

Figure P5.4

( at A, B, C, and D; -0.667 at E

at A and D; -0.401 at B and E; 0.401 at C

at A and D; -0.889 at C; 0.889 at E

at A and D; 0.667 at B and C; -0.667 at E)

5.5 and 5.6: Draw the influence lines for the forces in the
members identified by an "x" of the trusses shown. Live
loads are transmitted to the top chords of the trusses.

C D E F

12 m
A B
3 @ 16 m = 48 m

Figure P5.5

( at C and E; -1 at D; 1 at F

at C, D, and E; -1.67 at F

at C; 0 at D, E, and F)
027 Chapter Five

E F G
D
3m C
B
A
3 @ 4 m = 12 m

Figure P5.6

( at E, F and G; -4.123 at D

at E, F, and D; 0.5 at G

at E, F, and D; -2.236 at G

at E and F; 2 at G; 4 at D)

5.7: For the beam in Fig. P5.7, determine the maximum

negative bending moment at point B due to a 15 kN
concentrated live load.

A B C D

8m 8m 5m

Figure P5.7

(Answer: 37.5 kN.m)

5.8: For the cantilever beam in Fig. P5.8, determine the

maximum upward vertical reaction and the maximum
counterclockwise reaction moment at support A due to the
concentrated live load of 25 kN, a uniformly distributed live
Influence Lines 028

load of 2 kN/m, and a uniformly distributed dead load of 0.5

kN/m.

A B
20 m

Figure P5.8

(Maximum kN ; Maximum kN.m )

5.9: For the beam in Fig. P5.9, determine the extreme value
of the shearing force and bending moment at point D due to
the concentrated live load of 30 kN, a uniformly distributed
live load of 3 kN/m (of any length), and a uniformly
distributed dead load of 1 kN/m.

A B C D E F G

20 m 20 m 30 m 30 m 15 m 15 m

Figure P5.9

(Max. kN; Min. kN; Max.

kN.m; Min. kN.m)

5.10: For the truss of Problem 5.3, determine the maximum

tensile and compressive axial forces in member IJ due to a
concentrated live load of 40 kN, a uniformly distributed live
031 Chapter Five

load of 4 kN/m (of any length), and a uniformly distributed

dead load of 2 kN/m.

(Answer: Max. Tensile kN; Max. Compressive

kN)

5.11: Determine the absolute maximum shearing force and

bending moment in a simply supported beam of 50 m span
due to the series of four moving concentrated loads shown in
Fig. P5.11.
20 kN 20 kN 30 kN 30 kN

4m 6m 6m
50 m

Figure P5.11

(abs. kN; abs. kN.m)

5.12: A simply supported beam of 16 m span supports a pair

of 60 kN moving concentrated loads 4 m apart. Determine
the maximum possible bending moment at the centerline of
the beam and the absolute maximum bending moment in the
beam.

(Answer: kN.m; abs. kN.m)

 Chapter
SIX

Approximate Analysis of
Statically Indeterminate
Structures

6.1 Introduction
The analysis of a statically determinate structure does not
depend on the elastic properties of its members. However, in
a statically indeterminate structure the structural analysis
depends on the elastic properties of members. These
properties include the modulus of elasticity, cross-sectional
moment of inertia, and length of members. When the analysis
of a statically indeterminate structure is begun, the areas and
moments of inertia of its members are not known. It is
therefore necessary to carry out an approximate analysis for
the structure, so as to obtain some estimate of the required
sizes of these members. Once these sizes have been assigned,
a structural analysis by an exact method can be carried out.
253 Chapter Six

Basically, a structure is statically indeterminate when

the number of unknown reactions and member forces is in
excess of the number of available equilibrium equations. In
analyzing such a structure by approximate methods one
assumption is made for each degree of indeterminacy. This
will supply adequate independent equations in order that a
solution can be worked out on the basis of statics only.

Some of the commonly used approximate methods of

analysis are discussed in this chapter.

6.2 Parallel Chord Trusses with Two Diagonals

in Each Panel
Trusses of this type, as described in Fig. (6.1-a), are statically
indeterminate because of the additional diagonal in each
panel. If one of the two diagonals in each panel is removed,
the truss will become statically determinate.

The section n-n is passed through the truss and divides it

into two separate free bodies, Fig. (6.1-b). The axial forces in
cut members of the truss are assumed to be tensile. The sum
of the vertical forces (external loads and reactions) to the left
of the section must be equal and opposite in direction to the
sum of the vertical forces to the right of the section. The
summation of these forces to the left or to the right of the
section is defined as the shear in the panel, V. The inclined
Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures 254

members cut by the section n-n must have vertical

components of force opposite to the shear V along the
section. Therefore, the force in member 2-7 must be tensile,
but in member 3-6 compressive.

W1
n
5 6 7 8

(a)
1 4
2 3
n

W1

(b)
V=W1-R1
V=R4

R1 R4
Figure (6.1) (a) Statically indeterminate truss, (b) free-body
diagrams of two parts of truss

The approximate analysis of such trusses is conducted

based on one of the following two methods.

Method (1):
If the diagonals are long and slender, it is reasonable to
assume that they cannot support a compressive force;
otherwise, they may easily buckle. Hence the shear in panel
is resisted entirely by the tension diagonal, whereas the
compressive diagonal is assumed to be a zero-force member.
255 Chapter Six

Method (2):
If the diagonal members are assumed to have considerable
stiffness, they may be equally capable of supporting a tensile
and compressive force. It may be assumed that the tension
and compression diagonals each carry half the shear in panel.

Both of these methods of approximate analysis are

illustrated numerically in the following examples.

Example 6.1: Calculate the forces in the members of the

middle panel of the truss shown in Fig. (6.2). Assume the
diagonals be slender and therefore will not support a
compressive force.

Solution:
First the section n-n is passed through the middle panel of the
truss. Considering the free body to the right of this section,
Fig. (6.2-b), one can conclude from the vertical equilibrium
that the direction of the axial force F36 is correct, i.e. it is
tensile, but the direction of the axial force F27 must be
reversed, i.e. it must be compressive. Thus

Then also from the vertical equilibrium

∑ +

(tension)
Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures 256

10 kN 10 kN
n
5 6 7 8

(a) 3m

1 2 3 4
n
10 kN
3 @ 1.5 m=4.5 m

10 kN

7 8
F67
F27 2.5
(b) F36 2 θ
F23 θ 1.5
3 4

10 kN

Figure (6.2)

∑ + ( )

(compression)

∑ +

(tension)

Example 6.2: Determine the forces in the members of the

middle panel of the truss in Example (6.1). Assume the
diagonals to be designed to support both tensile and
compressive force, and each resist half the shear in panel.
257 Chapter Six

Solution:
Take the section n-n passing through the middle panel of the
truss and consider the free body to the right of the section,
Fig. (6.2-b). From the vertical equilibrium, as in the previous
example, one can see that the direction of the axial force F36
is correct, i.e. it is tensile, but the direction of the axial force
F27 must be reversed, i.e. it must be compressive. Thus

(1)

Then also from the vertical equilibrium

∑ + (2)

Using Eq. (1), Eq. (2) gives

( )

(tension)

and from Eq. (1), (compression)

∑ + ( )

(compression)

∑ + ( )

(tension)

6.3 Building Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads

A building frame consists primarily of girders and columns,
as shown in Fig. (6.3). It is actually built with the girders
Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures 258

rigidily connected to the columns so that all the members can

carry bending moment, shearing force, and axial force. Such
a frame is called a rigid frame; it is also referred to as a
building bent. Because of the rigid construction, a building
frame is highly indeterminate. The degree of statical
indeterminacy for a bent like that of Fig. (6.3) equals three
times the number of girders in the bent.

W1
W1

W2 W2

W3 W3

(a) (b)

Figure (6.3) (a) Building frame subjected to lateral load, (b)

deflected frame

In this section, two approximate methods for analyzing

building frames acted upon by lateral loads will be given.
These methods are (1) the portal method, and (2) the
cantilever method.

The Portal Method

The portal method was proposed by Albert Smith in his
paper "Wind Stress in the Frames of Office Buildings" in the
259 Chapter Six

Journal of the Western Society of Engineers in April, 1915.

The method was said to be satisfactory for most buildings
upto 25 stories in height. In the portal method, the following
assumptions are made:

1. A hinge is placed at the center of each girder, since this

point is assumed to be a point of zero moment.

2. A hinge is placed at the center of each column, since

this point is assumed to be a point of zero moment.

3. The total horizontal shear on each story is divided

between the columns of that story so that each interior
column carries twice as much shear as each exterior
column.

This last assumption is arrived at by considering each

story to be made up of a series of portals as shown in Fig.
(6.4). Thus, while an exterior column corresponds to a single
portal leg, an interior column corresponds to two portal legs,
so that it becomes reasonable to assume interior columns to
carry twice the shear of exterior columns. The name portal
method came about in this way.

The following examples illustrate the procedure of

analysis by the portal method.
Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures 25:

(a) (b)

Figure (6.4) (a) Building frame, (b) series of portals equivalent

to the building frame

Example 6.3: Determine the reactions and draw the axial

force, shearing force, and bending moment diagrams for the
frame shown in Fig. (6.5). Use the portal method of analysis.

Solution:
Applying the first assumption of the portal method, hinges
are placed at the centers of the girders, as shown in Fig. (6.5-
b). For this example, there is no need to use the second
assumption since there are hinges at the bases of columns.
Considering Fig. (6.5-b), in which the third assumption
regarding the column shears is applied, the equilibrium of
frame in the horizontal direction requires:
+
∑

Using this result, the frame can now be isolated at the hinges
to determine the unknown forces at these hinges, Fig. (6.5-c,
261 Chapter Six

d, e). As a general rule, always start this analysis at the

corner where the horizontal load is applied. From the free
body of segment ABG, Fig. (6.5-c):
+
∑

∑ +

∑ +

The adjacent segment CGH is analyzed next, Fig. (6.5-d). In

the calculations the predetermined girder forces HG and VG
are used.
+
∑

∑ +

∑ +

Finally segment EFH is considered, Fig.(6.5-e):

Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures 262

24 kN
B G D H F

6m
(a)
A C E
8m 12 m

24 kN
B G D H F

(b)
A HA=V C HC=2V E HE=V

RA RC RE

VG VH
24 kN HG HG G HH
B G D H
VG

A V=6 kN C 2V=12 kN

RA RC

(c) (d)
HH H
F
VH

E V=6 kN

(e) RE

Figure (6.5) Frame with lateral force

263 Chapter Six

∑ +

The axial and the shearing forces in each member of the

frame are given by the calculated forces at the hinges, Fig.
(6.5-c to e). Hi or Ri is the axial force and Vi is the shearing
force. The maximum bending moments in each member is
calculated by multiplying the shearing force at the hinge in
this member by half length of member, for example,

(Fig. 6.5-c)

(Fig. 6.5-c)

(Fig. 6.5-d)

(Fig. 6.5-d)

(Fig. 6.5-d)

(Fig. 6.5-e)

(Fig. 6.5-e)

Joints B, D, and F are in equilibrium since the sum of the

clockwise moments equals the sum of the counterclockwise
moments. The axial force, shearing force, and bending
moment diagrams are shown in Fig. (6.6).
Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures 264

18 kN(C)
6 kN(C)

Axial Force
Diagram

9 kN(T) 3 kN(C) 6 kN(C)

-9 kN
-6 kN

Shearing Force
Diagram

6 kN 12 kN 6 kN

36 36 kN.m

36 36
72
36 36
Bending Moment
Diagram
(on compression
side)
Figure (6.6)

Example 6.4: Determine the reactions and draw the axial

force, shearing force, and bending moment diagrams for the
frame shown in Fig. (6.7). Use the portal method of analysis.

Solution:
Applying the first two assumptions of the portal method,
hinges are placed at the centers of the girders and columns of
265 Chapter Six

the frame, as shown in Fig. (6.7-b). A section through the

column hinges at QST yields the free-body diagram shown in
Fig. (6.7-c). Here the third assumption regarding the column
shears applies. The equilibrium in the horizontal direction
requires
+
∑

Similarly a section through the column hinges at JKL yields

the free-body diagram shown in Fig. (6.7-d). From the
equilibrium in the horizontal direction
+
∑

Using these results, the frame can now be isolated at the

hinges to determine the unknown forces at these hinges, Fig.
(6.7-e to m). As a general rule, always the analysis must be
started at the corner where the horizontal load is applied.
From the free-body of segment QGP:
+
∑

∑ +
Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures 266

20 kN
G P H W I
Q S T 5m
30 kN
D X E Y F
(a)
J K L 6m
A B C
8m 8m
20 kN
2.5 m

2.5 m
30 kN
3m
(b)

3m

4m 4m 4m 4m

20 kN
2.5 m
(c) Vr 2Vr S Vr T
Q

20 kN

5m
30 kN
(d)
3m
Vf J 2Vf K Vf L

Figure (6.7)
267 Chapter Six

VP VW
20 kN HP HP HW
G P P H W
5 kN VP
Q S
10 kN
(e) (f)
RQ RS

RQ
5 kN
Q
VX
HW W 30 kN
I
HX
D X
VW T
5 kN
12.5 kN
J (h)
(g) RT
RJ

RS RT
10 kN 5 kN
S T
VY
HX X HY HY Y
E Y F
VX 25 kN VY 12.5 kN
K L
(i) (j)
RK RL

RJ RK RL
12.5 kN 25 kN 12.5 kN
J K L

A HA B HB C HC
MA MB MC
RA RB RC

(k) (l) (m)

Figure (6.7) Continued

∑ +
Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures 268

With these results segment JDXQ is analyzed next, Fig. (6.7-

h):
+
∑

∑ +

∑ +

Then segment JA is analyzed; Fig. (6.7-k):

+
∑

∑ +

∑ +

To complete the solution, segment SPHW must now be

considered, Fig. (6.7-f):
+
∑

∑ +
269 Chapter Six

∑ +

Then segment KXSY is analyzed; Fig. (6.7-i)

+
∑

∑ +

∑ +

Segment KB, Fig. (6.7-l):

+
∑

∑ +

∑ +
.m
Segment WIT, Fig. (6.7-g):
∑ +

Segment LYTF, Fig. (6.7-j):

∑ +
Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures 26:

Segment LC, Fig. (6.7-m):

+
∑

∑ +

∑ +

The axial and shearing forces in each member of the frame

are given by the calculated forces at the hinges, Fig. (6.7-e to
m). For girders Hi is the axial force and Vi is the shearing
force, and for columns Ri is the axial force and Vi is the
shearing force. The maximum bending moments in each
member is calculated by multiplying the shearing force at the
hinge in the member by half length of member, for example,

The axial force, shearing force, and bending moment

diagrams are shown in Fig. (6.8). The axial force is constant
271 Chapter Six

in each member, the shearing force is constant in each

member, and bending moment diagram is linear in each
member with a zero value at each hinge.
15 kN(C)
5 kN (C)

0
3.125 kN 22 kN(C) 3.125 kN
(T) 7.5 kN (C) (C)

0
A.F.D

15.625 kN 15.625 kN
(T) (C)
3.125 kN 3.125 kN

10 kN
5 kN 12.5 kN 12.5 kN 5 kN

S.F.D

12.5 kN 25 kN 12.5 kN

12.5 12.5 kN.m 12.5

25
12.5 12.5 12.5
50 50

37.5 75 37.5 12.5

25
B.M.D
12.5
(on
50 compression
50
side)

37.5 75 37.5

Figure (6.8)
Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures 272

The Cantilever Method

This method is presented by A. C. Wilson in 1908. It is said
to be a more desirable for high narrow buildings than the
portal method and may be used satisfactorily for buildings
with heights not in excess of 25 to 35 stories.

The cantilever method is based on the same action as a

long cantilever beam subjected to a transverse load. Such a
loading causes a bending normal stress in the beam that
varies linearly from the beam neutral axis. In a similar
manner for a frame subjected to lateral loads, it seems
reasonable to assume the axial stresses in columns has a
linear variation from the centroid of the column areas or
neutral axis.

In the cantilever method, the following assumptions are

used for a fixed-supported frame.

1. A hinge is placed at the center of each girder, since this

point is assumed to be a point of zero moment.

2. A hinge is placed at the center of each column, since

this point is assumed to be a point of zero moment.

3. The axial stress in a column is proportional to its

distance from the centroid of the cross sectional areas of
the columns at a given floor level. In special case of the
columns having equals cross sectional areas, the axial
273 Chapter Six

force in a column is also proportional to its distance

from the centroid of the column areas.

These three assumptions reduce the frame to one that is both

stable and statically indeterminate.
The following examples illustrate how to apply the
cantilever method to analyze a frame.

Example 6.5: For the multistory frame shown in Fig. (6.9),

determine by the cantilever method the axial forces in
columns.

Solution:
First hinges are placed at the midpoints of the columns and
girders, as shown in Fig. (6.9-b).

Centroid of columns: Assuming that all columns have the

same cross-sectional area, the distance xc of the centroid of
columns at each story is found by, Fig. (6.9-c),
∑
∑

Axial forces in columns: the axial forces are tensile in the

columns to the left of centroid of columns (the side where
loads act) and compressive in the columns to the right of it.
The axial force in each column equals a constant times its
Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures 274

16 kN
I X J Y K Z L

Q R S T 3.6 m
40 kN
E U F V G W H

M N O P 5.4 m
(a)

A B C D
4.8 m 7.2 m 6m

16 kN
1.8 m

1.8 m
40 kN

2.7 m
(b)

2.7 m

2.4 m 2.4 m 3.6 m 3.6 m 3m 3m

c.g.
area=a area=a area=a area=a
(c)
xc=9.3 m

16 kN

c.g. 1.8 m
(d)

RQ RR RS RT

Figure (6.9)
275 Chapter Six

16 kN

3.6 m
40 kN

2.7 m
c.g.
(e)

RM RN RO RP
Figure (6.9) Continued

distance from the centroid. Using the free body in Fig. (6.9-
d) and taking moments about the centroid of columns

( )

Then,

In a similar manner, using the free body in Fig. (6.9-e) and

taking moments about the centroid of columns:

( )

Then,
Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures 276

Example 6.6: Analyze the frame shown in Fig. (6.10) using

the cantilever method. Draw the axial force, the shearing
force, and the bending moment diagrams.

Solution:
First hinges are placed at the midpoints of the columns and
girders, as shown in Fig. (6.10-b). The centroid of columns
cross sectional areas can be determined by, Fig. (6.10-c),

∑ ∑

The axial forces are tensile in columns to the left of the

centroid of columns and compressive to the right of it. The
axial force in each column equals a constant times its
distance from the centroid. Using the free body in Fig. (6.10-
d) and taking moments about the centroid,

( )

Then,
277 Chapter Six

30 kN
C I D
H K 4m
15 kN
(a)
B E
J
G L 4m
A F
6m

30 kN
2m

15 kN 2m
(b) 2m
2m

3m 3m

c.g.
area=a area=a
(c)
xc=3 m

30 kN
2m
(d) c.g.

RH RK
3m 3m

Figure (6.10)
Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures 278

30 kN

4m
15 kN
(e) 2m
c.g.

RG RL
3m 3m

VI VI
30 kN HI HI
C I I D

H VH K VK
(f)
RH RK (i)

RH RK
VH VJ VK
H K
VJ
15 kN HJ HJ
B E (j)
J J
G VG VL
(g) L
RG RL

RG RL
VG VL
G L
(h)
(k)
A VA F VF
MA MF
RA RF

Figure (6.10) Continued

279 Chapter Six

In a similar manner, using the free body in Fig. (6.10-e),

( )

Then,

Each part of the frame can now be analyze using the above
results. As in examples (6.3) and (6.4) the upper corner
where the load is applied is to be considered first, i.e.,
segment HCI, Fig. (6.10-f),

∑ +

+
∑

∑ +

Segment GHJ, Fig. (6.10-g),

∑ +
Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures 27:

+
∑

∑ +

Segment AG, Fig. (6.10-h),

+
∑

∑ +

∑ +

Segment IDK, Fig. (6.10-i),

+
∑

Segment KJL, Fig. (6.10-j)

+
∑

Segment FL, Fig. (6.10-k)

281 Chapter Six

+
∑

∑ +

∑ +

The shearing forces in columns and girders are constant and

are given by Vi. The axial forces in columns are constant and
are given by Ri, while they are also constant in girders and
are given by Hi.

Since the bending moment at the center of each girder

or column is zero, the bending moment at each end of a given
member equals the shearing force in that member multiplied
by half the length of that member. For example,

The axial force, shearing force, and bending moment

diagrams are shown in Fig. (6.11).
Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures 282

15 kN(C)

10 kN (T) 10 kN(C)
7.5 kN(C)

35 kN (T) 35 kN(C)

Axial Force
Diagram
10 kN

15 kN 25 kN 15 kN

22.5 kN 22.5 kN

Shearing Force
Diagram
30 kN.m
30
30
30
75

45 30
45 30
Bending Moment
75
Diagram
45 45
(on compression
side)
Figure (6.11)

6.4 Building Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads

A building frame consists primarily of girders carrying
vertical loads and columns, as shown in Fig. (6.12-a). It is
283 Chapter Six

actually built with the girders rigidly connected to the

columns in order to provide adequate lateral resistance.
Because of the rigid construction, a building frame is highly
indeterminate. The degree of indeterminacy of such a frame
is equal to 3 times the number of girders. It is therefore
necessary to make three assumptions for each girder if an
analysis is to be carried out on the basis of statics only.

For a rigid frame like that shown in Fig. (6.12-a) under

vertical loads the following three assumptions may be
assumed:

1. There is zero moment in each girder at the one tenth its

length from the left end, Fig. (6.12-b).

2. There is zero moment in each girder at the one tenth its

length from the right end, Fig. (6.12-b).

3. There is no axial force in the girder.

In summary then, each girder of length L can be

modeled by a simply supported span of length resting
on two cantilevered ends, each have a length of . The
columns stacks can be analyzed as cantilever structures as
shown in Fig. (6.12-c)

The following example illustrates how to apply this

method to analyze a building frame.
Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures 284

(a)

L1 L1 L2 L2 L3 L3
(b) 10 10 10 10 10 10

L1 L2 L3

(c)

Figure (6.12)
285 Chapter Six

Example 6.7: Draw the axial force, the shearing force, and
the bending moment for the frame shown in Fig. (6.13). Use
an approximate method.

Solution:
For an approximate analysis the frame is modeled as shown
in Fig. (6.13-b). The cantilevered spans supporting the center
portion of the girder have a length of,

Segment IJ, Fig. (6.13-c):

Due to symmetry,

The maximum positive bending moment at the span center is

given by

Segment CI or FJ, Fig. (6.13-d):

The maximum negative bending moment at C or F is

The maximum shearing force at C or F is

Segment GH, Fig. (6.13-e):

Due to symmetry
Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures 286

10 kN/m

20 kN/m 4m

7m
(a)

18 m

10 kN/m

C I J F
20 kN/m
4m
B G H E

(b) 7m

A D
1.8 14.4 m 1.8
m m
18 m

10 kN/m

I J
(c)
RI RJ
14.4 m

RI RJ
10 kN/m 10 kN/m

(d)
C I J F
1.8 1.8
m m

Figure (6.13)
287 Chapter Six

20 kN/m

G H
(e)
RG RH
14.4 m

RG RH
20 kN/m 20 kN/m

B G H E
(f) 1.8 1.8
m m

RI
10 kN/m

C I
RG
20 kN/m 4m
B G

(g) 7m

A
1.8
m

Figure (6.13) Continued

The maximum positive bending moment at the span center is

given by

Segment BG or EF, Fig. (6.13-f):

Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures 288

The maximum negative bending moment at B or E is

The maximum shearing force at B or E is

Segment ABCGI, Fig. (6.13-g):

Since the axial force in girders is zero, therefore, the shearing

force in columns is also zero. The axial force in column BC
(or EF) is

while the axial force in column AB (or DE) is

The constant bending moment in column BC (or EF) is

and for column AB (or DE) is

The axial force, shearing force, and bending moment

diagrams are shown in Fig. (6.14).
289 Chapter Six

Zero

90 kN(C) 90 kN(C)
Zero

270 kN(C) 270 kN(C)

(a) Axial force diagram

90 kN
72

180
144
-72 -90

-144
-180
Zero Zero

(b) Shearing force diagram

+259.2 kN.m
1.8 1.8
m m

145.8 145.8 +518.4 145.8

145.8

291.6 291.6
1.8 1.8
m m

437.4 437.4

(c) Bending moment diagram

(on compression side)

Figure (6.14)
Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures 28:

Problems

6.1 and 6.2: Draw the axial force, shearing force, and
bending moment diagrams for the frames shown. Use an
approximate method of analysis.
20 kN/m

D E F

8m

A B C
8m 5m

Figure P6.1
(Girder DE: kN; kN.m ; kN.m )

(Girder EF: kN; kN.m ; kN.m )

10 kN/m

G H I

8m
20 kN/m

D E F

8m

A B C
8m 12 m

Figure P6.2
291 Chapter Six

(Girder DE: kN; kN.m ; kN.m )

(Girder HI: kN; kN.m ; kN.m )

6.3 through 6.5: Draw the axial force, shearing force, and
bending moment diagrams for the frame shown. Use the
portal method of analysis.

50 kN
D E F

20 m

A B C
20 m 20 m

Figure P6.3, P6.6

(Member AD: kN T; kN; kN.m

Member BE: ; kN; kN.m

Member EF: kN C; kN; kN.m)

20 kN
G H I

16 m

40 kN
D E F

16 m
A B C
24 m 24 m

Figure P6.4, P6.7

Approximate Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures 292

(Member AD: kN C; kN; kN.m

Member CF: kN T; kN; kN.m

Member DE: kN C; kN; kN.m

Member HI: kN C; kN; kN.m)

M N
7.5 kN

16 m

15 kN L
I J K

16 m

15 kN E F G H

16 m

A B C D
30 m 20 m 30 m

Figure P6.5, P6.8

(Member AE: kN T; kN; kN.m

Member CG: kN C; kN; kN.m

Member EF: kN C; kN; kN.m

Member JK: kN C; kN; kN.m)

6.6: Draw the axial force, shearing force, and bending

moment diagrams for the frame in Fig. P6.5. Use the
cantilever method of analysis.

(Answer:

Member AE: kN T; kN; kN.m

Member CG: kN C; kN; kN.m

293 Chapter Six

Member EF: kN C; kN; kN.m

Member JK: kN C; kN; kN.m)

6.7: Determine approximately the force in each member of

the truss shown in Fig. P6.7. Assume that the diagonals can
support both tensile and compressive forces.
5 kN 10 kN 5 kN
I H G
J F

4m

A E
B C D
4 @ 3 m = 12 m

Figure P6.7

( kN C; kN C;
kN T; kN T; kN C;
kN T; kN T;
kN C; kN C; kN C)

6.8: Determine approximately the force in each member of

the truss shown in Fig. P6.7. Assume the diagonals cannot
support a compressive forces.

(Answer:

kN C; kN C; ;
; kN T; ;
kN T; ; kN C; kN
C; kN C)
 Chapter
SEVEN

Deflection of Beams

7.1 Introduction
Computation of deflection is of great importance. Codes
usually specify permissible deflection in structural elements
like beams and slabs. Large deflection in beams or slab gives
an unseemly sight and the occupants will feel uncomfortable.
Moreover, large deflection in beams may affect the attached
elements and in slabs will cause cracking of the plaster in the
ceiling. Deflection calculations are also required for statically
indeterminate problems where the available equations of
statics are not enough to solve the unknowns. Additional
equations are required which are provided by the
compatibility conditions of the structure based on slopes and
deflections. Hence a large number of methods have been
developed to calculate deflections of structures. The
481 Chapter Seven

deflections to be considered in this text apply to structures

having linear elastic material response. The methods can be
broadly classified as:
1. Geometrical Methods
2. Energy Method
In the geometrical methods, the basic equations of
equilibrium, compatibility, boundary conditions, and the
material stress-strain relations are used to generate the
governing differential equations. These equations are then
solved by analytic, graphic or combined method. Some of the
geometrical methods are the double integration method,
moment area method, and the conjugate beam method. In the
energy method, the energy principles are used to formulate
and solve the problem of deflection behaviour.

7.2 Conjugate Beam Method

The conjugate beam method was developed by H. Muller-
Breslau in 1865. The method is based on an analogy that can
be made between the operations performed to derive the
shearing force and bending moment diagrams from the load
diagrams and the operations required to compute the slopes
and deflections from the curvature diagrams. From previous
studies in strength of materials it will be recalled that the
differential equation of the elastic curve of a beam under
loading is
Deflection of Beams 481

(7.1)

where y is the deflection, M is the bending moment due to

the applied load, E is the modulus of elasticity for the
material from which the beam is made, and I is the moment
of inertia of the beam's cross section. Equation (7.1) can be
written as,

But slope of the elastic curve for flat

curves. Hence

or

Integrating, ∫ (7.2)

or ∫

Integrating, ∬ (7.3)

For a beam under distributed load of w/unit length it is also

already derived that [section 4.5, Eg. (4.2)]

and [section 4.5, Eq. (4.4)]

481 Chapter Seven

Thus

or ∫ (7.4)

Similarly ∫

or ∬ (7.5)

If Eq. (7.2) is compared with Eq. (7.4), it can be

observed that if in Eq. (7.2), w is replaced by , the

shearing force V will correspond with the slope θ of the

beam. Similarly when Eq. (7.3) is compared with Eq. (7.5), it

can be seen that if replaces w then the bending moment at

any point will give the deflection y. The beam, however, has
to be replaced by a conjugate beam whose length will be
equal to the real beam but the support conditions will change
such that the shearing force and bending moment in the
conjugate beam will conform to the slopes and deflections of
the real beam.

If the diagram for a given real beam is considered to

be the loading on an conjugate beam, the two theorems of the

conjugate beam method can be stated as follows.

Theorem 1
The shearing force at any point on the conjugate beam is
equal to the slope at the corresponding point on the real
beam.
Deflection of Beams 481

Theorem 2
The bending moment at any point on the conjugate beam is
equal to the deflection at the corresponding point on the real
beam.

Conjugate Beam Supports

When drawing the conjugate beam it is important that the
shearing force and bending moment developed at the
supports of the conjugate beam account for the
corresponding slope and deflection of the real beam at its
supports. The various real support conditions and their
corresponding conjugate substitutes are shown in Table (7.1).

Table (7.1) Transformation of real to conjugate beam support and

continuity conditions

Real Beam Conjugate Beam

Simple End (Hinge or Simple End (Hinge or
Roller) Roller)
Fixed End Free End
Free End Fixed End
Interior Support (Hinge or Interior Hinge
Roller)
Interior Hinge Interior Roller

Their validity can be verified by comparing the actual

deflection and slope, respectively, with the bending moment
488 Chapter Seven

and shearing force for the conjugate beam. For example, the
fixed support condition must have zero slope and deflection;
hence, there can be no shearing force or bending moment at
that end of the conjugate beam, which is possible only if the
end is free. Similarly in an intermediate support of a real
beam deflection is zero, therefore, in the conjugate beam the
bending moment should be zero which is possible if there is a
hinge at that point.

Figure (7.1) shows examples of various real beams and

their conjugate beams for both statically determinate and
indeterminate beams. These conjugate beams are constructed
using the corresponding conditions for beam support details
in Table (7.1). From the study of Fig. (7.1) it can be observed
that the conjugate beam of a statically determinate beam is
also statically determinate. The conjugate beam of a statically
indeterminate beam appears to be unstable. However, it is

stabilized by the loading corresponding to the diagram for

the corresponding real beam. For example the case shown in

Fig. (7.2) is the real beam fixed at both ends, and the
corresponding conjugate beam is completely free and
unsupported. For any loading, such as the centrally applied

concentrated load shown, it will be found that the diagram

corresponds to a loading which is completely self equalized

and requires no supporting reactions.
Deflection of Beams 481

1 2 1 2
L L

1 2 1 2
L L

1 2 3 1 2 3
L1 L2 L1 L2

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3

1 2 1 2
L L

1 2 3 1 2 3
L1 L2 L1 L2

1 2 3 1 2 3
L1 L2 L1 L2
(a)
(a) (b)

Figure (7.1) (a) Real beams, (b) conjugate beams

411 Chapter Seven

P
(a)
1 2
L/2 L/2

PL
8EI

(b) 1 2
PL PL
8EI 8EI

Figure (7.2) (a) Real beam, (b) conjugate beam

Sign Convention
For the conjugate beam, the load must be positioned on

the same side of the beam axis as that for the bending
moment diagram for the real beam. The positive bending
moment is located up the beam axis and the negative under

the beam axis. The direction of load is toward the beam

axis irrespective of where it is drawn, up or under the beam

axis. Accordingly if the calculated deflection and slope are
positive, the slope is clockwise and the deflection is
downward. Figure (7.3) illustrates the used sign convention.

(a) Real beam

Figure (7.3)
Deflection of Beams 414

+
_

(b) Bending moment diagram

M
EI

(c) Conjugate beam

-y
+θ +y
-θ

(d) Deflection (elastic) curve

Figure (7.3) Continued

Example 7.1: Determine the deflection and slope at the free

end of the cantilever beam shown in Fig. (7.4). EI is constant.

Solution:
The conjugate beam is shown in Fig. (7.4-c). The supports at
A' and B' correspond to supports at A and B on the real
beam, Table (7.1). The slope (θB) at B in the real beam is
determined by evaluating the shearing force (VB') at B' in the
411 Chapter Seven

conjugate beam. VB' is given, by considering the portion of

the beam to the left of B', as

(a)
A B
L

(b) _
WL

A' B'
(c)
WL
EI
L

Figure (7.4) (a) Real beam, (b) bending moment diagram, (c)
conjugate beam

Hence (clockwise)

The deflection (yB) at B in the real beam is determined by

evaluating the bending moment (MB') at B' in the conjugate
beam. Considering the portion of the conjugate beam to the
left of B', then

(downward)
Deflection of Beams 411

Example 7.2: Determine the maximum deflection of the

simply supported beam shown in Fig. (7.5).
MPa and mm4.

Solution:
The conjugate beam is shown in Fig. (7.5-c). The reactions
on the conjugate beams may be determined using the free
body diagram in Fig. (7.5-d). Summing the moment about B'
gives,

∑ + ( )

The vertical equilibrium of the beam requires

∑ +

It is known that the maximum deflection of the real beam

occurs at the point where the slope of the beam is zero. This
corresponds to the same point in the conjugate beam where
the shearing force is zero. Assuming this point acts at a
distance x from A' within the region between A' and C' (since
, the intensity of the distributed load at this point
may be calculated from proportional triangles as, Fig. (7.5-e)
411 Chapter Seven

8 kN
(a) A B

9m 3m

W.a.b  18 kN
L
(b) +

18
EI

(c) A' B'

C'
9m 3m

18
EI

(d) A' B'

C'
RA' 9m 3m RB'

18
EI
2x
(e) A' EI
V'=0
RA' x
9m

Figure (7.5) (a) Real beam, (b) bending moment diagram, (c)
conjugate beam, (d) free body diagram of conjugate beam, (e)
section at x from A' where the shearing force is zero
Deflection of Beams 411

or

The shearing force at the section x is

Since the shearing force Vx is zero, then

O.K.

Using this value for x, the maximum deflection ymax in the

real beam corresponds to the bending moment M' at the
section x in the conjugate beam

(downward)

Example 7.3: Determine the deflection and slope at the free

end of the cantilever beam shown in Fig. (7.6).
kN/m2 and m4, and
m4.
411 Chapter Seven

22 kN

A B
(a) C

1.8 m 2.75 m
I1 I2

(b) _
100.1 60.5 kN

A' B' C'

0.88103

1.41103
(c) 1
1.45103 m
Figure (7.6) (a) Real beam, (b) bending moment diagram, (c)
conjugate beam

Solution:
The conjugate beam is shown in Fig. (7.6-c). The values of

at points A', to left of B', and to right of B' are:

The shape of diagram is the same as that for the bending

moment diagram for each of the two portions AB and BC of

Deflection of Beams 411

the beam, i.e., the diagram is a trapezoid in AB and a

triangle in BC. The slope (θC) at C in the real beam is

determined by evaluating the shearing force VC' at C' in the
conjugate beam. Considering the portion of the conjugate
beam to the left of C', then

radian (clockwise)

The deflection (yc) at C in real beam is given by the bending

moment MC' at C' in the conjugate beam, i.e.

( )

( )

(downward)

Example 7.4: Determine the slope at B and D and the

deflection at A and C for the beam shown in Fig. (7.7). EI is
constant.
418 Chapter Seven

6 kN 12 kN

(a) D
A B C
3m 12 m 6m

42 kN.m

3.6 m +

(b) _ 8.4 m
18 kN.m
42
EI

A' B' D'

(c)
C'

18
EI
42
EI

A' B' D'

MA'
C'
(d) RA' RD'
18
EI

(e)

Figure (7.7) (a) Real beam, (b) bending moment diagram, (c)
conjugate beam, (d) free body diagram of conjugate beam, (e)
deflection curve
Deflection of Beams 411

Solution:
To draw the bending moment diagram for the real beam, the
reaction at D must be first determined. Summing moments
about B gives:

∑ +

The bending moment diagram is linear in all portions of the

beam (AB, BC, and CD). The bending moments at A, B, C,
and D are given respectively, as:

The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. (7.7-b) and

the conjugate beam is shown in Fig. (7.7-c). To determine the
reactions for the conjugate beam, the free body diagram in
Fig. (7.7-d) may be used. First using the bending moment is
zero at the hinge B' (considering the portion of the conjugate
beam to the right of B') gives,
111 Chapter Seven

( )

( )

From the vertical equilibrium,

∑ +

Considering the portion of the conjugate beam to the left of

B' and using the bending moment is zero at the hinge B'
gives,

Now the required slopes and deflections can be calculated.

Slope at B Shearing force at B'

(clockwise)

Slope at D Shearing force at D'

(anticlockwise)
Deflection of Beams 114

Deflection at C Bending moment at C'

(downward)

Deflection at A Bending moment at A'

(upward)

The expected deflection curve for the beam is shown in Fig.

(7.7-e).

Problems

7.1 through 7.5: Use the conjugate beam method to

determine the slope and deflection at point B of the beams
shown.

100 kN
300 kN.m

A C
B
6m 3m
2I I

GPa, mm4
Figure P7.1

( rad ; mm )
111 Chapter Seven

250 kN

A C
B
6m 3m 3m

GPa, mm4

Figure P7.2

( rad ; mm )

M0
C B
A
L L

Figure P7.3

( ; )

8 kN 4 kN
C
A B
3m 3m 3m

GPa, mm4
Figure P7.4
Deflection of Beams 111

( rad; mm )

2 kN/m

B A
C
6m 6m

GPa, mm4
Figure P7.5
( mm)

7.6: Determine the maximum deflection for the beam shown

in Fig. P7.6. Use the conjugate beam method.

50 kN 90 kN
B
D
C
6m 9m 9m

GPa, mm4

Figure P7.6

(Max. deflection mm )

7.7: Determine the smallest moment of inertia I required for

the beam shown in Fig. P7.7, so that its maximum deflection
111 Chapter Seven

does not exceed the limit 1/360 of the span length (that is,
⁄ ). Use the conjugate beam method.

50 kN 100 kN
400
kN.m
A B C
6m 6m
L=12 m

GPa
GPa,

Figure P7.7

( mm4)
 Chapter
EIGHT

Energy Methods

8.1 Introduction
The analysis of statically indeterminate structures requires
that use should be made of displacement equations in
addition to the usual equilibrium equations. It becomes
therefore necessary to determine the deformations in the
different parts of the structure. Moreover, the deflections of
statically determinate structures must be also frequently
determined, such structures having to fullfil certain
requirements concerning both their strength and rigidity, in
order to avoid excessive deformations under service loads.
For this reason the study of various methods of deflection
computation for elastic structures acquires the greatest
importance in the theory of structures.
206 Chapter Eight

In the previous chapter one of the geometric methods

for computing deflections was explained. Besides these
methods, there is a more general method which can be used
for determining the deformations of any elastic structure. It is
based on the law of conservation of energy.

When a static force is applied to an elastic structure,

transformation of potential energy from one form to another
takes place; a part of the potential energy of the external
force acting on the structure changes into potential energy of
strain, also called strain energy, stored in the structure. When
the structure is gradually unloaded, the strain energy is
recovered, causing the structure to regain its original shape.

This chapter is organized into major divisions including

the definition of the basic terms and concepts, development
and classification of several energy theorems, and
applications of the theorems for structural investigations.

8.2 Conservation of Energy

Conservation of energy is one of the basic laws of physics
and a system consisting of a structure and the applied forces
must obey this law. It states that the work done by all the
external forces acting on a structure is transformed into
internal work or strain energy, provided that no work is lost
in the form of kinetic energy causing vibration of the
Energy Methods 702

structures, or of heat energy causing a rise in its temperature.

If the material of the structure is linearly elastic, the strain
energy will return the structure to its undeformed state when
the loads are removed.

Mathematically the work energy balance can be written

as
(8.1)

where: Work performed

Energy stored in the body (strain energy)
Energy loss
With no energy loss, the equation reduces to

(8.2)
Before developing any of the energy methods base on
this law, the external work and strain energy caused by a
force and a moment will be determined. The formulations to
be presented will provide a basis for understanding the work
and energy methods that follow.

8.3 External Work

If a structure is subjected to static loading, it will undergo a
small change in shape, i.e. it will undergo a set of
displacements. The external forces acting on the structure, as
a result, will undergo these displacements and consequently a
work is done.
208 Chapter Eight

As the external load is applied gradually on a structure,

hence the relation between the load and displacement is
represented by a straight line, as shown in Fig. (8.1). This is
correct if the material constitutive law is linear and the
structure displacements are small.

Load
F=k.x
Slope=k

0 x Displacement
Figure (8.1) Linear load-displacement relation

Consider now the effect caused by an axial force

applied to the end of a bar as shown in Fig. (8.2-a). As the
magnitude of the applied force, F, is gradually increased
from zero to some value P, the final elongation of the bar
becomes Δ. The relation between the load and displacement
is given by
(8.3)
where k is the slope of the straight line. Suppose that at an
instant a force F undergoes a displacement dx in the same
direction as the force. From the basic definition of work,
which is the product of a force acting through a distance, the
external work done on the body is
Energy Methods 702

F
F=k.x

L P

F
Δ x
0 Δ
x
F dx
(a) (b)

Figure (8.2)

(8.4)
The total amount of external work associated with the total
displacement Δ is obtained by integrating Eq. (8.4),

∫ (8.5)
Substituting Eq. (8.3) and integrating, we obtain

(8.6)

Since, from Eq. (8.3), , then

(8.7)

Thus it may be concluded that the work done is equal to the

average force magnitude times the displacement (Δ).

Although Eq. (8.7) is derived for a force, it applies

equally to external moments. In the case of an applied
moment, M, undergoes a rotation θ the work done is given as
210 Chapter Eight

(8.8)

For a structure subjected simultaneously to n external forces

and moments the expression for external work is

∑ (8.9)

where Qi stands for the applied load or moment and Di the

associated deflection or rotation, respectively.

Figure (8.3) shows some forms of external work

encountered in analysis of structures.

P
u

M
θ

Figure (8.3)
Energy Methods 722

8.4 Strain Energy

When a structure is subjected to external loading, and hence
external work is done, internal work or strain energy is
generated and stored in the individual members of the
structure. The strain energy can be expressed in terms of the
stresses and strains developed in the individual members. To
develop general expression for strain energy, consider a
differential (small) element of a linear elastic structure in the
form of a prism of cross sectional area dA and length dL. The
area dA can be subjected to either a normal stress σ (Fig.
(8.4-a)), or to a shear stress τ (Fig. (8.4-b)). Assume that the
left-hand end (B) of the element is fixed while the right-hand
end (C) is free.

B C B C

dL dA dL

Figure (8.4)

Using ϵ as a general symbol for strain, although γ is used for

the shear strain, the displacement, of end C under the two
types of stress is then

ϵ and ϵ (8.10)
212 Chapter Eight

When the forces and , which cause the above

displacements, are applied gradually, the energy stored in the
two elements is

and

The above equations can be put in the general form

ϵ (8.11)

where is the volume of the element and σ

represents a generalized stress, that is either a normal or a
shearing stress.

The strain ϵ in Eq. (8.11) is either due to a normal

stress and has the magnitude:

ϵ (8.12)

or due to a shearing stress in which case:

ϵ (8.13)

where E is the modulus of elasticity in tension or

compression and G is the shear modulus of elasticity. But G
and E are related by

(8.14)
Energy Methods 722

where υ is Poisson's ratio. The total strain energy in a given

volume is

∫ ϵ (8.15)

Strain energy due to axial force

Consider a segment dx of a member of cross sectional area A
and length L subjected to an axial force N (Fig. (8.5-a)). The
normal stress is

dx
N
(a)

x
dx
x M z
y
y dA
M .dx y
(b) EI

dx b

x z
V
y
y
y
(c)

dx
T
r
dA
(d)
Figure (8.5)
214 Chapter Eight

and the strain is

Substituting into Eq. (8.15) the total strain energy is give as:

∫ (8.16)

For a straight prismatic member of length L and

subjected to a constant axial force N, the expression for U
becomes

(8.17)

Strain energy due to bending moment

Consider a segment dx subjected to a bending moment M
about the z axis, one of the principal axes of the cross section
Fig. (8.5-b). The normal stress on an element dA at a
distance y from the z axis is

where I is the second moment of area about the z axis. The

corresponding strain is

From Eq. (8.15) the strain energy is

Energy Methods 722

∫ * (∫ )+

The integral ∫ is equal to I, so that

∫ (8.18)

The integration is carried out over the entire length of each

member of the structure.

Strain energy due to shearing force

Consider a segment dx, Fig. (8.5-c), subjected to a shearing
force V. If the shearing stress induced is τ, the shearing
strain in an element of an area dA is given by ⁄ . From Eq.
(8.15) the strain energy is

∫ ∫ (8.19)

For any cross section, the shearing stress at any fiber at a

distance y below the centroidal principle axis z is

(8.20)

where I is the second moment of area of cross section about

the z axis, b is the width of the cross section at the fiber
considered, and Q is the first moment about the z axis of the
area of the part of the section below the fiber considered.
216 Chapter Eight

Substituting Eq. (8.20) into Eq. (8.19) gives

∫ ∫

The integral ∫ can be expressed by ⁄ to give

∫ (8.21)

The term As in units (length)2, is called the effective cross

sectional area and is given as ⁄ , where A is the actual area
and β is a coefficient greater than 1.0. The value of β for a
rectangular cross section is 1.2. The integration in Eq. (8.21)
has to be carried out for the entire length of the member.

Strain energy due to torsion

Figure (8.5-d) shows a segment dx of a circular bar subjected
to a twisting moment T. The shearing stress at any point
distance r from the center is

where J is the polar moment of inertia . The

corresponding strain is and from Eq. (8.15) the strain

energy becomes

∫ ∫

∫ * (∫ )+
Energy Methods 722

∫ (8.22)

The integral ∫ is the polar moment of inertia.

Equation (8.22) can be used for members with cross

sections other than circular, but in this case J is the torsion
constant in units (length)4. For example for a square cross
section where a is the side of the square.

In the case of a rigid plane frame loaded in its own

plane, while the twisting moments are absent, axial forces,
shearing forces, and bending moment act in the plane of the
frame. Consequently, the strain energy is the sum of strain
energies given by Eqs. (8.16), (8.18), and (8.21):

∫ ∫ ∫ (8.23)

The strain energy due to the axial forces and shearing forces
is generally small compared to the strain energy due to
bending moments. Hence it is a common practice in the
analysis of structures to ignore the strain energy due to the
axial forces and shearing forces.

In trusses only axial forces are present. Hence using Eq.

(8.17) the total strain energy of a truss may be expressed as

∑ (8.24)

the summation is conducted for all members of the truss.

218 Chapter Eight

8.5 Principle of Virtual Work

The principle of virtual work was developed by John
Bernoulli in 1717 and is sometimes referred to as the unit
load method. It provides a general means of obtaining the
displacement and slope at a specific point on a structure
(beam, frame, or truss).

The term "virtual" indicates that the quantity is not real,

but imaginary. Virtual quantities are indicated by the symbol
δ followed by the usual notation. Thus a virtual displacement
is denoted as δD, a virtual force as δQ, and virtual work as
δW.

A virtual work is the work done by a real force acting

through a virtual displacement or a virtual force acting
through a real displacement.

To develop the principle of virtual work, a structure (or

body) of arbitrary shape will be considered as shown in Fig.
(8.6). Suppose it is necessary to determine the displacement
Δ of point A on the body caused by the real loads P1, P2, and
P3. To do this a virtual (or imaginary) point load δQ is
applied at A in the direction in which the displacement is
desired, Fig. (8.6-b). This is done before the real loads P1, P2,
and P3 are applied to the body. As a result of the virtual load
δQ, there will be virtual stresses and strains in each element
of the body as shown in Fig. (8.6-b). The body is in
Energy Methods 722

equilibrium and the external load internal stresses will be in

balance.

P2

P1

(a)
A
P3
Δ

(b)
A

δQ

P2

P1

(c) A
P3
δQ

Figure (8.6) (a) Body with real loads, (b) body with only
virtual load, (c) body with real loads and already existing virtual
load
220 Chapter Eight

If now the real loads P1, P2, and P3 are applied to the
body while δQ exists, displacements in the body will occur
due to these real loads, Fig. (8.6-c). Two types of work
result:

1. Real work due to real loads and real displacements. This

is given by the expression

∑ ∫ ϵ

External real Internal real

work work

2. Because of the real external load, there will be real

displacement at the point and direction where virtual
force δQ is applied and this will result in virtual work

given by (δQ.ΔA). The factor will not come as the

virtual force δQ is already there when the displacement

occurs. Similarly internal virtual work due to already

existing virtual stress is given by ( ∫ ϵ . Here

again factor is not there as the virtual stresses are

already existing when the real internal strain due to real

applied forces takes place. With no loss of energy the
total internal work will be equal to the total external
work. As the real work is proved already equal we are
left with the equality of virtual work. Hence
Energy Methods 772

Displacement and strain due to real

loads

∫ ϵ (8.25-a)

Virtual forces and stresses in

equilibrium

In a similar manner, if a rotational displacement or slope

of the tangent θ at a point on the structure is to be
determined, a virtual couple moment δQ is applied at the
point. The rotation θ can be found from the virtual work
equation

∫ ϵ (8.25-b)

The principle of virtual work may be stated as "the

external virtual work done by a virtual force moving through
a real displacement due to real loads is equal to the internal
virtual work done by internal virtual stresses moving through
compatible real internal strains". In mathematical form this
principle states that

(8.26)

Instead of applying an arbitrary virtual force δQ it is

usual to apply a unit load (1 kN) as a virtual load.

The internal virtual work δWI in Eqs. (8.25-a) and

(8.25-b) are in terms of virtual stresses and real strains and
222 Chapter Eight

the volume of members. Expressions for δWI will now be

derived for the different effects.

Axial Force
Let fx be the virtual axial force and Fx the real axial force.
The virtual stress is

and the real strain is

where A is the cross sectional area and E is the modulus of

elasticity. The internal virtual work is then

∫ ϵ ∫ ∫

∫ (8.27)

where L is the length of the member and ∫ .

If the axial forces f and F are constants along a member,

Eq. (8.27) becomes

(8.28)

In trusses there are a number of members and the total

internal virtual work is given by

∑ (8.29)
Energy Methods 772

where n is the number of members.

Bending Moment
Let mx be the virtual bending moment and M the real
bending moment. The internal virtual stress

and the real strain is

where I is the second moment of area and z is the distance of

a fiber from the centroidal axis of the cross section. The
internal virtual work is

∫ ϵ ∫ ∫

∫ ∫

∫ (8.30)

where ∫

When applying Eq. (8.30), it is important to realize that

the definite integral represents the amount of virtual strain
energy that is stored in the structure. If concentrated forces or
couple moments act on a structure (a beam or frame) or the
distributed load is discontinuous, a single integration cannot
be performed across the entire length of the structure.
224 Chapter Eight

Instead, separate x coordinates will have to be chosen within

regions that have no discontinuity of loading. Also, it is not
necessary that each x have the same origin. However, the x
selected for determining the real moment Mx in a particular
region must be the same x as that selected for determining
the virtual moment mx within the same region. For example,
consider the beam shown in Fig. (8.7). In order to determine
the deflection at point D, four regions of the beam must be
considered, and therefore four integrals having the form
∫ ⁄ must be evaluated. In any case, each x
coordinate should be selected so that both Mx and mx can be
easily formulated.
P w
A
C E
B D
(a) x1 x3
x2 x4

A
C E
B D
(b) x1 x3
x2 x4

Figure (8.7) (a) Real loads, (b) virtual load

Example 8.1: Determine the deflection at the free end of the

cantilever beam shown in Fig. (8.8). Use the virtual work
method. Take MPa, and mm4.
Energy Methods 772

12 kN/m

(a) A B
10 m

12 kN/m

(b)
A x B

(c)
x

Figure (8.8) (a) Loaded beam, (b) real load, (c) virtual load

Solution:
Virtual Moment mx:

The vertical deflection of point B is obtained by placing a

virtual unit load kN at B, Fig. (8.8-c). By inspection
there are no discontinuities of loading on the beam for both
the real and virtual loads. Thus, a single x coordinate can be
used to determine the internal virtual work done. This
coordinate will be selected with its origin at B, since then the
reactions at A do not have to be determined in order to find
the internal bending moments mx and Mx. The internal virtual
moment mx at the section x distance from point B is, Fig.
(8.8-c)
226 Chapter Eight

Real Moment Mx:

Using the same x coordinate, Mx at distance x from B is

given by, Fig. (8.8-b)

Virtual Work Equation:

* +

The positive sign indicates that ΔB is in the same direction of

the virtual load δQ shown in Fig. (8.8-c), that is downward.

Example 8.2: Determine the rotation at point A of the beam

shown in Fig. (8.9). Use the virtual work method. EI
constant.

Solution:
Virtual Moment mx:
Energy Methods 772

M0
A B
(a)
L

A B
(b)
RAv RBv
x

M0
A B
(c)
RAr RBr
x

Figure (8.9) (a) Loaded beam, (b) virtual load, (c) real load

The rotation at A is determined by placing a virtual unit

couple moment kN.m at B, Fig. (8.9-b). There are no
discontinuities of loading on the beam for both the real and
virtual loads. Thus, a single x coordinate can be used to
determine the virtual and real bending moments. The
reactions RAv and RBv must be computed first, Fig. (8.9-b),

∑ +

The virtual moment mx at the section distance x from A is

228 Chapter Eight

Real Moment Mx:

The reaction RAr is determined first, Fig. (8.9-c),

∑ +

The real bending moment Mx at section x is

Virtual Work Equation:

∫ ( ) ( )

∫ ( )

* +

The positive sign indicates that θA is in the same direction of

the virtual couple moment δQ shown in Fig. (8.9-b).

Example 8.3: Determine the horizontal displacement at

support D for the frame shown in Fig. (8.10). Use the virtual
work method. The second moment of area for members are
, , and .
Energy Methods 772

1.2 kN/m
1.5 kN
B C

8m
(a)
A D

10 m

x2
B C

(b) x1 x3
HAv A D

RAv RDv
x2
1.2 kN/m
1.5 kN

(c)
x1 x3
HAr

RAr RDr
Figure (8.10) (a) Loaded frame, (b) virtual load, (c) real loads

Solution:
Virtual Moment mx:
230 Chapter Eight

The horizontal displacement at D is determined by placing a

virtual unit load kN at D, Fig. (8.10-b). Here three x
coordinates must be selected in order to determine the
internal virtual work δWI in the frame. Coordinate x1
accounts for δWI within segment AB, coordinate x2 accounts
for that in segment BC, and coordinate x3 accounts for δWI in
segment CD. The reactions are determined first, Fig. (8.10-
b),

∑ +

∑ +

+
∑

The virtual moment mx in each member is calculated and the

resulting expressions are tabulated in Table (8.1).

Real Moment Mx:

The reactions are determined first, Fig. (8.10-c),

∑ +

∑ +
Energy Methods 722

+
∑

Using the same coordinates x1, x2, and x3 the expressions for
Mx in each member are determined and the results are shown
in Table (8.1).

Table (8.1)

Member
AB

BC

CD 0

Virtual Work Equation:

∫ ∫

* + * +
232 Chapter Eight

The positive sign indicates that ΔD is in the same direction of

the virtual load δQ, that is to the right.

Example 8.4: Determine the vertical deflection of joint (B)

for the truss shown in Fig. (8.11). Use the virtual work
method. The cross-sectional area of each member is 400 mm2
and MPa.

10 kN 5 kN

D G
8m
(a) A C
B
6m 6m 6m 6m

D G

(b) A C
B
RAv RCv

10 kN 5 kN

D G

(c) A C
B
RAv RCv
Figure (8.11) (a) Loaded truss, (b) virtual load, (c) real loads
Energy Methods 722

Solution:
Virtual Axial Forces fi:

Since the vertical displacement of joint (B) is to be

determined, a virtual load kN is applied to the truss
at joint (B) in the vertical direction, Fig. (8.11-b). The
support reactions at A and C are calculated first

∑ +

∑ +

The virtual axial forces fi for all members of the truss are
determined by the method of joints. The results are tabulated
in Table (8.2). The positive numbers indicate tensile forces
and negative numbers indicate compressive forces.

Real Axial Forces Fi:

The member forces Fi due to the given real loads are to be

evaluated. The reactions at A and C are determined first, Fig.
(8.11-c),

∑ +

∑ +
234 Chapter Eight

The member forces Fi for all members of truss are

determined by the method of joints and the results are shown
in Table (8.2)

Virtual Work Equation:

Using Eq. (8.29) for the internal virtual work, then

Since EA is constant for all members of truss, each of the

terms can be arranged in Table (8.2) and computed.
Thus,

Table (8.2)

Member

AD

AB

BD

DG

BG

BC

CG

∑
Energy Methods 722

The positive sign indicates that ΔB is in the same direction of

the virtual load δQ, that is downward.

8.6 Castigliano's Theorems

In 1879 Alberto Castigliano's, an Italian railroad engineer,
published a book in which he outlined a method for
determining the deflection or slope at a point in a structure,
be it a truss, beam, or frame. This method, which is referred
to a Castigliano's second theorem, applies only to structures
that have constant temperature, unyielding supports, and
linear elastic material response. By this theorem, it is
possible to express the deflection at a point on a structure in
terms of the derivative of the internal strain energy. To derive
this, consider a body (structure) of any arbitrary shape
subjected simultaneously to a set of n loads, as in Fig. (8.12),
where . The strain energy (U) stored in the body due to
the external work (W) performed by these forces is given by

∑ (8.31)
236 Chapter Eight

in which Δ1, Δ2, and Δ3 are the deflections of the body at the
points of application of the external load P1, P2, and P3,
respectively, as shown in Fig. (8.12). As Eq. (8.31) indicates,
the strain energy U is a function of the external loads and can
be expressed as

P2
P1
Δ2
Δ3 P3
Δ1

Figure (8.12)

(8.32)

Now, if any one of the loads, say Pi, is increased by a

differential amount dPi, then the increase in strain energy of
the body can be written as

(8.33)

and the total strain energy (UT) stored in the body is given by

∑ (8.34)

Now suppose the differential amount of the ith load

(dPi) is applied to the structure before the set of n loads. If
Energy Methods 722

dΔi is the deflection of the body at the point of application of

dPi due to dPi, then the strain energy stored in the body is
given by
(8.35)

The loads P1, P2, and P3 are then applied to the body, causing
the additional deflections Δ1, Δ2, and Δ3, respectively, at their
points of applications. Note that since the body is linearly
elastic, the loads P1, P2, and P3 cause the same deflections,
Δ1, Δ2, and Δ3, respectively, and perform the same amount of
external work on the body regardless of whether any other
load is acting on the body or not. The total strain energy (U T)
stored in the body during the application of dPi followed by
P1, P2, and P3 is given by
∑ (8.36)

Since dPi remains constant during the additional deflection,

Δi, of its point of application, the term on the right
hand side of Eq. (8.36) does not contain the factor . The

term represents a small quantity of second order, so

it can be neglected, and Eq. (8.36) can be written as

∑ (8.37)

The resulting total strain energy in the body will be the

same for each of the above orders of applying the loads.
Therefore, equating Eqs. (8.34) and (8.37) gives
238 Chapter Eight

∑ ∑

or after eliminating like terms

from which

(8.38)

Equation (8.38) is the mathematical statements of

Castigliano's second theorem. It can be stated as follows:

For a linearly elastic structure, the displacement of a

point on it is equal to the first partial derivative of the strain
energy in the structure with respect to a force acting at that
point and in the direction of displacement.

In mathematical form,

(8.39)

or

(8.40)

in which U is the strain energy, Δi is the deflection of the

point of application of the force Pi in the direction of Pi, and
θi is the rotation of the point of application of the couple M i
in the direction of Mi.

Castigliano's first theorem can be derived in a similar

manner; this theorem states that
Energy Methods 722

or (8.41)

Thus the first theorem is an expression for a load in terms of

the partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to the
corresponding displacement. Application of the first theorem
will not be considered here.

To apply Castigliano's second theorem as given in Eqs.

(8.39) and (8.40), the strain energy of the structure must be
expressed in terms of the external loads. The expressions for
the strain energy developed in Sec. 8.4 can be used for this
purpose.

Application to Trusses
The total strain energy for a truss is given by Eq. (8.17).
Substituting this equation into Eq. (8.39) gives

∑ (8.42)

It is generally easier to perform the differentiation prior to

summation. In the general case L, A, and E are constant for a
given member and as the partial derivative ⁄
⁄ , therefore

∑ (8.43)

where

external joint displacement of the truss

240 Chapter Eight

external force applied to the truss joint in the direction of

Δ

internal force in a member caused by both the force P

and the loads on the truss

length of a member

cross-sectional area of a member

modulus of elasticity of a member

Application to Beams and Frames

The strain energy for a beam or frame is given by Eq. (8.18).
Substituting this equation into Eq, (8.39) gives

∫ (8.44)

Rather than squaring the expression for the internal moment

M, integrating, and then taking the partial derivative, it is
generally easier to differentiate prior to integration, provided
E and I are constant, then

∫ (8.45)

where

external displacement of the point caused by the real

loads on the beam or frame

external force applied to the beam or frame in the

direction of Δ
Energy Methods 742

internal moment in the beam or frame, expressed as a

function of x and caused by both the force P and the real
loads on the beam or frame

modulus of elasticity of material

moment of inertia of cross-sectional area computed about

the neutral axis

If the slope θ at a point is to be determined, we must

find the partial derivative of the internal moment M with
respect to an external couple moment (M0) acting at the
point, i.e.

∫ (8.46)

In Eqs. (8.45) and (8.46) the strain energy due to shearing

force, axial force, and torsion is neglected.

Procedure of Analysis
The following procedure provides a method that may be used
to determined the deflection or slope at a point in a structure
(a truss, beam, and frame) using Castigliano's second
theorem.

1. If an external load (or couple) is acting on the given

structure at the point and in the direction of the desired
deflection (or rotation), then designate that load (or
couple) as a variable P or (M0) and go to step 2.
242 Chapter Eight

Otherwise, apply a fictitious load P (or couple M0) at the

point and in the direction of the desired deflection (or
rotation).

2. Determine the axial force F or the equation(s) for

bending moment M(x) in each member of the structure
in terms of P (or M0).

3. Differentiate the member axial forces F or the bending

moments M(x) obtained in step 2 with respect to the
variable P (or M0) to compute ⁄ or ⁄ (or
⁄ ).

4. Substitute the numerical value of P (or M0) into the

expressions of F or M(x) and their partial derivatives. If
P (or M0) represents a fictitious load (or couple), its
numerical value is zero.

5. Apply the appropriate expression of Castigliano's

second theorem Eqs. (8.43), (8.45), and (8.46) to
determine the desired deflection or rotation of the
structure. A positive answer for the desired deflection
(or rotation) indicates that the deflection (or rotation)
occurs in the same direction as P (or M0) and vice versa.

The application of Castigliano's second theorem to

displacement calculations is illustrated in the following
examples.
Energy Methods 742

Example 8.5: Calculate the vertical and horizontal

deflections at joint 2 for the truss shown in Fig. (8.13) by
using Castigliano's second theorem. The modulus of
elasticity kN/m2 and the cross-sectional areas
of members are m2, m2, and
m2.
90 kN
1
2

(a) 3m

3
4m

R1 P1
1 F12
H1 P2
2
(b) F13
F23
H3 3

4
P1 F13 F23
ф 3 θ
F12 5
P2 H3 3 4
θ 2
3 ф
F23 5

(c) (d) (e)

Figure (8.13)
244 Chapter Eight

Solution:
As shown in Fig. (8.13-b), the kN vertical load is
designated as the variable P1 to be used for computing the
vertical deflection at joint 2, whereas a fictitious horizontal
force P2 is applied at joint 2 to determine the horizontal
deflection. The member axial forces are then computed in
terms of P1 and P2 (and the external loads at the joints other
than 2 if any) by using the method of joints. Starting with
joint 2, Fig. (8.13-c),

∑ +

+
∑

Joint 3, Fig. (8.13-d),

∑ +

These member forces F, along with their partial derivatives

with respect to P1 and P2 are tabulated in Table (8.3). Note
that the tensile axial forces are considered as positive and the
compressive forces are negative.
Table (8.3)

⁄ F
Member
Energy Methods

(m/kN) (kN)
(kN/kN) (m) (m)

( ) ( )

0
0

( ) 0 0

∑ ( ) ∑ ( )
742
246 Chapter Eight

The numerical values kN and are then

substituted in the expression of Castigliano's second theorem,
as given by Eq. (8.43), to determine the vertical and
horizontal deflections at joint 2 of the truss.

( ) m

mm

and

( ) m

mm

Example 8.6: Determine the deflection at point B for the

beam shown in Fig. (8.14) by using Castigliano's second
theorem. kN/m2 m4.

Solution:
No external load is acting at point B, where the deflection is
desired, so we apply a fictitious load P at B as shown
in Fig. (8.14-b). Considering the free body diagram in Fig.
(8.14-b), the reactions can be determined as
Energy Methods 742

10 kN/m

A C
(a) B
4m 8m

P
10 kN/m

A C
(b) B
RA x1 x2 RC

Figure (8.14)

∑ +

∑ +

The equations for the bending moment M(x) in terms of P

and other loads for the two segments of the beam are
determined and tabulated in Table (8.4). The x coordinates
used for determining M(x) are shown in Fig. (8.14-b). The

derivatives for the segments of beam are also listed in

Table (8.4).

Applying Castigliano's second theorem, Eq. (8.45), the

deflection at B is given by
248 Chapter Eight

Table (8.4)

x-coordinate
Segment M
Origin Limits (m)

AB A 0-4 ( )

BC C 0-8 ( )

*∫ ∫ +

*∫ ( ) ∫ (

) +

Setting , the deflection becomes

*∫ ∫ ( ) +

Integrating, we obtain

[, - , - ]

* +

* + m

mm
Energy Methods 742

Example 8.7: Determine the rotation at point C for the frame

shown in Fig. (8.15) by using Castigliano's second theorem.
EI constant.
1.5 kN/m
D
C
12 m

40 kN B
(a)
12 m
A
30 m

1.5 kN/m
M0(=0)
D
C
RD
(b)
x3
40 kN B

HA A x1 x2
RA
Figure (8.15)

Solution:
No external couple is acting at C, where the rotation is
desired, so we apply a fictitious couple M0 at C, as
shown in Fig. (8.15-b). The reactions may be determined as,
Fig. (8.15-b),
250 Chapter Eight

∑ +

+
∑

kN

∑ +

The x coordinates used for determining the bending moment

equations M for the three segments of the frame are shown in
Fig. (8.15-b), and the equations for M in terms of M0 and
⁄ obtained for the three segments are tabulated in
Table (8.5).

Table (8.5)

x-coordinate
Segment M (kN.m)
Origin Limits (m)

AB A 0-12

BC A 12-24

CD D 0-30 ( )

Applying Castigliano's second theorem, Eq. (8.45), the

rotation at C is given by
Energy Methods 722

*∫ ∫

∫ +

∫ ,( ) -, -

Setting , the rotation becomes

∫ ( )

Integrating, we obtain

* +

rad.

Example 8.8: Determine the horizontal and vertical

deflections at A for the semicircular beam shown in Fig.
(8.16) by using Castigliano's second theorem. EI constant.

Solution:
Horizontal Deflection:

As shown in Fig. (8.16-b), the load Q is designated as the

variable P1 to be used for computing the horizontal deflection
252 Chapter Eight

at point A. The equation for the bending moment in the beam

is then written in terms of P1 as

(a) B Q
A

ds=R.dθ

dθ a
(b) B θ P1(=Q)
A

ds=R.dθ

dθ a
(c) B θ A
Q
P2(=0)
b

Figure (8.16) (a) Loaded beam, (b) arrangement for calculating

horizontal deflection, (c) arrangement for calculating vertical
deflection

The partial derivative of M with respect to P1 is given by

Energy Methods 722

The horizontal deflection at A can now be obtained by

applying Castigliano's second theorem as given by Eq. (8.45)
as follows:

Using , this expression becomes

∫ ∫

Setting gives

Vertical Deflection:

No external vertical load is acting at point A, where the

deflection is desired, so we apply a fictitious load P2 at
A, as shown in Fig. (8.16-b). The equation for the bending
moment in the beam in terms of P2 is

The partial derivative of M with respect to P2 is

254 Chapter Eight

Applying Castigliano's second theorem as given by Eq.

(8.45) gives the vertical deflection Δv at A as

Using , the integration changes to

∫ [ ][

Setting gives

∫ [ ][ ]

Integrating, we obtain

8.7 Application of Castigliano's Second Theorem

to Statically Indeterminate Structures
Castigliano's second theorem can be utilized in solving the
statically indeterminate structures. To develop the method of
solution, let us consider a structure indeterminate to the nth
Energy Methods 722

degree and is acted upon by known external loads w. The

strain energy for the structure can then be expressed in terms
of the known external loading and the n unknown redundants
as

in which R1, R2, …., Rn denote the n redundants. According

to Castigliano's second theorem, the partial dervitave of the
strain energy with respect to a force equals the deflection of
the point of application of the force along its line of action.
Since the deflection at the point of application of any
redundant is zero, the partial derivative of the strain energy
with respect to each of the redundants can be equated to zero,
that is

(for to n) (8.47)

Equation (8.47) represents a system of n simultaneous

equations in terms of n redundants and can be solved for the
redundant.

Equation (8.47) implies that in a linear statically

indeterminate structure the redundant caused by the external
applied loads are of such magnitude that the strain energy
stored in the structure is a minimum (that is, the internal
work done is the least). This conclusion is known as the
principle of least work.
256 Chapter Eight

The procedure for the analysis of indeterminate

structures by Castigliano's second theorem is illustrated by
the following examples.

Example 8.9: Determine the reactions by using Castigliano's

second theorem and draw the shearing force and bending
moment diagrams for the beam shown in Fig. (8.17). EI
constant.
w
B
(a) A
L

w
MA
(b)
RA x RB

w
MA
(c)
RA x RB

Figure (8.17)

Solution:
For this beam there are three unknown reactions, RA, MA,
and RB, as shown in Fig. (8.17-b or c). The solution may be
obtained by two approaches as illustrated below.
Energy Methods 722

Approach (1):

The reaction RB is considered as the redundant. The x

coordinate used for determining the bending moment
equation for the beam must be selected as shown in Fig.
(8.17-b), so that the bending moment can be expressed in
terms of RB as

The strain energy for the beam is given by Eq. (8.18) as

Using Eq. (8.47) since the deflection at B is zero, then

or

Substituting for M and and integrating gives

∫ ( )

or

* +

which leads to
258 Chapter Eight

The remaining two reactions may be determined from the

equations of static equilibrium, Fig. (8.17-b)

∑ +

∑ +

Approach (2):

The reaction MA is considered as the redundant. The x

coordinate used for determining the bending moment
equation must now be selected as shown in Fig. (8.17-c), so
that the bending moment can be expressed in terms of MA as

To replace the reaction RA by MA the equation of static

equilibrium ∑ may be used, Fig. (8.17-c),

∑ +

Substituting for RA, the expression of M becomes

( )
Energy Methods 722

The strain energy for the beam is

As the rotation at A is zero, Eq. (8.47) may be utilized to

give

or

Substituting for M and and integrating gives

∫ * ( ) +* +

or

The remaining two reactions RA and RB can be determined

by the equations of static equilibrium, Fig. (8.17-c),

∑ +

∑ +

The shearing force and bending moment diagrams are

shown in Fig. (8.18). The shearing force diagram is linear
260 Chapter Eight

w
(a)
L
5wL/8
(b) +
_
3wL/8

 wL2 /2 for w
_
 3wL2 /8
for RB
(c) +

for MA
 wL2/8  wL2/8
_ for w
+
(d)

Figure (8.18) (a) Loaded beam, (b) shearing force diagram, (c)
bending moment diagram for approach 1, (d) bending moment
diagram for approach 2

since the load on the beam is constant (uniformly distributed

load). The bending moment diagram is drawn for the two
approaches used to compute the redundant reaction. The
bending moment diagram for each approach is drawn by the
superposition of two diagrams each for one load on the
cantilever beam in approach (1) or on a simply supported
beam in approach (2). The bending moment diagram in Figs.
(8.18-c) and (8.18-d) is the area enclosed by the two curves.
Energy Methods 762

Example 8.10: Determine the reactions for the frame shown

in Fig. (8.19) by using Castigliano's second theorem. EI
constant.
40 kN

B C D
5m
(a)
A
5m 5m

x3
x2 40 kN MD
HD
RD
(b)

x1
HA
RA
Figure (8.19)

Solution:
The frame is supported by five reactions, HA, RA, HD, RD,
and MD as shown in Fig. (8.19-b). Since there are only three
equations of equilibrium, the frame is indeterminate to the
second degree. It has two redundant reactions. Let us select
HA and RA to be the redundants. According to Eq. (8.17), the
two conditions for evaluating HA and RA are
262 Chapter Eight

and

The strain energy of the frame is

Partially differentiate U with respect to RA and HA and equate

the results to zero give

and

Since EI is constant, the two equations become

∫ (1)

and

∫ (2)

To determine the equations for bending moment, M, the

frame is divided into three segments, AB, BC, and CD. The x
coordinates used for determining the equations are shown in
Fig. (8.19-b), and the bending moment equations, in terms of
RA and HA are tabulated in Table (8.6). Next, the derivatives
Energy Methods 762

⁄ and ⁄ are evaluated. These derivatives are

listed in the last two columns of Table (8.6).

Table (8.6)

x-coordinate
Segment M
Origin Limits (m)

AB A 0-5

BC B 0-5

CD B 5-10

By substituting the expressions for M, ⁄ and

⁄ into Eqs. (1) and (2) we obtain

∫ ∫
(3)

and

∫ ∫

∫ (4)

Integrating Eq. (3) gives

(5)

and integrating Eq. (4) gives

(6)
264 Chapter Eight

Solving Eqs. (5) and (6) leads to

kN
and
kN
The remaining three reactions may be determined from the
equations of equilibrium.
+
∑

6 kN

∑ +

kN

∑ +

kN.m

Example 8.11: Determine the force in each member of the

truss shown in Fig. (8.20) by using Castigliano's second
theorem. EI constant.

Solution:
The truss contains one more member than necessary of
internal stability; therefore, it is indeterminate to the first
degree. Let us select the force (x) in member (1-3) as the
redundant.

The strain energy of the truss is given by Eq. (8.24) as

Energy Methods 762

60 kN
2 3

(a) 6m

4
1
12 m

R2 60 kN
H2 2 F23 3
F24 x
(b) F12 F34 13.416
6 θ
H1 12
4
1 F14

60 kN F12
F24 F34 F23 3 x
θ
θ x H1 θ F14
F14 4 F34 1

(c) (d) (e)

Figure (8.20)

According to Eq. (8.47), the partial derivative of the strain

energy with respect to x must be zero, that is

For constant EA the equation reduces to

266 Chapter Eight

∑ (1)

The axial forces in members must be evaluated in terms of

the redundant x. Using the method of joints and starting with
joint 3, Fig. (8.20-c),
+
∑

∑ +

Joint 4, Fig. (8.20-d),

∑ +

+
∑

Joint 1, Fig. (8.20-e),

∑ +

The member forces F, along with their partial derivatives

with respect to x, are tabulated in Table (8.7). To apply Eq.

(1), the terms are computed for the individual members

and are added as shown in Table (8.7). Solving Eq. (1), the
magnitude of the redundant is given by
Table (8.7)
Energy Methods

L Axial Force F
Member Axial Force F
(m) (kN)

∑
762
268 Chapter Eight

or

kN compression

Finally, the forces in remaining members are evaluated by

substituting the value of x into the expression for the member
forces given in the third column of Table (8.7). The results
are given in the last column of Table (8.7).

Example 8.12: A two-hinged semicircular arch of span 2r is

loaded by a concentrated load P as shown in Fig. (8.21).
Determine the reactions by using Castigliano's second
theorem and calculate the bending moment at the crown. EI
constant.

Solution:
The arch is supported by four reactions as shown in Fig.
(8.21-b). Since there are three equations of equilibrium, the
arch is indeterminate to first degree. It has one redundant
reaction, say HA. Due to symmetry, we have

and

The strain energy of the arch is

Energy Methods 762

r
(a)
A B

2r

P
ds=r.dθ
r
b dθ
(b) A a θ B
HA HB
RA RB
Figure (8.21)

Using , the integral becomes

and due to symmetry,

⁄ ⁄
∫ ∫

According to Eq. (8.47),

⁄
∫

For constant EI, the equation becomes

270 Chapter Eight

⁄
∫ (1)

The equation for bending moment M in terms of HA is

or

Partially differentiate M with respect to HA gives

Substituting for M and in Eq. (1), gives

⁄
∫ * +

Simplifying and integrating,

⁄
∫ , -

or
⁄
* +

which gives

The bending moment at the crown is

Energy Methods 722

Problems

8.1: Use the virtual work method to determine the horizontal

and vertical deflections at joint B of the truss shown in Fig.
P8.1.
120 kN B

4m

A C
3m
Figure P8.1

GPa, mm2

( mm ; mm )

8.2: Use the virtual work method to determine the vertical

deflection at joint C of the truss shown in Fig. P8.2.
75 kN

G
3000 100 kN
3000
3000

9m F H
20
00 00
3000 20 3000
2000 2000
A E
3000 B 3000 C 3000 D 3000
4 @ 6 m = 24 m

GPa
Figure P8.2
272 Chapter Eight

( mm )

8.3: Determine the smallest cross sectional area A required

for the members of the truss shown in Fig. P8.3, so that the
horizontal deflection at joint D does not exceed 10 mm. Use
the virtual work method.
50 kN 50 kN

100 kN
C D

4m

A B
Figure P8.3 3m

GPa

( mm2)

8.4: Use the virtual work method to determine the deflection

at point C of the beam shown in Fig. P8.4.
100 kN
300 kN.m

A C
B
6m 3m
2I I
GPa, mm4
Figure P8.4
Energy Methods 722

( mm )

8.5 and 8.6: Use the virtual work method to determine the
horizontal deflection at point C of the frames shown.

C
B

25 kN/m 5m

A
5m
Figure P8.5

GPa, mm4
( mm )

3 kN/m
20 kN
B C

10 m

A D

Figure P8.6 10 m

GPa, mm4

( mm )
274 Chapter Eight

8.7: Use the virtual work method to determine the rotation at

point D of the frame shown in Fig. P8.7.

15 kN/m

C 2I D 2I E 2I F 2I G
3m

65 kN I I

3m

A B

3m 5m 5m 2m

GPa, mm4
Figure P8.7

( rad )

8.8: Use Castigliano's second theorem to determine the

horizontal and vertical deflections at joint B of the truss
shown in Fig. P8.1.

8.9: Use Castigliano's second theorem to determine the

vertical deflection at joint C of the truss shown in Fig. P8.2.

8.10: Use Castigliano's second theorem to determine the

deflection at point C of the beam shown in Fig. P8.4.

8.11: Use Castigliano's second theorem to determine the

horizontal deflection at joint C of the frame shown in Fig.
P8.5.
Energy Methods 722

8.12: Determine the reactions and draw the shearing force

and bending moment diagrams for the beam shown in Fig.
P8.12 by using Castigliano's theorems. Select the reaction
moment at the fixed support to be the redundant.
120 kN
72 kN.m
A B C
6m 6m

Figure P8.12

( kN ; kN ; kN.m )

8.13: Determine the reactions and draw the shearing force

and bending moment diagrams for the beam shown in Fig.
P8.13 by using Castigliano's theorems. Select the reaction
moment at the roller support to be the redundant.
15 kN/m

C
A B
7m 7m

Figure P8.13
( kN ; kN.m ; kN )

8.14: Determine the reactions and draw the axial force,

shearing force and bending moment diagrams for the frame
shown in Fig. P8.14. Use Castigliano's theorems.
276 Chapter Eight

150 kN

D
B C

10 m 20 kN/m

A
5m 5m
Figure P8.14

( kN ; kN ; kN.m ;
kN )

8.15: Determine the reactions and the force in each member

of truss shown in Fig. P8.15 by using Castigliano's theorems.

50 kN E

4m

100 kN D
C

4m

A B

Figure P8.15 3m

( kN C; kN T; kN T;
kN C)
 Chapter
NINE

Slope-Deflection Method

9.1 Introduction
The slope-deflection method for the analysis of indeterminate
beams and frames was introduced by George A. Maney in
1915 in the United States. The method takes into account
only the bending deformations of structures. In the slope-
deflection method, equilibrium is used to formulate the
governing equations for structures composed of flexural
members. The resulting set of simultaneous linear algebraic
equations is cast with the angles of rotation and
displacements at discrete points as the unknowns and the
stiffness quantities as the coefficients. Although the slope-
deflection method is itself considered to be a useful tool for
analyzing indeterminate beams and frames, an understanding
of the fundamentals of this method provides a valuable
872 Chapter Nine

introduction to the matrix stiffness method, which forms the

basis of most computer software currently used for structural
analysis.

9.2 Slope-deflection Equations

When a continuous beam or a frame is subjected to external
loads, internal moments generally develop at the ends of its
individual members. The slope-deflection equations relate
the moments at the ends of a member to the rotations and
displacements of its ends and the external loads applied to
the member.

To drive the slope-deflection equations, let us focus our

attention on an arbitrary member AB of the continuous beam
shown in Fig. (9.1-a). When the beam is subjected to external
loads and support settlements, member AB deforms, as
shown in the figure, and internal moments are induced at its
ends. The free-body diagram and the elastic curve for
member AB are shown using exaggerated scale in Fig. (9.1-
b). As indicated in this figure, double subscript notation is
used for member end moments, with the first subscript
identifying the member end at which the moment acts and
the second subscript indicating the other end of the member.
Thus MAB denotes the moment at end A of member AB,
whereas MBA represents the moment at end B of member AB.
Also, as shown in the Fig. (9.1-b), θA and θB denote,
Slope-Deflection Method 872

respectively, the rotations of ends A and B of the member

with respect to the horizontal (undeformed position of the
member); Δ denotes the relative translation between the two
ends of the member in the vertical direction (perpendicular to
the undeformed axis of the member; and the angle ψ denotes
the rotation of the member's chord due to the relative
translation Δ.

w Undeformed
position

(a)
A B

L
Deformed position
(elastic curve)

(b) MAB MBA

A B
L
EI=constant

Elastic curve
B
θA θB Δ
ψ
A
Chord

Figure (9.1)

Any consistent sign convention can be used to describe

the various quantities, but the following sign convention will
be used:
822 Chapter Nine

1. The moments acting on the ends of the members will be

considered positive when they act clockwise.

2. The rotations of the ends of the members will be

considered positive when they act clockwise.

3. The relative displacement Δ of the ends of a member is

considered positive when the chord rotation ψ is
clockwise.

The slope-deflection equations can be obtained by using

the principle of superposition by considering separately the
moments developed at each support due to the loads and each
of the displacements, θA, θB, and Δ, Fig. (9.2). That is
w
(a)
MAB MBA

A B
w

(b)

(c)
θA

(d) θB

Figure (9.2)
Slope-Deflection Method 822

(e)
ΔBA

Figure (9.2) continued

(9.1-a)

and

(9.1-b)

Each term in Eqs. (9.1) may be determined by using the

conjugate beam method as explained below.

Fixed End-Moments ( and )

The expressions for fixed-end moments due to any loading
condition can be derived by using the conjugate beam
method, as discussed in Chapter 7. For convenience in
solving problems, fixed end moments have been calculated
for selected loadings and are tabulated in Table (9.1).

To illustrate the application of the conjugate beam

method, consider the fixed beam subjected to a concentrated
load P at its center, as shown in Fig. (9.3-a). The conjugate
beam for this case is shown in Fig. (9.3-b). Since the slope at
support A is zero, then
828 Chapter Nine

Table (9.1)

Beam Fixed-End Moments

P

A B ,
L/2 L/2

A B
a b
,
L

A B ,
L

A B ,
L

,
A B
L/2 L/2

or

(9.2)

Also, the deflection at support A is zero, which gives

Slope-Deflection Method 822

or

(9.3)

Solving Eqs. (9.2) and (9.3) simultaneously gives

and

(a)
A B
L/2 L/2

(b)

Figure (9.3) (a) Real beam, (b) conjugate beam

Rotation at A (θA)
Consider end A of the member AB shown in Fig. (9.2-c) to
rotate θA while its far end B is held fixed. To determined the
822 Chapter Nine

moment needed to cause this rotation and the reaction

moment , we will use the conjugate beam method. For
this case the conjugate beam is shown in Fig. (9.4-b). The
deflection of the real beam in Fig. (9.4-a) is to be zero at A,
and therefore the bending moment at A' of the conjugate
beam must also be zero. This yields

A B
(a)
θA
L

A' B'
(b)

Figure (9.4) (a) Real beam, (b) conjugate beam

or
(9.4)

The rotation θA of the real beam is given by the shearing

force at A' of the conjugate beam, that is

(9.5)

Substituting Eq. (9.4) into Eq. (9.5) gives

Slope-Deflection Method 822

or

(9.6)

and

(9.7)

Rotation at B (θB)
In similar manner, if end B of the member AB rotates θB
while end A is held fixed as shown in Fig. (9.2-d), we can
determine the applied moment and the reaction moment
as

(9.8)

and

(9.9)

Relative Linear Displacement (ΔBA)

If the end B of the member AB is displaced relative to A, so
that the chord of the member rotates clockwise (positive
displacement) and yet both ends do not rotate, then moments
and are developed in the member, as shown in Fig.
(9.2-e). As before, these moments can be related to the
displacement Δ using the conjugate beam method. For this
822 Chapter Nine

case, the conjugate beam is as shown in Fig. (9.5-b). Since

the rotation at end B of the real beam is zero, the shearing
force at B' of the conjugate beam must also be zero. This
gives

or
(9.10)

(a)
A B
ΔBA

(b)
A' B'

Figure (9.5) (a) Real beam, (b) conjugate beam

However, due to the displacement ΔBA of the real beam at B,

the bending moment at end B' of the conjugate beam must
have a magnitude of ΔBA. That is

or

(9.11)
Slope-Deflection Method 827

Substituting Eq. (9.10) into Eq. (9.11) gives

or

(9.12)

and from Eq. (9.10)

(9.13)

Slope-deflection Equation
If the end moments due to θA, θB, and ΔAB, as given by Eqs.
(9.6) to (9.9) and (9.12) and (9.13), are substituted into Eqs.
(9.1), the resultant moments at the ends can be written as

( )* ( )+
(9.14-a)
and

( )* ( )+
(9.14-b)

Since these two equations are similar, the result can be

expressed as a single equation as

( )* ( )+ (9.15)

in which the subscript n refers to the near end of the member

where the moment acts and the subscript f identifies the
822 Chapter Nine

far (other) end of the member. From the derivation, Eqs.

(9.15) is found by considering only the effects of bending
and neglecting axial and shear deformations.

9.3 Procedure of Analysis

The procedure for the analysis of continuous beams and
frames by the slope-deflection method can be summarized as
follows:

1. Number all the supports and joints in order to identify

the members into which the structure will be divided.

2. Compute the fixed-end moments. For each member of

the structure, the fixed-end moments due to the external
loads may be evaluated by using Table (9.1) or the
conjugate beam method.

3. Identify the degrees of freedom of the structure. Here

each support or joint can possibly have a rotation (θ)
and a displacement (Δ).

4. Write the slope-deflection equations. For each member,

apply Eq. (9.15) to write two slope-deflection equations
relating member end moments to the unknown rotations
(θ) and displacements (Δ).

5. Write the equilibrium equations. The total number of

such equations must be equal to the number of unknown
Slope-Deflection Method 822

degrees of freedom. Each of these equations should be

expressed in terms of unknown internal moments as
specified by the slope-deflection equations. For beams
and frames write the moment equation of equilibrium at
each support, and for frames also write joint moment
equations of equilibrium. If the frame sidesways or
deflects horizontally, column shears should be related to
the moments at the ends of the column. This will be
discussed later.

6. Determined the unknown degrees of freedom. Substitute

the slope-deflection equations into the equilibrium
equations, and solve the resulting system of equations
for the unknown rotations and displacements.

7. Calculate member end moments by substituting the

numerical values of rotations and displacements
determined in step 6 into the slope-deflection equations.

8. Compute member end shearing forces. For each

member, (a) draw a free-body diagram showing the
external loads and end moments and (b) apply the
equations of equilibrium to calculate the shearing forces
at the ends of the member.

9. Draw the shearing force and bending moment diagrams

of the structure.
822 Chapter Nine

Example 9.1: Draw the shearing force and bending moment

diagrams for the beam shown in Fig. (9.6) by the slope-
deflection method. E constant.

Solution:
There are three supports labeled 1, 2, and 3, as shown in Fig.
(9.6-a), which divide the beam into two members (1-2 and 2-
3).

Fixed-End Moments:

By using Table (5.1) the fixed end moments due to the

external load for each member can be evaluated, Fig. (9.6-b)

There is no load on member 1-2

kN.m

kN.m

Degrees of Freedom:

fixed support

no settlement

unknown

no settlement

unknown

no settlement
Slope-Deflection Method 822

3 kN/m
(a)
1 2 3
6m 9m

3 kN/m

(b) 1 2 2 3
6m 9m

M21 M23M23 M32

M12 M21 3 kN/m

1 6m 2 2 2 9m 3

R1 R2 R3
(c) (d) (e)

15.19 kN

+
(f)
_ _
3.80
Shearing force
diagram 11.81
30.37 kN.m

15.19 +
(g)

Bending moment _
diagram (+B.M.
on compression +
side, -B.M. on
7.59
tension side)
Figure (9.6)
828 Chapter Nine

Thus the beam has two unknown degrees of freedom (θ2 and
θ3).

Slope-Deflection Equations:

Applying Eq. (9.15) for the two members of the structure, the
end moments are given as

( )* ( )+

( )* ( )+

(1)

( )* ( )+

( )* ( )+

(2)

( )* ( )+

( )* ( )+

(3)

( )* ( )+

( )* ( )+

(4)

Equilibrium Equations:
Slope-Deflection Method 822

The free-body diagram of joint 2 is shown in Fig. (9.6-d).

Note that the member end moments, which are assumed to be
in a clockwise direction on the ends of the members, must be
applied in the (opposite) counterclockwise direction on the
free body of the joint, in accordance with Newton's third law.
By applying the moment equilibrium equation ∑ to
the free body of joint 2, we obtain equilibrium equation

(5)

Also, since the end support 3 of the beam is simple support,

the moment at the end 3 of member 2-3 must be zero. That is

(6)

Substituting Eqs. (2) and (3) into Eq. (5) gives

( ) (7)

and substituting Eq. (4) into Eq. (6) gives

(8)

By solving Eq.s. (7) and (8) simultaneously, we obtain

kN.m2

kN.m2

Member End Moments:

The member end moments can now be computed by

substituting the numerical values of EIθ1 and EIθ3 back to
Eqs. (1) to (4). Thus,
822 Chapter Nine

kN.m

kN.m

( )

kN.m

( )

Member End Shearing Forces:

The member end shearing force can be obtained by

considering the equilibrium of each member. From Fig. (6.9-
c)

∑ +

kN

∑ +

kN

From Fig. (9.6-e)

∑ +

kN

∑ +

kN
Slope-Deflection Method 822

Note that the reaction at support 2 is given by

kN

Shearing Force and Bending Moment Diagrams:

The shearing force and bending moment diagrams can now

be constructed and are shown in Figs. (9.6-f) and (9.6-g),
respectively.

Example 9.2: Analyze by the slope-deflection method the

beam shown in Fig. (9.7). Support 2 settles 15 mm due to the
applied loads. kN/m2, mm4.

Solution:
There are three supports which divide the beam into two
members (1-2 and 2-3).

Fixed-End Moments:

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

Degrees of Freedom:

fixed support
 822 Chapter Nine

250 kN 40 kN/m

(a) 1 2 3
4.5 m 3m
7.5 m 3m

250 kN 40 kN/m
(b) 3
1
2

250 kN M23 M32

M12 M21M21 M23 40 kN/m

2 2 2 3m 3
1 7.5 m
R1 R2 R3
(c)
(d) (e)

153.553 kN
(f) +
_
Shearing force
diagram
96.447 216.287
96.287

450
406.29
(g) 339.08
_ + _
Bending
45
moment diagram
+
(+B.M. on
compression 62.57
side, -B.M. on
tension side)
Figure (9.7)
Slope-Deflection Method 827

no settlement

unknown

fixed support

no settlement

Thus there is one unknown rotation (θ2).

Slope-Deflection Equations:

Applying Eq. (9.15) for the two members (1-2 and 2-3), the
end moments will be given as

( )* ( )+

( )* θ

( )+

(1)

( )* ( )+

( )*

θ ( )+

(2)

( )* ( )+
822 Chapter Nine

( )* θ

( )+

(3)

( )* ( )+

( ) *θ

( )+

(4)

Equilibrium Equations:

From Fig. (9.7-d), applying the moment equilibrium equation

∑ to the free body of joint 2, we obtain

(5)

By substituting Eqs. (2) and (3) into Eq. (5), the unknown
rotation θ2 is given as

( ) ( )

rad.

Member End Moments:

Substituting the value of θ2 back into Eqs. (1) to (4) gives

( )

kN.m
Slope-Deflection Method 822

( )

kN.m

( )

kN.m

( )

kN.m

Member End Shearing Forces:

From Fig. (9.7-c)

∑ +

kN

∑ +

kN
From Fig. (9.7-e)

∑ +

kN

∑ +
kN

The reaction R2 is given as

kN

Shearing Force and Bending Moment Diagrams:

222 Chapter Nine

Shearing force and bending moment diagrams can now be

drawn for each member by using the principle of
superposition. The member may be assumed as a simply
supported beam under two types of loading, the ends moment
and the external load. The diagrams are given in Figs. (9.7-f)
and (9.7-g).

Example 9.3: Analyze by the slope-deflection method the

beam shown in Fig. (9.8). Under the action of the given load
support 2 settles 5 mm and also rotates clockwise through an
angle of 0.004 rad. kN/m2 and
mm4.

Solution:
The beam is considered as one member.

Fixed-End Moments:

kN.m

kN.m

Degrees of Freedom:

fixed support

no settlement

rad

m
Slope-Deflection Method 222

80 kN

(a)
1 2
3m 1m

80 kN
(b) θ2=+0.004 rad
1 5 mm
2

80 kN
M12 M21
(c)
1 4m 2
R1 R2

(d) _
10
Shearing force
_
diagram 90 kN

-130 kN.m
_
(e) +60
-10
Bending moment diagram
(+B.M. on compression side,
-B.M. on tension side)

Figure (9.8)

Slope-Deflection Equations:
228 Chapter Nine

Applying Eq. (9.15), we get

( )* ( )+

( )* θ

( )+

kN.m (1)

( )* ( )+

( )*

θ ( )+

kN.m (2)

Member End Shearing Forces:

From Fig. (9.8-c)

∑ +

kN

∑ +

kN

Shearing Force and Bending Moment Diagrams:

The shearing force and bending moment diagrams are shown

in Figs. (9.8-d) and (9.8-e), respectively.
Slope-Deflection Method 222

9.4 Structures with Cantilever Overhangs

For structures with cantilever overhangs, since the cantilever
portion is statically determinate in the sense that the shearing
force and bending moment at any section of this portion can
be obtained by applying the equations of equilibrium, it is not
necessary to include this portion in the analysis. For example,
consider the continuous beam with a cantilever overhang as
shown in Fig. (9.9). For the purpose of analysis, the
cantilever portion CD can be removed from the structure,

(a) Actual beam A B C D

L L a

(b) Statically determinate C D

cantilever portion
V=w.a

w.a
w
(c) Statically
indeterm- A B C
inate part L L
to be
analyzed

Figure (9.9)
222 Chapter Nine

provided that the moment and the force exerted by the

cantilever on the remaining structure are included in the
analysis. The indeterminate part AC of the structure, which
needs to be analyzed, is shown in Fig. (9.9-c).

9.5 Analysis of Frames: No Sideway

A frame will not sidesway, or be displaced to the left or right,
provided it is properly restrained, Fig. (9.10-a). Also, no
sidesway will occur in an unrestrained frame provided it is
symmetric with respect to both loading and geometry, Fig.
(9.10-b).

The procedure for the analysis of frames without

sidesway is almost identical to that for the analysis of
continuous beams. This similarity occurs because, like the
continuous beams, the unknown degrees of freedom of
frames without sidesway consist of only the unknown joint
rotations, with the joint translations being either zero or
known (as in the case of support settlements). However,
unlike the continuous beams, more than two members may
be connected to a joint of a frame, and the equilibrium
equation for such a joint would involve more than two
member end moments. The analysis of frames without
sidesway is illustrated by the following examples.
Slope-Deflection Method 222

(a)

w w

2I 2I 2I

(b)
I I I I b

L a L

Figure (9.10)

Example 9.4: Analyze by the slope-deflection method the

frame shown in Fig. (9.11) and draw the bending moment
diagram.

Solution:
Since the bending moment and shearing force at end 2 of the
cantilever portion (2-3) of the frame can be computed
directly by applying the equations of equilibrium, it is not
222 Chapter Nine

necessary to include this portion in the analysis. Thus, only

the indeterminate part (1-2-4), shown in Fig. (9.11-b), needs
to be analyzed. Note that, as shown in this figure, the
kN.m moment and the kN force exerted at joint 2 by the
cantilever (2-3) must be included in the analysis.

Only the two members (1-2 and 2-4) must be

considered.

Fixed-End Moments:

From Table (5.1)

kN.m

kN.m

There is no load on member (2-4)

kN.m (cantilever)

Degrees of Freedom:

fixed support

no settlement

unknown

no settlement

fixed support

no settlement
Slope-Deflection Method 227

30 kN/m 80 kN

1 3I 2 I 3

(a)

4m I

4
4m 2m

80 kN
30 kN/m
M23=-160 kN.m
1 2

(b)

M12=5 kN.m M21=+130 M21 M23

30 kN/m

H1 H2
1 4m 2 M24
R1 R2
(c) (d)

Figure (9.11)
222 Chapter Nine

R2

M24=+30 2
H2

M23=-160 80 kN
4m
(f)
2 3

(e) M42=+15 4 H4

R4

11.25 kN (T)
0

(g)

Axial force diagram

173.75 kN
(C)

80
26.25

(h)

Shearing force diagram 93.75

11.25

Figure (9.11) Continued

Slope-Deflection Method 222

-130 -160 kN.m

+60
_ _
+
(i)
-30 _
5

Bending moment diagram

(+B.M. on compression side,
-B.M. on tension side)
_
-15

Figure (9.11) Continued

Thus there is one unknown rotation (θ2).

Slope-Deflection Equations:

( )* ( )+

( )* ( )+

(1)

( )* ( )+

( )* ( )+

(2)

( )* ( )+

( )* ( )+
222 Chapter Nine

(3)

( )* ( )+

( )* ( )+

(4)

Equilibrium Equations:

By applying the moment equilibrium equation, ∑ , to

the free body of joint 2, Fig. (9.11-d), we obtain

(5)

Substitution of Eqs. (2) and (3) into Eq. (5), and noting that
kN.m, yields

( ) ( )

kN.m2

Member End Moments:

Substituting for into Eqs. (1) to (4), we get

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

Member End Shearing and Axial Forces:

Slope-Deflection Method 222

From Fig. (9.11-c),

∑ +

kN

∑ +

kN

From Fig. (9.11-e),

∑ +

kN
+
∑

From Fig. (9.11-d),

∑ +

kN
+
∑

(6)

From Fig. (9.11-f),

∑ +

kN

∑ +

kN
228 Chapter Nine

+
∑

kN

From Eq. (6),

kN

From Fig. (9.11-c),

+
∑

kN

Axial Force, Shearing Force, and Bending Moment

Diagrams:

Figures. (9.11-g), (9.11-h), and (9.11-i) show the axial force,

shearing force, and bending moment diagrams, respectively.

Example 9.5: Analyzed the frame shown in Fig. (9.12) by

using the slope-deflection method. Draw the bending
moment diagram.

Solution:
Although joints 2,4, and 6 are free to translate horizontally,
they will not translate due to the symmetry of the frame, with
respect to both loading and geometry. The axis of symmetry
is the line (3-4). Also joints 2, 4, and 6 cannot move in the
vertical direction since there are no settlements in supports 1,
3, and 5. In addition, the rotation θ4 at joint 4 has to be zero
Slope-Deflection Method 222

due to the symmetry, and the rotation θ6 has to be equal in

magnitude but opposite in sign to rotation θ2 at joint 2. Thus,
there is really one unknown joint rotation, which is θ2.

48 kN/m

2 4I 4 4I 6
(a)
I I I 6m

1 3 5
8m 8m

384 384 kN.m

-352
+ _ _ +
-64 - - -64
-64 _ _ -64

- -32 -32 -
(b) Bending moment diagram (+B.M. on
compression side, -B.M. on tension side)

Figure (9.12)

Fixed-End Moments:

From Table (5.1)

there is no loading on member

(1-2)

kN.m
222 Chapter Nine

kN.m

there is no loading on member

(3-4)

kN.m

kN.m

there is no loading on member

(5-6)

Degrees of Freedom:

fixed support

no settlement

unknown

fixed support

no settlement

due to symmetry

fixed support

no settlement

due to symmetry
Slope-Deflection Method 222

Slope-Deflection Equations:

Applying Eq. (9.15), we have

( )* ( )+

( )[ ] (1)

( )[ ] (2)

( )[ ]

(3)

( )[ ]

(4)

( )[ ] (5)

( )[ ] (6)

( )[ ( ) ]

(7)

( )[ ( ) ]

(8)

( )[ ( ) ] (9)
222 Chapter Nine

( )[ ( ) ] (10)

Equilibrium Equations:

One equation is needed since there is one unknown (θ2). This

equation may be obtained from the moment equilibrium at
joint 2. That is

(11)

Substituting Eqs. (2) and (3) into Eq. (11), we get

( ) ( )

kN.m2
Member End Moments:

By back substitution of the value of into Eqs. (1) to

(10), we have

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m
Slope-Deflection Method 227

kN.m

kN.m

Bending Moment Diagram:

The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig (9.12-b).

9.6 Analysis of Frames: with Sidesway

A frame, in general, will undergo sidesway if its joints are
not restrained against translation, unless it is symmetric with
respect to loading and geometry. To develop the analysis of
frames with sidesway, consider the rectangular frame in Fig.
(9.13-a). A qualitative deflected shape of the frame for an
arbitrary loading is also shown in the figure using an
exaggerated scale. While the fixed joints 1 and 4 of the frame
are completely restrained against rotation as well as
translation, the joints 2 and 3 are free to rotate and translate.
However, since the columns (1-2) and (3-4) are assumed to
be inextensible and the deformations of the frame are
assumed to be small, the joints 2 and 3 can translate only in
the horizontal direction, that is, in the direction perpendicular
to the columns (1-2) and (3-4), respectively. Furthermore,
since the girder (2-3) is also assumed to be inextensible, the
horizontal displacements of joints 2 and 3 must be the same.
Thus the frame has three unknown joint degrees of freedom,
222 Chapter Nine

Δ Δ
w
3
2
(a) h/2
P

h/2
1 4
L
EI=constant
w
3
2

(b) P

M12 M43
1 H1 4 H4
R1 R4
M23 M32
2
3
(c) (d)

M21 M34

M21 2 M34 3

(e) P
(f)
M12 M43
1 H1 4 H4
R1 R4

Figure (9.13)
Slope-Deflection Method 222

the rotations θ2 and θ3 of joints 2 and 3 respectively, and the

horizontal displacement Δ of both joints 2 and 3.
To determine these three unknowns we need three
independent equations of equilibrium. Two of the three
equilibrium equations are obtained by considering the
moment equilibrium of joints 2 and 3, Figs. (9.13-c) and
(9.13-d):

(9.16)
(9.17)

The third equilibrium equation, commonly termed the shear

equation, is based on the condition that the sum of all the
horizontal forces acting on the free body of the entire frame
must be zero. The free-body diagram of the frame is shown
in Fig. (9.13-b). By applying the equation ∑ , we
obtain
(9.18)

in which H1 and H4 are the shearing forces at the lower ends

of the columns (1-2) and (3-4), respectively. To express Eq.
(9.18) in terms of column end moments, we consider the
equilibrium of the free bodies of columns (1-2) and (3-4)
shown in Figs. (9.13-e) and (9.13-f), respectively. From Fig.
(9.13-e),

∑ +
282 Chapter Nine

( ) (9.19)

From Fig. (9.13-f),

∑ +

( ) (9.20)

By substituting Eqs. (9.19) and (9.20) into Eq. (9.18), we

obtain

* ( ) + * ( )+

or

(9.21)

For this example, Eqs. (9.16), (9.17), and (9.21) are the three
equilibrium equations by which the unknowns θ2, θ3, and Δ
can be determined.

Example 9.6: Analyze the frame shown in Fig. (9.14) by the

slope-deflection method. Draw the axial force, shearing
force, and bending moment diagrams.

Solution:
In this example, joints 2 and 3 can rotate. These two joints
may also shift an equal amount to the right; this unknown
sidesway is Δ, as shown by Fig. (9.14-b). Thus there are
three unknown degrees of freedom, θ2, θ3, and Δ.
Slope-Deflection Method 282

96 kN

2 2I 3
3m
(a) 48 kN I 5m
I
4
4.5 m
1
3m 3m

Δ Δ

(b)

R3
R2
3 H3
96 kN M21 H2
2 M34
M34 48 kN 5m
2 6m 3 7.5 m M43
H2 H3
4 H4
M21
R2 (c) R3 M12 1 H1 R4 (e)
(d)
R1

M23 96 kN M32
H2 H3
2 6m 3
R2 (f) R3

Figure (9.14)
288 Chapter Nine

27.35 kN (C)

(g)

52.945 kN
(C)
43.055 kN
(C)

43.005 kN
+

(h) _
27.35 52.945

27.35

20.65

144

+ 71.5 kN.m
41.83 _
_
41.83
_ _ 71.5

86.4 +
_
(i) 65.26
_
52.68

Figure (9.14) Continued

Fixed-End Moments:
Slope-Deflection Method 282

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

there is no load on member (3-4)

Degrees of Freedom:

fixed support

no settlement

unknown

( ) no settlement

( ) sidesway

unknown

( ) no settlement

( ) sidesway

fixed support

no settlement

Slope-Deflection Equations:
282 Chapter Nine

Applying Eq. (9.15) we have:

( )* ( )+

( )* ( )+

(1)

( )* ( )+

(2)

( )* ( )+

(3)

( )* ( )+

(4)

( )* ( )+

(5)

( )* ( )+

(6)

Equilibrium Equations:

By considering the moment equilibrium equation of joints 2

and 3, we obtain
Slope-Deflection Method 282

(7)

and

(8)

The shear condition is, Fig. (9.14-c)

(9)

The expression for H2 and H3 may be obtained by

considering the equilibrium of the free bodies of columns (1-
2) and (3-4). From Fig. (9.14-d),

∑ +

From Fig. (9.14-e),

∑ +

Substitution for H2 and H3 in Eq. (9) gives

(10)

Substituting the slope-deflection equations (Eqs. 1 to 6) into

Eqs. (7), (8), and (10), we obtain

(11)

(12)
282 Chapter Nine

(13)

Solving Eqs. (11) to (13) gives

kN.m2

kN.m2

kN.m3

Member End Moments:

By substituting the numerical values of EIθ2, EIθ3, and EIΔ

into Eqs. (1) to (6), we get

( )

( ) kN.m

( )

( ) kN.m

( )

( ) kN.m

( )

( ) kN.m

( ) ( )

kN.m

( ) ( )
Slope-Deflection Method 287

kN.m

Member End Shearing Forces:

The member end shearing forces can be calculated by

considering the equilibrium of each member. From Fig.
(9.14-f),

∑ +

kN

∑ +

kN

From Fig. (9.14-d),

(previously obtained)

kN
+
∑

kN

From Fig. (9.14-e),

(previously obtained)

kN
+
∑

kN
282 Chapter Nine

Member Axial Forces:

From Fig. (9.14-f),

kN (obtained from equilibrium

of member 1-2)

kN (obtained from equilibrium

of member 3-4)

From Fig. (9.14-d),

kN (obtained for member 2-3)

∑ +

kN

From Fig. (9.14-e),

kN (obtained for member 2-3)

∑ +

kN

Axial Force, Shearing Force, and Bending Moment Diagrams

Figures (9.14-g), (9.14-h), and (9.14-i) show the axial force,
shearing force and bending moment diagrams, respectively.

Example 9.7: Analyze the frame shown in Fig. (9.15) by the

slope-deflection method. Draw the bending moment diagram.

Solution:
Slope-Deflection Method 282

Δ1 Δ1
12 kN
5 3I 6 5 6

2I 2I 6.4 m

Δ2 Δ2
24 kN
3 3I 4
3 4
2I 3.2 m
6.4 m 2
4I 2

1 (b)
4m 1
(a)
12 kN
5 6
12 kN
5 6

H5 H6
(c)
24 kN
3 4
(d)
H3 H4

M53 H5 6 H6 M31 H3 H4
5 3 4
M64 M42 3.2 m

6.4 m 6.4 m 6.4 m 2

M24

M46 (f)
3 4 2
M35 M13
(e)
Figure (9.15)
222 Chapter Nine

19.92
22.36 _
+ _ 19.92
22.36 _

_ -
21.53 17.99 - 49.28
_
_ + 12.99
36.28

39.52
_
55.96
(g) Bending moment diagram
_ (+B.M. on compression side, -B.M.
27.90 on tension side)

Figure (9.15) Continued

Here the loading displaces joints 5 and 6 an amount Δ1, and

joints 3 and 4 an amount Δ2. No fixed-end moments have to
be calculated, since the applied loading acts at the joints.
There are six unknown degrees of freedom,θ3, θ4, θ5, θ6, Δ1,
and Δ2. At the fixed supports

Slope-Deflection Equations:

Using Eq. (9.15) we obtain:

( )* ( )+

( )* ( )+
Slope-Deflection Method 222

(1)

( )* ( )+

(2)

( )* ( )+

(3)

( )* ( )+

(4)

( )* ( )+

(5)

( )* ( )+

(6)

( )* ( )+

(7)

( )* ( )+

(8)
228 Chapter Nine

( )* ( )+

(9)

( )* ( )+

(10)

( )* ( )+

(11)

( )* ( )+

(12)

Equilibrium Equations:

The moment equilibrium of joints 3, 4, 5, and 6 requires:

(13)

(14)

(15)

(16)

Also the shearing forces at the top (or base) of all columns
for any story must balance the applied horizontal loads, Figs.
(9.15-c) and (9.15-d). This yields
Slope-Deflection Method 222

(17)

(18)

From Fig. (9.15-e),

∑ +

∑ +

From Fig. (9.15-f),

∑ +

∑ +

Substituting for H3 to H6, Eqs. (17) and (18) become

(19)

(20)
222 Chapter Nine

Substituting the slope-deflection equations, Eqs. (1) to (12),

into Eqs. (13), (14), (15), (16), (19) and (20), and solving
simultaneously the resulting equations give

kN.m2

kN.m2

kN.m2

kN.m2

kN.m3

kN.m3

Member End Moments:

Substituting the above values of the joint rotations and

translations back into Eqs. (1) to (12), we get

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m
Slope-Deflection Method 222

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

Bending Moment Diagrams

The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. (9.15-g).

Problems

9.1 through 9.4: Determine the reactions and draw the

shearing force and bending moment diagrams for the beams
shown by using the slope-deflection method.

100 kN 100 kN

A
B C D E
9m 6m 6m 6m
I 2I

Figure P9.1

( kN.m ; kN.m ; kN.m ;

kN.m )
222 Chapter Nine

25 kN/m

A C
B
10 m 20 m
I 2I
GPa, mm4
Figure P9.2

( ; kN.m ; )

20 kN/m 60 kN

A B C D E
8m 8m 4m 4m

GPa, mm4

Figure P9.3

( kN.m ; kN.m ; kN.m ;

kN.m ; kN.m ; kN.m )

15 kN/m

A E
B C D
6m 6m 6m 6m

Figure P9.4
Slope-Deflection Method 227

( ; kN.m ;
kN.m ; kN.m ; kN.m )

9.5: Solve Problem 9.3 for the loading shown in Fig. P9.3
and settlement of 25 mm at support C.

( kN.m ; kN.m ; kN.m ;

kN.m ; kN.m ; kN.m )

9.6 and 9.7: Determine the member end moments for the
frames shown by using the slope-deflection method.

25 kN/m

D
C
3m
75 kN B
3m
A
9m

GPa, mm4
Figure P9.6

( kN.m ; kN.m ; kN.m ;

)
222 Chapter Nine

3 kN/m

C
D E

I 10 m

B 15 kN

I 5m
A

20 m 5m
2I 2I

Figure P9.7

( ; kN.m ; kN.m ;
kN.m )

9.8: Solve Problem 9.6 for the loading shown in Fig. P9.6
and settlement of 50 mm at support D.

( kN.m ; kN.m ; kN.m ;

)

9.9 and 9.10: Determine the member end moments for the
frames shown by using the slope-deflection method.
Slope-Deflection Method 222

1.5 kN/m
20 kN
C 2I D

I I 30 m

A B
40 m

Figure P9.9

( kN.m ; kN.m ; kN.m ;

kN.m ; kN.m ; kN.m )

9 kN
E 2I F
I I 15 m

18 kN
C 2I D

I I 15 m
A B
30 m

Figure P9.10
222 Chapter Nine

( kN.m ; kN.m ;
kN.m ; kN.m ;
kN.m ; kN.m )
 Chapter
TEN

Moment-Distribution Method

10.1 Introduction
The moment-distribution method was originally presented by
Prof. Hardy cross in 1930 and is considered one of the most
important contributions ever made to the structural analysis
of continuous beams and rigid frames.

The moment-distribution is a method of successive

approximations that may be carried out to any desired degree
of accuracy. Essentially, the method begins by assuming
each joint of a structure is fixed. Then, by unlocking and
locking each joint in succession, the internal moments at the
joints are distributed and balanced until the joints have
rotated to their final or nearly final positions.
243 Chapter Ten

10.2 General Principles and Definitions

Before developing the procedures of the moment-distribution
method, it is necessary to adopt a sign convention and define
the various terms used in the analysis.

Sign Convention
In applying the moment-distribution method, we will adopt
the same sign convention as used previously for the slope-
deflection method: Clockwise moments that act on member
ends are considered positive, whereas counterclockwise
moment are negative.

Fixed-End Moments ([Link])

The moments at the fixed end of a loaded member are called
fixed-end moments. These moments can be determined from
Table (9.1) of the preceding chapter, depending upon the
type of loading on the member.

Member Stiffness Factor (kij)

Consider a prismatic beam AB, which is hinged at end A and
fixed at end B, as shown in Fig. (10.1-a). If we apply a
moment M at the end A, the beam rotates by an angle θ at the
hinged end A and develops a moment MBA at the fixed end
B, as shown in the figure. In Chapter 9 we related M to θ
using the conjugate beam method. This resulted in Eq. (9.6),
that is,
Moment-Distribution Method 242

MBA=carryover
M=applied moment
moment
(a) θ B
A
L
EI=constant

M=applied
moment
A B
θ
(b)
L
EI=constant
Real beam

M/EI

(c) A' B'

L

RA' RB'
Conjugate beam

Figure (10.1)

The term

is referred to as the stiffness factor at A and can be defined as

the moment that must be applied at the end A of the member
to cause a unit rotation ( ) at A.
244 Chapter Ten

Now, suppose that the far end B of the beam is hinged,

as shown in Fig. (10.1-b). The relationship between the
applied moment M and the rotation θ of the end A of the
beam can be determined by using the conjugate beam
method, as illustrated in Fig. (10.1-b), that is

This expression indicates that the stiffness factor of the

member at A for this case is

Thus it may summarized that the stiffness factor of a member

ij at the end i is given by

if far end j of member is fixed (10.1)

if far end j of member is hinged (10.2)

Carry-Over Moment (C.O.M.)

Let us considered again the hinged-fixed beam in Fig. (10.1-
a). When a moment M is applied at the hinged end A of the
beam, a moment MBA develops at the fixed end B, as shown
in the figure. The moment MBA is termed the carryover
moment. It was shown in Chapter 9 that:
Moment-Distribution Method 243

(Eq. 9.6)

and

(Eq. 9.7)

or

(10.3)

This equation indicates that, when a moment of magnitude M

is applied at one end of a beam, one-half of the applied
moment is carried over to the far end, provided that the far
end is fixed. Note that the direction of the carryover moment,
MBA, is the same as the applied moment, M.

When the far end of the beam is hinged, as shown in

Fig. (10.1-b), the carry over moment MBA is zero. Thus we
can express the carryover moment as

{ (10.4)

The ratio of the carryover moment to the applied

moment ( ⁄ is called the carryover factor of the
member. It represents the fraction of the applied moment M
that is carried over to the far end of the member. Thus we can
express the carryover factor (COF) as

{ (10.5)
243 Chapter Ten

Distribution Factor (D.F)

When an external moment is applied to a joint of a structure
where two or more members meet, an important question that
arises is how to distribute this moment among the various
members connected at that joint. Consider the joint B show
in Fig. (10.2-a) at which three members meet, and suppose
that a moment M is applied to this joint, causing it to rotate
by an angle θ. To determine what fraction of the applied
moment M is resisted by each of the three members
connected to the joint, we draw the free-body diagram of
joint B as show in Fig. (10.2-b). By considering the moment
equilibrium of joint B (that is, ∑ ), we have

M
A θ
θ
B
M
θ
MBC
B
MBA

MBD

(a) D (b)

Figure (10.2)
Moment-Distribution Method 243

or

(10.6)

The moments at the ends B of the members can be expressed

in terms of the joint rotation θ and the stiffness factor k of the
members, Eqs. (10.1) and (10.2), as

(10.7)

(10.8)

(10.9)

Substituting these equations into Eq. (10.6), we obtain

or

∑ (10.10)

where ∑ and represents the sum of the

stiffnesses of all the members connected to joint B. From Eq.
(10.10) we can write

∑
(10.11)

The above equations, Eqs. (10.7) to (10.9), can now be

written as

∑
243 Chapter Ten

The ratios ⁄∑ , ⁄∑ , and ⁄∑ indicate the

portions of the moment M that are resisted by members BA,
BC, and BD, respectively. The ratio ⁄∑ for a member ij is
termed the distribution factor (D.F) of the member and it will
be given the symbol d, that is

∑
(10.12)

The distribution factor for a member is thus equal to the

stiffness of the member divided by the sum of the stiffnesses
of all members meeting at the joint.

10.3 Procedure for Analysis

The procedure for the analysis of structures by the moment-
distribution method can be summarized as follows:

1. The joints on the structure should be identified.

2. Compute the fixed-end moments. Assuming that all the

free joints are clamped against rotation, evaluate for
each member, the fixed-end moments due to the
external loads and support settlements (if any) by using
the fixed-end moment expressions given in Table (9.1)
of Chapter 9.

3. Calculate the distribution factors. The stiffness factors

for each member of the structure at the joints should be
Moment-Distribution Method 243

calculated. Using these values the distribution factors

can be determined from Eq. (10.12). Remembering that
the distribution factor is zero for a fixed end and one for
an end roller or hinged support. The sum of all the
distribution factors at a joint must equal 1.

4. Balance the moments at all the joints that are free to

rotate by applying the moment-distribution process as
follows:

a. At each joint, evaluate the unbalanced moment and

distribute it to the members connected to the joint.
The distributed moment at each member end rigidly
connected to the joint is obtained by multiplying the
negative of the unbalanced moment by the
distribution factor for the member end.

b. Carryover one-half of each distributed moment to the

opposite (far) end of the member.

c. Repeat steps (4-a) and (4-b) until either all the free
joints are balanced or the unbalanced moments at
these joints are negligibly small.

5. Determine the final member end moments by

algebraically summing the fixed-end moment and all the
distributed and carryover moments at each member end.
If the moment distribution has been carried out
correctly, then the final moments must satisfy the
233 Chapter Ten

equations of moment equilibrium at all joints of the

structure that are free to rotate.

6. Compute member end shearing forces and axial forces

by considering the equilibrium of the members of the
structure.

7. Determine support reactions by considering the

equilibrium of the joints of the structure.

8. Draw the shearing force, axial force, and bending

moment diagrams.

Example 10.1: Draw the bending moment diagram for the

beam shown in Fig. (10.3) by using the moment-distribution
method.

Solution:
First of all the joints are numbered. We have three joints, 1,
2, and 3, which divide the beam into two members.

Fixed-End Moments:

By assuming that joints 1, 2, and 3 are fixed (or locked), we

calculate the fixed-end moments at the ends of each member
due to the external loads, Fig. (10.3-b). By using Table (9.1)
in Chapter 9, we obtain for member 1-2

kN.m
Moment-Distribution Method 233

18 kN/m 38 kN

(a) 1 2I 2 I 3
6m 2m 2m

18 kN/m 38 kN

(b) 1 6m 2 2 4m 3

18 kN/m 38 kN

(c)
1 2 3

+35 kN.m
(d)
2

Unbalanced moment=+35 kN.m

(e) 1 3
2

Carryover moment Distributed moments Carryover moment

M12=-54-10=-64 kN.m M21=+54-20=+34 kN.m M32=+19-7.5=+11.5 kN.m

18 kN/m 38 kN

(f) 1 2 3
M23=-19-15=-34 kN.m

Figure (10.3)
233 Chapter Ten

-64 _ +
-34
_ +
(g) - -11.5
(+B.M. on compression side
-B.M. on tension side)

Figure (10.3) Continued

kN.m

and for member 2-3

kN.m

kN.m

Distribution Factors:

We must determine the distribution factor at the two ends of

each member. Using Eq. (10.1) the stiffness factors at these
ends are

(
Moment-Distribution Method 232

The distribution factor can then be determined for the ends of

member by using Eq. (10.12). At joint 1 and 3, the
distribution factor depends on the member stiffness factor
and the stiffness factor of the fixed support (wall). Since in
theory it would take an infinite size moment to rotate the wall
one radian, the wall stiffness factor is infinite. Thus for joints
1 and 3 we have

and for member ends connected at joint 2 we have

⁄( )

⁄( )

Note that the sum of the distribution factors at each joint

must always equal 1.

Balancing Joint 2:

There is a kN.m fixed-end moment at end 2 of member

(1-2), whereas the end 2 of member (2-3) is subjected to a
kN.m fixed-end moment. Thus the unbalanced moment
UM2 at joint 2 is, Figs. (10.3-c) and (10.3-d)

kN.m
234 Chapter Ten

To balance joint 2, we will apply an equal, but opposite

moment of kN.m to the joint and allow it to rotate
freely. As a result, portions of this moment are distributed in
members (2-1) and (2-3) in accordance with the distribution
factors of these members at the joint. Specifically, the
distributed moment D.M21 in member (2-1) is

( kN.m

and that D.M23 in member (2-3) is

( kN.m

The distributed moment at end 2 of member (2-1)

induces a carryover moment at the far end 1 (Fig. 10.3-e),
which can be determined by multiplying the distributed
moment by the carryover factor of the member. Since joint 1
is fixed, the carryover factor is . Thus the C.O.M at end 1 of
member (1-2) is
( kN.m

These results are shown in Fig. (10.3-e).

In this particular case only one cycle of moment

distribution is necessary, since no further joints have to be
balanced (or unlocked) to satisfy joint equilibrium.

The final member end moments are obtained by

algebraically summing the fixed-end moment and all the
Moment-Distribution Method 233

distributed and carryover moments at each member end. The

results are depicted in Fig. (10.3-f) and the bending moment
diagram is shown in Fig. (10.3-g).

Since the process of moment distribution, as explained

above, is both long and cumbersome, it is usually convenient
to carry out the analysis in tabular form as shown in Table
(10.1).

Table (10.1)

Joints 1 2 3
Members connected to Members 12 21 23 32
joint
Distribution factors [Link]. 0 4/7 3/7 0
Fixed-end moments [Link]. -54 +54 -19 +19
Distributed moments [Link]. -20 -15
Carryover moments [Link]. -10 -7.5
Final End
-64 +34 -34 +11.5
Moments

Example 10.2: Draw the bending moment diagram for the

beam shown in Fig. (10.4) by using the moment-distribution
method.

Solution:
Fixed-End Moments:

From Table (9.1) in Chapter 9

233 Chapter Ten

80 kN 24 kN/m

(a) 2I 2 3I 3 4
1 I
6m
8m 6m 6m

+120

+ -93.437 +108 kN.m

_ +
-28.295
_ -18.850
(b) _
_
(+B.M. on compression side -9.528
-B.M. on tension side)

Figure (10.4)

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

there is no load on member (3-4)

Stiffness Factors:
From Eq. (10.1),
Moment-Distribution Method 233

Distribution Factors:

From Eq. (10.12),

fixed end

⁄(

⁄(

⁄( )

⁄( )

fixed end

Starting with the fixed-end moment, the moments at joints 2

and 3 are balanced and distributed simultaneously. These
moments are then carried over simultaneously to the
respective ends of each member. The resulting moments are
again simultaneously distributed and carried over. The
process is continued until the resulting moments are
diminished an appropriate amount. The resulting moments
are found by summation. The complete analysis is shown in
Table (10.2).

The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. (10.4-b)

233 Chapter Ten

Table (10.2)

Joints 1 2 3 4

Members 12 21 23 32 34 43

[Link]. 0 1/3 2/3 3/4 1/4 0

[Link]. -30 +90 -72 +72 0 0

[Link]. 0 -6 -12 -54 -18 0

[Link]. -3 0 -27 -6 0 -9
[Link]. 0 +9 +18 +4.5 +1.5 0
[Link]. +4.5 0 +2.25 +9 0 +0.75

[Link]. 0 -0.75 -1.5 -6.75 +2.25 0

[Link]. -0.375 0 -3.375 -0.75 0 -1.125

[Link]. 0 +1.125 +2.25 +0.562 +0.188 0
[Link]. +0.562 0 +0.281 +1.125 0 +0.094
[Link]. 0 -0.094 -0.187 -0.844 -0.281 0
[Link]. -0.047 0 -0.422 -0.094 0 -0.241
[Link]. 0 +0.141 +0.281 +0.070 +0.024 0
[Link]. +0.071 0 +0.035 +0.145 0 +0.012
[Link]. 0 -0.012 -0.023 -0.108 -0.036 0

[Link]. -0.006 0 -0.054 -0.012 0 -0.018

Final End
-28.295 +93.410 -93.464 +18.844 -18.855 -9.528
Moments
Average 93.437 18.85

10.4 Hinged or Simple Supports at Ends

The analysis of structures, that are hinged or simply
supported at one or more ends, can be considerably
simplified by using Eq. (10.2) to calculate the stiffness
Moment-Distribution Method 233

factors for members adjacent to the hinged or simple end

supports. Also, the joints at the hinged or simple end
supports are balanced only once during the moment
distribution process, after which they are left unclamped so
that no moment can be carried to them as the interior joints
of the structure are balanced.

Example 10.3: Draw the bending moment diagram for the

beam shown in Fig. (10.5). By using the moment-distribution
method. constant.

24 kN/m 80 kN

(a) 3
1 2
5m 1.25 m 1.25 m

+75 kN.m
-52.5 _ + +50
-45
_ +
(b)
0
(+B.M. on compression side
-B.M. on tension side)

Figure (10.5)

Solution:
Fixed-End Moments:

From Table (9.1),

kN.m
233 Chapter Ten

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

Stiffness Factors:

From Eq. (10.1),

From Eq. (10.2),

From Eq. (10.1),

Distribution Factors:

fixed end

⁄( )

⁄( )

hinged end

The process of moment distribution is conducted in Table

(10.3), and the bending moment diagram is shown in Fig.
(10.5-b). The final end moments on the last line of Table
Moment-Distribution Method 233

(10.3) are obtained by algebraically summing the modified

fixed-end moment and all the distributed and carryover
moments at each member end (that is each column).

Table (10.3)

Joints 1 2 3
Members 12 21 23 32
[Link]. 0 2/5 3/5 1
[Link]. -50 +50 -25 +25
Balance joint (3) -25
[Link]. -12.5
Modified [Link]. -50 +50 -37.5 0
[Link]. -5 -7.5
[Link] -2.5 0
Final End
-52.5 +45.0 -45.0 0
Moments

10.5 Structures with Cantilever Overhangs

Sometimes, a structure may have a cantilever overhang at
one or more ends, Fig. (10.6). In such a case, the bending
moment at end A of the overhanging portion will be due to
the load over this portion and will remain constant,
irrespective of the moments on the other portions of the
structure. Since the overhanging portion AB does not
contribute to the rotational stiffness of joint A, the
distribution factor for its end A is zero. Thus, joint A in Fig.
(10.6-b) can be treated as a simple end support in the
233 Chapter Ten

analysis. The moment at end A of the cantilever, however

does affect the unbalanced moment at joint A, Figs. (10.6-a
and -b) and must be included along with the other fixed-end
moments in the analysis.

w P
w P
A B
A B

(a) (b)

Figure (10.6)

Example 10.4: Draw the bending moment diagram for the

beam shown in Fig. (10.7) by using the moment-distribution
method. constant.

Solution:
Fixed-End Moments:

From Table (9.1),

there is no load on member (1-2)

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m
Moment-Distribution Method 232

10 kN/m 30 kN

(a)
1 2 3 4
6m 9m 4m

(a) Continuous beam

30 kN
M34=-30*4=-120 kN.m
(b)
3 4

30 kN
(b) Statically determinate cantilever portion

-27.5 +120
+13.75 +27.5 -120 30 kN
10 kN/m

(c)
1 2 3 4

(c) Final end moments

+101.25 kN.m -120

+ _
-27.5 _
-
_
(d) +
+13.75 (d) Bending moment diagram
(+B.M. on compression side
-B.M. on tension side)

Figure (10.7)
Stiffness Factors:

From Eq. (10.1),

From Eq. (10.2),

234 Chapter Ten

From Eq. (10.1),

Distribution Factors:

From Eq. (10.12),

fixed end

⁄( )

⁄( )

hinged end

Table (10.4) shows the moment distribution process.

Table (10.4)

Joints 1 2 3
Members 12 21 23 32 34
[Link]. 0 2/3 1/3 1 0
[Link]. 0 0 -67.5 +67.5 -120
Balance joint (3) +52.5 0
[Link]. +26.25
Modified [Link]. 0 0 -41.25 +120 -120
[Link]. +27.5 +13.75
[Link] +13.75 0
Final End Moments +13.75 +27.5 -27.5 +120 -120
Moment-Distribution Method 233

10.6 Moment Distribution for Frames: No

Sidesway
The procedure for the analysis of frames without sidesway is
similar to that for the analysis of continuous beams presented
in the preceding sections. However, unlike the continuous
beams, more than two members may be connected to a joint
of a frame. In such cases, care must be taken to record the
computation in such a manner that mistakes are avoided.

Example 10.5: Draw the bending moment diagram for the

frame shown in Fig. (10.8) by using the moment-distribution
method.

Solution:
Fixed-End Moments:

From Table (9.1),

kN.m

kN.m

there is no load on member (2-4)

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m
233 Chapter Ten

2 kN/m

3 4 5
2I 2I
10 m
40 kN I I

8000.99
10 m
1 2
(a) 30 m 30 m

+225 +225
-205.7
-186.2
+ +
_ _
-116 -

-115.9 _ -19.3 _

+200 +
(b)
_
-92.1 - -9.6

(+B.M. on compression side

-B.M. on tension side)

Figure (10.8)

kN.m
Stiffness Factors:

From Eq. (10.1),

From Eq. (10.2),

Moment-Distribution Method 233

From Eq. (10.1),

Distribution Factors:

From Eq. (10.12),

fixed end

⁄( )

⁄( )

fixed end

⁄( )

⁄( )

⁄( )

hinged end

Moment Distribution:

The moment distribution process is carried out in Table

(10.5). The table, which is similar in form to those used
previously for the analysis of continuous beams, contains one
column for each member end of the frame. Note that the
columns for all member ends, which are connected to the
same joint, are grouped together, so that any unbalanced
233 Chapter Ten

moment at the joint can be conveniently distributed among

the members connected to it. Care must be taken when
carrying over moments from one end of the member to the
other. In this frame, no moment can be carried over from end
1 to end 3 of member (1-3) and from end 2 to end 4 of
member (2-4), because joints 1 and 2, which are at fixed
supports, will not be released during the moment distribution
process.

Table (10.5)

Joints 1 3 4 2 5

Members 13 31 34 43 45 42 24 54

[Link]. 0 0.429 0.571 0.4 0.3 0.3 0 1

[Link]. -100 +100 -150 +150 -150 0 0 +150

Balance
-150
joint 5
[Link]. -75

Modified
-100 +100 -150 +150 -225 0 0 0
[Link].
[Link]. +21.45 +28.55 +30 +22.5 +22.5

[Link]. +10.725 +15 +14.275 +11.25

[Link]. -6.435 -8.565 -5.71 -4.283 -4.283

[Link]. -3.218 -2.855 -4.283 -2.142

[Link]. +1.225 +1.630 +1.713 +1.285 +1.285

[Link]. +0.613 +0.857 +0.815 +0.643

[Link]. -0.368 -0.489 -0.326 -0.244 -0.244

[Link]. -0.184 -0.163 -0.244 -0.122

Final End
-92.1 +115.9 -116.0 +186.2 -205.7 +19.3 +9.6 0
Moments
Moment-Distribution Method 233

The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. (10.8-b)

Example 10.6: Draw the bending moment diagram for the

frame shown in Fig. (10.9) by using the moment-distribution
method.

36 kN 64.8 kN/m

1 2 2I 3

(a) I 5m

4
1.5 m 5m

+202.5 kN.m
+ -162
_
-81
-54 _
_
(b) -27 _

(+B.M. on compression side

-B.M. on tension side)

- -13.5

Figure (10.9)
Solution:
Fixed-End Moments:
233 Chapter Ten

From Table (9.1),

there is no load on member (2-4)

kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

Stiffness Factors:

From Eq. (10.1),

Distribution Factors:

From Eq. (10.12),

⁄( )

⁄( )

fixed end

fixed end

Using these data, the moment distribution is carried out in

Table (10.6). The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig.
(10.9-b).
Moment-Distribution Method 233

Table (10.6)

Joints 2 3 4
Members 21 24 23 32 42
[Link]. 0 1/3 2/3 0 0
[Link]. +54 0 -135 +135 0
[Link]. 0 +27 +54
[Link] +27 +13.5
Final End
+54 +27 -81 +162 +13.5
Moments

10.7 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway

Frames that are nonsymmetrical or subjected to
nonsymmetrical loading have a tendency to sidesway, or
deflect horizontally. An example of one such case is shown
in Fig. (10.10-a). Here the applied load P will create unequal
moments at joints B and C such that the frame will deflect an
amount Δ to the right. Since the deformations are assumed to
be small, the joints B and C displace by the same amount, Δ,
as shown in Fig. (10.10-a).

The moment distribution analysis of such a frame, with

sidesway, is carried out in two parts. In the first part, the
sidesway of the frame is prevented by adding an imaginary
roller to the structure, as shown in Fig. (10.10-b). External
loads are then applied to this frame, and member end
moments are computed by applying the moment-distribution
233 Chapter Ten

process in the usual manner. With the member end moments

known, the restraining force (reaction) R that develops at the
imaginary support is evaluated by applying the equations of
equilibrium.

P P
Δ Δ
R R
B B C B C
C

A D A D A D

(a) Actual frame (b) Frame with sideway (c) Frame subjected
M moments prevented to R
M0 moments MR moments

δ δ
Q

(d) Frame subjected to an arbitrary

translation δ (MQ moments)

Figure (10.10)

In the second part of the analysis, the frame is subjected

to the force R, which is applied in the opposite direction, as
shown in Fig. (10.10-c). The moments that develop at the
member ends are determined and superimposed on the
moments computed in the first part to obtain the member end
Moment-Distribution Method 232

moments in the actual frame. If M, M0, and MR denote,

respectively, the member end moments in the actual frame,
the frame with sidesway prevented, and the frame subjected
to R, then we can write

(10.13)

A question that arises in the second part of the analysis

is how to determine the member end moments MR that
develop when the frame undergoes sidesway under the action
of R. Since the moment-distribution method cannot be used
directly to compute the moments due to the known lateral
load R, we employ an indirect approach in which the frame is
subjected to an arbitrary known joint translation δ caused by
unknown load Q acting at the location and in the direction of
R, as shown in Fig. (10.10-d). From the known joint
translation, δ, we determine the relative translation between
the ends of each member, and we calculate the member
fixed-end moments. These moments are distributed by the
moment-distribution process to determine the member end
moments MQ caused by the yet unknown load Q. Once the
member end moments MQ have been determine, the
magnitude of Q can be evaluated by the application of
equilibrium equations.

With the load Q and the corresponding moments MQ

known, the desired moments MR due to the lateral load R can
234 Chapter Ten

now be determined easily by multiplying MQ by the ratio

, that is,

( ) (10.14)

By substituting Eq. (10.14) into Eq. (10.13), we can express

the member end moments in the actual frame as

( ) (10.15)

This method of analysis is illustrated by the following

example.

Example 10.7: Draw the bending moment diagram for the

frame shown in Fig. (10.11) by using the moment-
distribution method. constant.

Solution:
Fixed-End Moments:

From Table (9.1),

there is no load on member (1-2)

kN.m

kN.m

there is no load on member (3-4)

Stiffness Factors:
Moment-Distribution Method 233

40 kN

2 3

5m
(a) 7m
4

1
3m 4m

40 kN

R 2 3

(b)
4

M21=+24 M34=-24
kN.m 2 kN.m 3

(d) 5m
(c) 7m
M43=-12.2
kN.m 4
M12=+12.1
kN.m 1

Δ Δ
R R=2.08 kN 3
2 3 2

4 4
(e) (f)
1 kN 1

kN
Figure (10.11)
233 Chapter Ten

M21=+34.5
kN.m 2 M34=+45.4 Q
kN.m 3

(g) (h) 5m
(i)
7m
M43=+71.7
kN.m 4
M12=+42.3
kN.m 1

Figure (10.11) Continued

From Eq. (10.1),

Distribution Factors:

From Eq. (10.12),

fixed end

⁄( )

⁄( )

⁄( )

⁄( )

fixed end
Moment-Distribution Method 233

Moment-Distribution, Part I:

In this part of the analysis, the sidesway of the frame is

prevented by adding an imaginary roller at joint 2, as shown
in Fig. (10.11-b). The moment-distribution of the fixed-end
moments due to the applied external load 40 kN is then
performed, as shown in Table (10.7), to determine M0
member end moments.

To evaluate the restraining force R that develops at the

imaginary roller support, we first calculate the shears at the
lower ends of the columns (1-2) and (3-4) by considering the
equilibrium of the free bodies of the columns shown in Figs.
(10.11-c) and (10.11-d). Next, by considering the equilibrium
of the horizontal forces acting on the entire frame (Fig.
(10.11-e)), we determine the restraining force R. From Fig.
(10.11-c),

∑ +
kN
From Fig (10.11-d),
∑ +
kN
From Fig (10.11-e),
+
∑

kN
233 Chapter Ten

Table (10.7)

Joints 1 2 3 4
Members 12 21 23 32 34 43
[Link]. 0 1/2 1/2 0.417 0.583 0
[Link]. 0 0 -39.2 +29.4 0 0
[Link]. +19.6 +19.6 -12.3 -17.1
[Link] +9.8 -6.2 +9.8 -8.6
[Link]. +3.1 +3.1 -4.1 -5.7
[Link] +1.6 -2.1 +1.6 -2.9
[Link]. +1.1 +1.1 -0.7 -0.9
[Link] +0.6 -0.4 +0.6 -0.5
[Link]. +0.2 +0.2 -0.3 -0.3
[Link] +0.1 -0.2 +0.1 -0.2
Final End
+12.1 +24 -24.1 +24.1 -24 -12.2
Moments

Note that the restraining force acts to the right, indicating that
if the roller would not have been in place, the frame would
have swayed to the left.

Moment-Distribution, Part II:

Since the actual frame is not supported by a roller at joint 2,

the frame will be subjected to a lateral load kN at
joint 2 in the opposite direction (that is, to the left), as shown
in Fig. (10.11-f). Here the joints 2 and 3 are temporarily
restrained from rotating, and as a result the fixed-end
moments at the ends of the columns are determined by the
Eq. (9.12) in Chapter 9, as
Moment-Distribution Method 233

Thus,

Here Δ is unknown and the method to conduct the analysis is

to assume a value for Δ or one of the fixed-end moments.
This assumed value will correspond to unknown load Q
instead of R.

Assuming, kN.m, then

from which

kN.m

The positive sign is necessary since the moment must act

clockwise on the column for deflection Δ to the left. The
foregoing fixed-end moments are distributed by the usual
moment-distribution process, as shown in Table (10.8), to
determine the MQ moments caused by unknown load Q.

To evaluate the magnitude of Q, we first calculate the

shearing forces at the lower ends of the columns by
considering their equilibrium and then apply the equation of
233 Chapter Ten

equilibrium in the horizontal direction to the entire frame.

From Fig. (10.11-g),

Table (10.8)

Joints 1 2 3 4
Members 12 21 23 32 34 43
[Link]. 0 1/2 1/2 0.417 0.583 0
[Link]. +50 +50 0 0 +98 +98
[Link]. -25 -25 -40.9 -57.1
[Link] -12.5 -20.5 -12.5 -28.6
[Link]. +10.3 +10.3 +5.2 +7.3
[Link] +5.2 +2.6 +5.2 +3.7
[Link]. -1.3 -1.3 -2.2 -3
[Link] -0.7 -1.1 -0.7 -1.5
[Link]. +0.6 +0.6 +0.3 +0.4
[Link] +0.3 +0.2 +0.3 +0.2
[Link]. -0.1 -0.1 -0.1 -0.2
[Link] -0.05 -0.05 -0.05 -0.1
Final End
+42.3 +34.5 -34.4 -45.5 +45.4 +71.7
Moments

∑ +
kN
From Fig. (10.11-h),
∑ +

kN

From Fig. (10.11-i),

Moment-Distribution Method 233

+
∑

kN

which indicates that the moments MQ in Table (10.8) are

caused by a lateral load kN. Since the moments
are linearly proportional to the magnitude of the load, the
desired moments MR due to the lateral load kN
must be equal to the moments MQ multiplied by the ratio
⁄ ⁄ .

Actual Member End Moments:

The actual member end moments, M, can be determined by

Eq. (10.15). Thus

kN.m

kN.m
( kN.m
( kN.m

kN.m

kN.m

10.8 Analysis of Multistory Frames

The forgoing procedure can be extended to the analysis of
structures with several independent joint translations.
Consider the two-story frame shown in Fig. (10.12-a). This
233 Chapter Ten

P3 P3
Δ2
P1 F P1 R2
E E F

P4 P4
Δ1
P2 D P2 R1
C C D

A B A B

(a) Actual frame (b) Frame with sidesway

M moments prevented
M0 moments

δ1
δ2
F Q21 Q22
E E F

Q11 D Q12
C D C

A B A B

(c) Frame subjected to (d) Frame subjected to

known translation δ1 known translation δ2
(MQ1 moments) (MQ2 moments)

Figure (10.12)

structure has two independent joint translations, the sidesway

Δ1 of the first story and the displacements Δ2 of the second
story. The moment-distribution analysis of this frame is
carried out in three parts. In the first part, the sidesway of
Moment-Distribution Method 232

both floors of the frame is prevented by adding imaginary

rollers at the floor levels, as shown in Fig. (10.12-b).
Member end moments M0 that develop in this frame due to
the external loads are computed by the moment-distribution
process, and the restraining forces R1 and R2 at the imaginary
supports are evaluated by applying the equations of
equilibrium. In the second part of the analysis, the lower
floor of the frame is allowed to displace by a known amount
δ1 while the sidesway of the upper floor is prevented, as
shown in Fig. (10.12-c). The fixed-end moments caused by
this displacement are computed and distributed to obtain the
member end moments MQ1. With the member end moments
known, the forces Q11 and Q12 at the locations of the roller
supports are determined from the equilibrium equations.
Similarly, in the third part of the analysis, the upper floor of
the frame is allowed to displace by a known amount δ2, as
shown in Fig. (10.12-d), and the corresponding member end
moments MQ2, and the forces Q12 and Q22, are evaluated. The
member end moments M in the actual frame are determined
by superposition of the moments computed in the three parts
as
(10.16)

In which c1 and c2 are the constants whose values are

obtained by solving the equations of superposition of
horizontal forces at the locations of the imaginary supports.
234 Chapter Ten

By superimposing the horizontal forces shown in Figs.

(10.12-a) to (10.12-d) at joints D and F, respectively, we
obtain

By solving these equations simultaneously, we obtain the

values of the constants c1 and c2, which are then used in Eq.
(10.16) to determine the desired member end moments, M.

The analysis of multistory frames by the moment-

distribution method is quite tedious and time consuming.
Therefore, the analysis of such structures is performed on
computers using the matrix formulation of the displacement
method.

Problems

10.1 through 10.4: Determine the reactions and draw the

shearing force and bending moment diagrams for the beams
shown in Figs. P9.1 to P9.4 by using the moment-distribution
method.

10.5 through 10.7: Determine the member end moments for

the frames shown in Figs. P9.6, P9.7, P9.9, and P9.10 by
using the moment-distribution method.
 Chapter
ELEVEN

Method of Consistent
Deformations

11.1 Introduction
When analyzing any indeterminate structure, it is necessary
to satisfy equilibrium, compatibility, and force-displacement
relations for the structure. Equilibrium is satisfied when the
reactive forces hold the structure at rest, and compatibility is
satisfied when the various segments of the structure fit
together without intentional breaks or overlaps. The force-
displacement relations depend upon the way the material
responds; in this text we have assumed linear elastic
response. In general there are two different ways to satisfy
these requirements when analyzing a statically indeterminate
structure, the force method and the displacement method.
683 Chapter Eleven

The force method was originally developed by James

Clerk Maxwell in 1864. In this method, compatibility
conditions are enforced throughout the structure by
superposing a set of partial solutions, all of which satisfy
equilibrium, force-displacement relations, and boundary
conditions. This results in a set of equations by which the
redundant forces can be determined. Since compatibility
forms the basis for this method, it has been referred to as the
method of consistent displacements or deformations.

11.2 General Steps of the Method

The method essentially involves removing enough restraints
from the indeterminate structure to render it statically
determinate. This determinate structure, which must be
statically stable, is referred to as the primary structure. The
redundants associated with the removed restraints are then
applied as unknown loads on the primary structure, and their
values are determined by solving the compatibility equations
based on the condition that the deformations of the primary
structure due to the combined effect of the redundants and
the given external loading must be the same as the
deformations of the original indeterminate structure.

There is only one restriction on the use of this method,

namely, that the principle of superposition be valid. The
principle of superposition can be applied when the geometry
Method of Consistent Deformations 683

of the structure does not change an essential amount during

the application of the loads (that is, the deformations are
small) and the material follows Hooke's law (that is, it is
linearly elastic).

Based on the foregoing discussion, we can develop the

following step-by-step procedure for the analysis of
structures:

1. Determine the degree of indeterminacy of the structure.

2. Select the redundants. The total number of redundants

must be equal to the degree of indeterminacy of the
structure. Also, the redundants must be chosen so that
the removal of the corresponding restraints from the
given indeterminate structure results in a primary
structure that is statically determinate and stable.

3. Remove the restraints corresponding to the redundants

from the given indeterminate structure to obtain the
primary (determinate) structure.

4. Compute the displacement of the primary structure at

the point of application and in the direction of
redundants due to the external loading only.

5. For each redundant, compute the displacement at the

point of application and in the direction of this
redundant due to it as the only applied force. This is
688 Chapter Eleven

done by using a unit force instead of the unknown

magnitude of the redundant and the obtained
displacement for the unit force is then multiplied by the
redundant. Since the sense of the redundant is not
known, the sense of the unit force can be arbitrarily
assumed. A positive answer for this redundant will
imply that the sense of the redundant is the same as for
the unit force.

6. Write a compatibility equation for the location of each

redundant by setting the algebraic sum of the
displacements of the primary structure due to the
external loading and each of the redundants equal to the
known displacement at the corresponding location on
the actual indeterminate structure. The total number of
compatibility equations thus obtained must be equal to
the number of redundants.

7. Solve the equations and get the value of the redundants.

8. Superpose the effects of the external loading and the

redundants on the primary structure to get the other
response characteristics of the indeterminate structure.

The above steps are valid for beams, frames, and

trusses. The first steps of finding the degree of
indeterminacy, determining the primary structure, and
identifying the redundants are of great importance. Table
Method of Consistent Deformations 683

(11.1) shows different types of structure with the illustration

of how to perform these steps.

Table (11.1)

Possible Stable Primary

Actual Structure
Structure

R1 R2

R1 R2

R1 R2

R1 R2
633 Chapter Eleven

Table (11.1) continued

Possible Stable Primary

Actual Structure
Structure

R3 R2
R1
Method of Consistent Deformations 633

Table (11.1) continued

Possible Stable Primary

Actual Structure
Structure

R1 R3 R2

R2 R3
R2 R3

R1

R2 R3
R2 R3

R1
633 Chapter Eleven

The displacement of the primary structure due to the

external loading and the redundants can be calculated using
the virtual work method in the case of frames or trusses.
However, the conjugate beam method may be used for
calculating the displacement of beams. The displacement in
the above discussion stands for the linear translation and the
rotation, and accordingly the redundant may be a force or a
moment, respectively.

11.3 General Discussion

Before presenting numerical examples illustrating the
application of this method to certain typical problems, some
basic concepts will be introduced by considering the propped
cantilever shown in Fig. (11.1-a). Since the beam is
supported by four support reactions (HA, RA, MA, and RC) as
shown in Fig. (11.1-b), the three equations of equilibrium
(∑ , ∑ , ∑ ) are not sufficient for
determining all the reactions. Therefore, the beam statically
indeterminate. The degree of indeterminacy of the beam is
equal to the number of unknown reactions minus the number
of equilibrium equations, that is, , which indicates
that the beam has one redundant. Thus if we can determine
one of the four reactions by using a compatibility equation
based on the geometry of the deformation of the beam, then
Method of Consistent Deformations 636

P
(a) A B C
L/2
L
EI=constant
MA P
ΔC=0
(b) HA
RA RC

P
(c)

RC

(d) A B C ΔCO

Primary beam
A C
subjected to
external
loading PL Conjugate beam
2EI
{
1 unit

A C δCC
(e)

A C
Primary beam
loaded with
redundant L Conjugate beam
2EI
{
Figure (11.1)
633 Chapter Eleven

-PL/2 For P
_
5 PL For RC
MA 16 +
(f)
Bending moment diagram
(+B.M. on compression side, -B.M. on tension side)

Figure (11.1) Continued

the remaining three reactions can be obtained from the three

equations of equilibrium.

To establish the compatibility equation, we select one of

the reactions of the beam to be the redundant. Suppose that
we select the vertical reaction RC exerted by the roller
support C to be the redundant. From Fig. (11.1-a), we can see
that if the roller support C is removed from the beam, it will
become determinate while still remaining statically stable,
because the fixed support A alone can prevent it from
translating and/or rotating as a rigid body. Note however, that
the presence of support C imposes the compatibility
condition on the deflected shape of the beam that the
deflection at C must be zero, Fig. (11.1-b), that is

(11.1)

To determine the redundant RC by using this compatibility

condition, we remove the roller support C from the
indeterminate beam to convert it into the determinate
Method of Consistent Deformations 633

cantilever beam. This determinate beam is referred to as the

primary beam. The redundant RC is then applied as an
unknown load on the primary beam, along with the given
external load P, as shown in Fig. (11.1-c). Because the
deflection ΔC at support C of the indeterminate beam is zero,
the deflection at end C of the primary beam due to the
combined effect of the external load P and the redundant R C
must be zero. If ΔCO and ΔCC represent, respectively, the
deflections at end C of the primary beam due to the external
load P and the redundant RC, each acting alone on the beam,
then

(11.2)

ΔCO can be determined using the method of conjugate beam,

Fig. (11.1-d), as

Bending moment at C of conjugate beam

( ) (11.3)

Since the redundant RC is unknown, it is convenient to

determine the deflection ΔCC by first evaluating the deflection
δCC at C due to a unit value of the redundant RC, as shown in
Fig. (11.1-e), and then multiplying the deflection thus
obtained by the unknown magnitude of the redundant. Thus

δ (11.4)
633 Chapter Eleven

δCC has units of deflection per unit force, and it is referred to

as a flexibility coefficient. By substituting Eq. (11.4) into Eq.
(11.2) we obtain
δ (11.5)

which is the compatibility equation and gives

(11.6)

δCC can also be determined by using the conjugate beam

method, Fig. (11.1-e), as

Bending moment at C of conjugate beam

( ) (11.7)

By substituting Eqs. (11.3) and (11.7) into Eq. (11.6) we

obtain

⁄( )

The negative sign indicates that the direction of RC is in the

opposite direction of the 1 unit force.

With the reaction RC known, the three remaining

reactions can now be determined by applying the three
equilibrium equations to the free body of the indeterminate
beam, Fig. (11.1-b)
+
∑

∑ +
Method of Consistent Deformations 633

∑ +

It should be noted that two subscripts are used to denote the

deflections ΔCO, δCC, and ΔCC of the primary beam. The first
subscript indicates the location of these deflections. The
second subscript, O, in ΔCO is used to indicate that the
deflection is caused by the given external loading, whereas
the second subscript of ΔCC and δCC indicates the location of
the redundant.

After the redundant RC has been computed, all other

response characteristics of the beam can also be determined
by employing superposition relationships similar in form to
the deflection superposition relationships expressed in Eq.
(11.2). For example, the bending moment diagram for the
indeterminate beam can be obtained by superimposing the
bending moment diagram of the primary beam due to
external loading only, on the bending moment diagram of the
primary beam due to redundant RC. The bending moment
diagram for the indeterminate beam is shown in Fig. (11.1-f).

Example 11.1: Draw the shearing force and bending moment

diagrams for the beam shown in Fig. (11.2-a) using the
638 Chapter Eleven

method of consistent deformations. kPa,

m4.
50 kN

(a) A B C
5m 5m

MA 50 kN

(b) A B C

50 kN

θAO

(c) 125/EI

{ A C
Conjugate beam

1 unit

θAA

(d) 1/EI

A C
{
Conjugate beam

Figure (11.2)
Method of Consistent Deformations 633

34.36 kN
(e)
+
_
Shearing force diagram 15.64

125 kN.m

-93.64
_ +
(f)

Bending moment diagram

(+B.M. on compression side, -B.M. on tension side)

Figure (11.2) Continued

Solution:
Degree of Indeterminacy:

There are four reactions, three (HA, RA, MA) at the fixed
support A and one (RC) at the roller C. Since the equations of
equilibrium are three, the degree of indeterminacy is equal to
.

Primary Structure:

The redundant will be taken as the moment MA. To obtain

the primary beam, we remove the restraint against rotation at
A by replacing the fixed support by a hinged support, as
shown in Fig. (11.2-b).

Compatibility Equation:
333 Chapter Eleven

Figures (11.2-(b), -(c), and -(d)) show the application of the

principle of superposition. By setting the algebraic sum of
the rotations of the primary beam at A due to the load 50 kN
and the redundant MA equal to the rotation at the fixed
support A of the actual indeterminate beam, which is zero,
we write the compatibility equation

(1)

By using the method of conjugate beam the rotation θAO is

given as, Fig. (11.2-c),

∑ +

rad.

Also the rotation θAA can be determined as, Fig. (11.2-d),

∑ +

rad/kN.m

Magnitude of Redundant:

Substituting the values of θAO and θAA into Eq. (1) gives
Method of Consistent Deformations 333

or
kN.m

The negative sign indicates that MA acts counterclockwise

(opposite to 1 unit moment).

Remaining Reactions:

To determine the remaining reactions (HA, RA, and RC) we

apply the equilibrium equations to the free body of the actual
indeterminate beam

∑ kN

∑ kN

Shearing Force and Bending Moment Diagrams:

The shearing force and bending moment diagrams are shown

in Figs. (11.2-e) and (11.2-f), respectively.

Example 11.2: Determine the reactions and draw the

shearing force and bending moment diagrams for the two-
span continuous beam shown in Fig. (11.3-a). Use the
method of consistent deformations. EI constant.

Solution:
Degree of Indeterminacy:
333 Chapter Eleven

20 kN 40 kN
B
(a) A C
10 m 10 m 20 m 20 m

20 kN 40 kN
B
A C
(b) HA
RA RB RC

20 kN 40 kN

(c) ΔBO

166.7/EI
133.36/EI

A C
(d) B

533.3/EI

266.65/EI

C
(e) { A B

1 kN

(f) δBB

13.3/EI

(g) C
{ A B

Figure (11.3)
Method of Consistent Deformations 336

+25.66 kN
+
(i) _ _
-1.32
-21.32 -14.34
Shearing force diagram

+400 kN.m

-226.4 +
-113.2
_ _
(h)
100

Bending moment diagram

(+B.M. on compression side, -B.M. on tension side)

Figure (11.3) Continued

The beam is supported by four reactions, Fig. (11.3-b), so its

degree of indeterminacy is equal to .

Primary Beam:

The vertical reaction RB at the roller support B will be chosen

as the redundant. The primary beam is thus obtained by
removing the roller B from the indeterminate beam.

Compatibility Equation:

Because the deflection at support B of the actual

indeterminate beam is zero, the algebraic sum of the
deflections of the primary beam at B due to the external
loading and the redundant RB must also be zero. Thus the
compatibility equation is
333 Chapter Eleven

(1)

Deflections of Primary Beam:

By using the conjugate beam method, ΔBO may be calculated

as follows. From Fig. (11.3-d),

∑ +

( )

∑ +

From Fig. (11.3-e),

∑ +

( )

Bending moment at A from the two conjugate

beams of Figs. (11.3-d) and (11.3-e)
Method of Consistent Deformations 333

To calculate δBB due to a unit load at B, Fig. (11.3-f), the

conjugate beam method may also be used. From Fig. (11.3-
g),

∑ +

( )

Bending moment at B from Fig. (11.3-g)

By substituting ΔBO and δBB into Eq. (1), we obtain

or

kN

Remaining Reactions:

Considering the equilibrium of the free-body of the actual

indeterminate beam, Fig. (11.3-b), gives
+
∑

∑ +

kN

∑ +
333 Chapter Eleven

kN

Shearing Force and Bending Moment Diagrams:

The bending moment at B, Fig. (11.3-b), is given by

kN.m

The shearing force and bending moment diagrams are shown

in Figs. (11.3-i) and (11.3-h).

Example 11.3: Using the method of consistent deformations,

determine the axial force in each member of the truss shown
in Fig. (11.4-a). EA constant.

Solution:
Degree of Indeterminacy:
The truss is externally indeterminate as we have four
unknown reactions H1, R1, H2, and R2, Fig. (11.4-b), with
only three equations of equilibrium. The degree of
indeterminacy D.O.I is equal to , or as explained in
Chapter 2, Eq. (2.4)

Primary Truss:

The vertical reaction R2 will be chosen as the redundant. The

primary truss is thus obtained by removing the restraint
Method of Consistent Deformations 333

1
4
(a)
3m
2
3
100 kN
4m

1 F14
H1 4
F13
(b)
R1
F34
2 F24
H2 3
F23
R2 100 kN

1
4

(c)
2
3
100 kN

1 f14
4
f13
(d) f34
2 f24
3
f23
1 kN
Figure (11.4)
338 Chapter Eleven

against vertical displacement at joint 2, that is, by replacing

the hinged support by a roller support.

Compatibility Equation:

If Δ2O denotes the vertical deflection at joint 2 due to the

external loading, Fig. (11.4-c), and if δ22 denotes the vertical
deflection at joint 2 due to a unit load (1 kN) replacing the
redundant R2, Fig. (11.4-d), then the compatibility equation
can be written as

(1)

Deflections of Primary Truss:

The deflections Δ2O and δ22 can be evaluated by using the

virtual work method. Recall from Chapter 8 that the virtual
work expression for truss deflection is given by, Eq. (8.29),

∑ (2)

in which Fi represents the axial forces in truss members due

to the real loading that causes the deflection Δ, and f i
represents the axial forces in the truss members due to a
virtual unit load acting at the joint and in the
direction of the desired deflection Δ.

For computing the deflection Δ2O of the primary truss,

the real loading consists of the given external loading, as
shown in Fig. (11.4-c). The member axial forces due to this
Method of Consistent Deformations 333

loading are denoted as F′ forces, and their numerical values,

obtained by the method of joints, are shown in Table (11.2).
The virtual loading for Δ2O consists of a unit load applied at
joint 2 and in the vertical direction, which is the same as the
load shown in Fig. (11.4-d). The member axial forces due to
the unit load are denoted as f forces, and their numerical
values, obtained by the method of joints, are shown in Table
(11.2). Thus the virtual work expression for Δ2O can be
written as

∑ (3)

For computing δ22 both the real and virtual systems of

load consists of a unit load applied to the primary truss in the
vertical direction at joint 2, as shown in Fig. (11.1-d). Thus,
the virtual work expression for δ22 becomes

∑ (4)

From Table (11.2) and Eq. (3),

and from Eq.(4),

Magnitude of Redundant:

Substituting for Δ2O and δ22 into Eq. (1), we obtain

333 Chapter Eleven

⁄ ⁄

or

kN

The positive sign indicates that the direction of R2 is the

same as that for the 1 kN load (upward).

Remaining Reactions:

The remaining reactions of indeterminate truss can now be

determined by considering the equilibrium of the free body
of the truss, Fig. (11.4-b),

∑ +

kN
+
∑

kN

∑ +

kN

Member Axial Forces:

The axial forces in the members of the indeterminate truss

can be determined by superposition of the member forces of
the primary truss due to the external load and due to the
redundant R2; that is

(5)
Table (11.2)

Member L (m) F′ (kN) f (kN) ′ (kN)

4 0 +1.333 0 +7.104 +62.223

3 0 +1.000 0 +3.000 +46.679

Method of Consistent Deformations

4 -133.33 +1.333 -710.91 +7.104 -71.107

5 0 -1.667 0 +13.890 -77.814

5 +166.66 -1.667 -1389.11 +13.890 +88.846

∑ ∑
333
333 Chapter Eleven

The member forces thus obtained are shown in the last

column of Table (11.2).

Example 11.4: Determine the member axial forces for the

truss shown in Fig. (11.5-a), using the method of consistent
deformations. EA constant.

Solution:
Degree of Indeterminacy:

For this particular truss, although it is externally

indeterminate, but the reactions need not to be determined as
the truss works as a cantilever. The internal indeterminacy of
the truss will only be considered. Since there are two
diagonal members in panel (3-4-5-6), so the truss is
internally indeterminate to the first degree.

Primary Truss:

The axial force R36 in the diagonal member (3-6) will be

chosen as the redundant. The primary truss is thus obtained
by removing or cutting this member.

Compatibility Equation:

The compatibility equation can be expressed as, Fig. (11.5-

b),

(1)
Method of Consistent Deformations 336

Redundant R36
2 4 6

(a) L

7
1 3 5
P
L L L

Δ36 δ36

1 kN
1kN

(b) P

2 4 6
(c)

External load
7
applied to 1 3 5
primary truss P

2 f24 4 f46 6
(d)
f23 f34 f1kN
45 1kN
f56
f67
Unit load
applied to 7
primary truss 1 f13 3 f35 5 f57

Figure (11.5)
333 Chapter Eleven

in which Δ36 denotes the relative displacement between joints

3 and 6 of the primary truss due to the external load, and δ 36
denotes the relative displacement between the same joints
due to a unit tensile axial force in member (3-6).

Deflections of Primary Truss:

The virtual work expression for Δ36 can be written as

∑ (2)

in which F′ and f represent, respectively, the member forces

due to the external load P and the unit tensile force in
member (3-6). The numerical values of these forces are
computed by the method of joints (Figs. (11.5-c) and (11.5-
d)) and are tabulated in Table (11.3). Next, δ36 is computed
by using the virtual work expression as

∑ (3)

Using the results of Table (11.3), we obtain from Eq. (2),

( )
√

and from Eq.(3),

( √ )

Magnitude of Redundant:

By substituting the values of Δ36 and δ36 into Eq. (1), we

determine the redundant R36 to be
Table (11.3)

Member Length (L′) F′ f ′

L 2P 0 0 0 2P
L P - ⁄√ - ⁄√ 1.6035P
√ √ 0 0 0 √
L -P 0 0 0 -P
Method of Consistent Deformations

L -2P - ⁄√ + ⁄√ -1.396P
L -3P 0 0 0 -3P
√ √ 0 0 0 √
L -P - ⁄√ ⁄√ -0.3964P
√ 0 +1 0 √ -0.8535P
√ √ +1 2P.L √ 0.5607P
L -P - ⁄√ ⁄√ -0.3964P
333
333 Chapter Eleven

( ) ( √ )
√

or

kN

The negative sign indicates that the axial force in member (3-
6) is compressive.

Member Axial Forces:

The forces in the remaining members of the indeterminate

truss can be determined by using the superposition
relationship:

The member forces thus obtained are shown in the last

column of Table (11.3).

11.4 Structures with Multiple Degrees of

Indeterminacy
The method of consistent deformations developed in the
preceding sections for analyzing structures with a single
degree of indeterminacy can easily be extended to the
analysis of structures with multiply degrees of
indeterminacy.

For a structure having n redundant, Rn, we can write n

compatibility equations, namely:
Method of Consistent Deformations 333

Here the displacements Δ1, Δ2, …, Δn are caused by the real

loads on the primary structure and δij denotes the
displacement of the primary structure at the location and in
the direction of the redundant Ri due to a unit load at the
location of the redundant Rj.

Since the number of compatibility equations is equal to

the number of unknown redundants, these equations can be
solved for the redundants.

Example 11.5: Determine the reactions and draw the

shearing force and bending moment diagrams for the beam
shown in Fig. (11.6-a) by using the method of consistent
deformations. EI constant.

Solution:
Degree of Indeterminacy:

There are five unknown reactions, whereas the equations of

equilibrium are three. The beam is internally indeterminate to
the second degree.
Primary Beam:
338 Chapter Eleven

120 kN 120 kN
(a) A B
C
5m 5m 5m 5m

MA 120 kN 120 kN
A B
C
HA
(b) RA RB RC

120 kN 120 kN

ΔBO ΔCO

(c)

600
EI

1800
EI
{
1 kN

δBB δCB
(d)

10
{ EI

Figure (11.6)
Method of Consistent Deformations 333

1 kN

δBC δCC
(e)

20
EI
{
79.286 kN
53.572
+
(f) +
_ _
-40.714
-66.428

+300 +300 kN.m

+ -192.86
_ +
-128.58
_
(g)

Figure (11.6) Continued

The vertical reactions RB and RC at the roller supports B and

C, respectively, will be chosen as the redundant. These
supports are then removed to obtain the cantilever primary
beam.

Compatibility Equations:
333 Chapter Eleven

The deflections of indeterminate beam at the roller supports

B and C are zero, therefore compatibility equations will be,
Figs. (11.6-c, d, and e),

(1)

(2)

Deflections of Primary Beam:

By using the conjugate beam method, the deflections ΔBO,

δBB, δBC, ΔCO, δCB, and δCC can be determined. From Fig.
(11.6-c),

( )

( )

and

( )

( )

From Fig. (11.6-d),

and

( )

From Fig. (11.6-e),

Method of Consistent Deformations 333

and

Magnitudes of Redundants:

By substituting the deflections of primary beam into Eqs. (1)

and (2), we obtain

(3)

(4)

Solving Eqs. (3) and (4) simultaneously for RB and RC, we

obtain

kN
and

kN

The negative sign indicates that RB and RC are in upward

direction.

Remaining Reactions:

Considering the equilibrium of the free-body of the

indeterminate beam, Fig. (11.6-b), we obtain
+
∑

∑ +
333 Chapter Eleven

kN.m
∑ +

kN

Shearing Force and Bending Moment Diagrams:

The shearing force and bending moment diagrams are shown

in Figs. (11.6-f) and (11.6-g), respectively. The bending
moment at B is
kN.m

Example 11.6: Determine the reactions and draw the axial

force in each member of the truss shown in Fig. (11.7-a) by
using the method of consistent deformations. EA constant.

Solution:
Degree of Indeterminacy:

The degree of indeterminacy D.O.I can be determined by Eq.

(2.4) in Chapter 2 as,

Primary Truss:

The vertical reactions R1 of the roller support at joint D and

the axial force R2 in the diagonal member BH will be chosen
as the redundants. The roller support at D and member BH
are then removed from the given indeterminate truss to
obtain the primary truss.
Method of Consistent Deformations 336

G H I
70 kN
10 m
(a)
A E
B C D

80 kN 80 kN
4 @ 10m = 40 m
G H I
70 kN
R2
(b) R2
A E
B C D

80 kN 80 kN R1

70 kN

(c)

80 kN 80 kN

(d)

1 kN

1 kN
(e) 1 kN

Figure (11.7)
333 Chapter Eleven

Compatibility Equations:

The compatibility equations can be expressed as

(1)

(2)

in which ΔDO vertical deflection at joint D of the primary

truss due to the external loading, Fig. (11.7-c); ΔMO relative
displacement between joints B and H due to the external
loading, Fig. (11.7-c); δDD vertical deflection at joint D due
to a unit load (1 kN) at joint D, Fig. (11.7-d); δMD relative
displacement between joints B and H due to a unit load at
joint D, Fig. (11.7-d); δMM relative displacement between
joints B and H due to a unit tensile force in member BH, Fig.
(11.7-e); δDM vertical deflection at joint D due to a unit
tensile force in member BH.

Deflections of Primary Truss:

The virtual work expression for the preceding deflections are

∑
Method of Consistent Deformations 333

in which F′, f′, and f′′ represent the member forces due to the
external loading, a unit load at D, and a unit tensile force in
member BH, respectively. The numerical values of the
member forces, as computed by the method of joints (Figs.
(11.7-c) through (11.7-e)), are tabulated in Table (11.4). The
results of this table give

Magnitudes of Redundants:

By substituting these deflections into Eq. (1) and (2), we

obtain

(3)

(4)

Solving Eqs. (3) and (4) simultaneously, we obtain

 Table (11.4)
333

f′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
Member L (m) F′ (kN) f ′′ (kN/kN)
(kN/kN) (kN.m) (kN.m) (m) (m) (m)
AB 10 152.5 -0.25 0 -381.25 0 0.625 0 0 128.373
BC 10 152.5 -0.25 -0.707 -381.25 -1078.175 0.625 5 1.768 104.265
CD 10 77.5 -0.75 0 -581.25 0 5.625 0 0 5.12
DE 10 77.5 -0.75 0 -581.25 0 5.625 0 0 5.12
GH 10 -85 0.5 -0.707 -425 600.95 2.5 5 -3.535 -60.855
HI 10 -85 0.5 0 -425 0 2.5 0 0 -36.747
BG 10 80 0 -0.707 0 -565.600 0 5 0 55.891
CH 10 0 0 -0.707 0 0 0 5 0 -24.109
DI 10 0 -1 0 0 0 10 0 0 -96.507
AG 14.142 -116.673 0.354 0 -584.096 0 1.772 0 0 -82.51
BH 14.142 0 0 1 0 0 0 14.142 0 34.1
CG 14.142 3.536 -0.354 1 -17.702 50.006 1.772 14.142 -5.006 3.473
CI 14.142 109.602 0.354 0 548.697 0 1.772 0 0 143.765
EI 14.142 -109.602 1.061 0 1644.541 0 15.92 0 0 -7.208
Note: positive axial force indicates tension
∑ -4472.642 -992.819 48.736 48.284 -6.773
negative axial force indicates
compression
Chapter Eleven
Method of Consistent Deformations 333

kN
kN (tension)
Remaining Reactions:

The remaining reactions of the indeterminate truss can now

be determined by considering the equilibrium of the free-
body of the indeterminate truss. The reactions are

kN
kN
kN
Member Axial Forces:

The forces in the remaining members of the indeterminate

truss can be determined by using the superposition
relationship:

The member forces thus obtained are shown in the last

column of Table (11.4).

Problems

11.1 through 11.4: Resolve Problems 8.12 through 8.15 by

using the method of consistent deformations.

11.5: Determine the reactions and the force in each member

of the truss shown in Fig P11.5 by using the method of
consistent deformations.
338 Chapter Eleven

80 kN

60 kN D

5m

C
5m

A B

5m 5m

Figure P11.5
( kN ; kN ; kN ; kN

11.6 through 11.8: Determine the reactions and draw the

shearing force and bending moment diagrams for the
structures shown by using the method of consistent
deformations.
25 kN/m

A B C
8m 8m

GPa, mm4
Figure P11.6

( kN ; kN.m ; kN ;
kN )
Method of Consistent Deformations 333

2 kN/m 50 kN 50 kN 2 kN/m

A G
B C D E F
30 m 15 m 15 m 15 m 15 m 30 m

Figure P11.7

( kN ; kN ; kN )

2.5 kN/m

C D E

16 m

B 25 kN

8m

A
6m 20 m

Figure P11.8

( kN ; kN ; kN ; kN

; kN.m )
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