RUHENGERI INSTITUTE OF

HIGHER EDUCATION
Module Title and Code:
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS-I (CEN 2213)
Year 2 – Civil Engineering Dept.

Prepared By Eng. Cyprien IMANATURIKUMWE

 COURSE CONTENT:
• Unit I: Types of structures and loads
Classification of structures (frames, trusses, cables and arches, and surface
structures) –Types of loads (Gravity loads - wind loads, seismic loads, snow loads
• Unit II: Analysis of statically determinate beams and frames
Understanding free-body diagram – Internal loading at a specific point-Shear forces
and bending moments for statically determinate beams and frames– Shear Force
Diagrams (SFD) for beams and Frames –Bending Moment Diagram (BMD) for
statically determinate beams and Frames.
• Unit III: Analysis of statically determinate trusses
Types of trusses– Analysis of forces in truss members - The method of joints–Zero
force members– Method of sections.
• Unit IV: Deflections for statically determinate structures
Moment area method - Strain energy method - Principle of work and energy–
Principle of virtual work –Method of virtual work(unit load method).
• Unit V:Influence lines for statically determinate structures
Influence lines for beams – Qualitative Influence lines – Maximum influence at the
point due to a series of Concentrated Loads
Disclaimer: The contents of this document are intended for learning and practice purposes at the
undergraduate level. The materials are from different sources including the internet and books;
do not in any way claim authorship or ownership of them. The materials are also not to be used
for any commercial purpose.

UNIT I
INTRODUCTION, TYPES OF
STRUCTURES AND LOADS
 Introduction
• Any structure is designed for the stress resultants of bending
moment, shear force, deflection, torsional stresses, and axial stresses.
• If these moments, shears and stresses are evaluated at various critical
sections, then based on these, the proportioning can be done.
• Evaluation of these stresses, moments and forces and plotting them for
that structural component is known as structural analysis.
• Determination of dimensions for these components of these stresses
and proportioning is known as structural design.

A structure: It is a system of connected components like slabs, beams,

columns, walls, foundations and so on, which remains in equilibrium
while supporting the applied loads.
• It has to satisfy the fundamental criteria of strength, stiffness,
economy and durability, for its existence.
Fig. Plane (2D) truss

Fig. Space (3D) truss

Fig. Plane (2D) frame Fig. Space (3D) frame
Eg: Flat Slabs, Domes, Shells, retaining walls,etc
four
A structure may be determinate or indeterminate:
• Statically determinate structures: are analysed just by the use of
basic equilibrium equations. By this analysis, the unknown
reactions are found for the further determination of stresses.

• Examples of determinate structures are: simply supported beams,

cantilever beams, single and double overhanging beams, etc.

• Redundant or statically indeterminate structures: are not

capable of being analysed by mere use of basic equilibrium
equations. Along with the basic equilibrium equations, some extra
conditions are required to be used to get the unknown reactions for
drawing bending moment and shear force diagrams.
• Special methods like strain energy method, slope deflection
method, moment distribution method, column analogy method,
virtual work method, matrix methods, etc are used for the analysis
of redundant structures.
• Examples of indeterminate structures are: fixed beams, continuous
beams, fixed arches, multistoried frames, etc.
Figure: Examples of statically determinate structures
Figure: Examples of statically indeterminate structures
 TYPES OF LOADS ON STRUCTURES – BUILDINGS AND
OTHER STRUCTURES

The types of loads acting on structures for buildings and

other structures can be broadly classified as:
a) Vertical loads,
b) Horizontal loads
• The vertical loads consist of dead load and live load
(imposed load).

• The horizontal loads comprises of wind load and

earthquake load.
 In a construction of building two major factors
considered are safety and economy. If the loads
are adjudged and taken higher then economy is
affected. If economy is considered and loads are
taken lesser then the safety is compromised.
Types of loads acting on a structure are:
1.Dead loads
2.Imposed loads
3.Wind loads
4.Snow loads
5.Earthquake loads
6.Special loads
• 1. Dead Loads (DL): The first vertical load that is considered is dead
load. Dead loads are permanent or stationary loads which are
transferred to structure throughout the life span. Dead load is
primarily due to self weight of structural members, permanent
partition walls, fixed permanent equipments and weight of different
materials. It majorly consists of the weight of roofs, beams, walls and
column etc. which are otherwise the permanent parts of the building.
• 2. Imposed Loads or Live Loads (IL or LL): The second vertical
load that is considered in design of a structure is imposed loads or live
loads. Live loads are either movable or moving loads without any
acceleration or impact. These loads are assumed to be produced by the
intended use or occupancy of the building including weights of
movable partitions or furniture etc.
Live loads keep on changing from time to time. These loads are to be
suitably assumed by the designer. It is one of the major loads in the
design. The minimum values of live loads to be assumed are given in
standard codes. It depends upon the intended use of the building.
• 3. Wind loads: Wind load is primarily horizontal load
caused by the movement of air relative to earth. Wind load
is required to be considered in structural design
especially when the height of the building exceeds two
times the dimensions transverse to the exposed wind
surface.
For low rise building say up to four to five stories, the
wind load is not critical because the moment of resistance
provided by the continuity of floor system to column
connection and walls provided between columns are
sufficient to accommodate the effect of these forces.

• 4. Snow Loads (SL): Snow loads constitute to the vertical

loads in the building. But these types of loads are
considered only in the snow fall places.
• 5. Earthquake Loads (EL): Earthquake forces constitute to both
vertical and horizontal forces on the building. The total vibration
caused by earthquake may be resolved into three mutually
perpendicular directions, usually taken as vertical and two
horizontal directions.
The movement in vertical direction do not cause forces in
superstructure to any significant extent. But the horizontal
movement of the building at the time of earthquake is to be
considered while designing.

• 6. Other Loads acting on Structures

In addition to above load discussed, account shall be taken of the
following forces if they are liable to affect materially the safety and
serviceability of the structure:
(a) Soil and fluid pressure
(b) Vibration load
(c) Impact load
(d) Braking force
 UNIT 2
Analysis of statically
determinate beams and
frames
 INTRODUCTION

 When a structure is loaded, stresses are induced in various

parts of the structure.
 In order to calculate the stresses, where the structure is
supported at a number of points, the bending moments and
shearing forces acting must also be calculated.
 INTRODUCTION
 Some basic definitions:
Beam –A beam may be defined as a structural element which has one
dimension considerably larger than the other two dimensions,
namely breadth and depth, and is supported at few points. The distance
between two adjacent supports is called span. It is usually loaded normal
to its axis. The applied loads make every cross-section to face bending
and shearing. The load finally get transferred to supports. The system of
forces consisting of applied loads and reactions keep the beam in
equilibrium.
Bending – bending implies deformation of a structural member produced
by loads perpendicular to its axis as well as force couples acting in a
plane passing through the axis of it.
 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS
 The algebraic sum of the vertical forces at any section of a beam to
the right or left of the section is known as “Shear force”.
o It is briefly written as S.F.
 The algebraic sum of the moments of all forces acting to the right or
left of the section is known as “ Bending Moment”
o It is written as B.M.
 A shear force diagram is one which shows the variation of the shear
force along the length of the beam
 Bending moment diagram is one which shows the variation of the
bending moment along the length of the beam.
 Before drawing the shear force and bending moments diagrams, we
must know different types of beams and different types of load acting
on the beams.
TYPES OF SUPPORTS
TYPES OF SUPPORTS
• Hinged Support: At a hinged end, a
beam cannot move in any direction.
However, it can rotate about the
support (Fig. 9.3). Hence the support
will not develop any resisting moment,
but it can develop reaction in any
direction to keep the end stationary.

• Fixed Support: At such supports, the

beam end is not free to translate or
rotate. Translation is prevented by
developing support reaction in any
required direction. Rotation is
prevented by developing support
moment MA as shown in Fig. 9.4. Thus
at fixed support A, there are three
reactions HA, VA and MA.
 TYPES OF BEAMS
Simply supported beam: A beam that is supported
by a pinned support and a roller support (Fig. 9.6).
Fig 9.6

Fig 9.11
Fixed beam (built-in or encastré beam)– A beam
whose both ends are rigidly fixed or built-in into its
supporting walls or columns (Fig. 9.10). Fig 9.10
• A beam that is supported at one end by a pinned support
would not necessarily be supported in the same way at the other.
• One support of this type is sufficient to maintain the horizontal
equilibrium of a beam and it may be advantageous to allow
horizontal movement of the other end so that, for example,
expansion and contraction caused by temperature variations
do not induce additional stresses.
• Such a support may take the form of a composite steel and rubber
bearing as shown in Fig. 1.9 or consist of a roller sandwiched
between steel plates.
 TYPES OF LOADS ACTING ON BEAMS
 A beam is normally horizontal and the load acting on the beams are
generally vertical. The following are the important types of load
acting on a beam:
 Concentrated or point load – The load considered to act at a
point, although in practice it must really be distributed aver a
small area. P

 Uniformly distributed load – The load which is spread over a

beam in such a manner that the rate of loading q is uniform along
the length (i.e. each unit length is loaded to the same rate)

q: rate of loading (N/m)

 TYPES OF LOAD(cont.)
• The rate of loading is expressed as q (N/m).
• Uniformly distributed load is represented by U.D.L.
• For solving numerical problems, the total uniformly
distributed load is converted into a point load acting at the
centre of uniformly distributed load.
 Uniformly varying load – Is one which is spread over a beam in
such a manner that the rate of loading varies from point to point
along the beam.
• The load is zero at one end and increases uniformly to the other
end. Such load is known as Triangular load.
For solving numerical problems the total load is
equal to the area of the triangle and this total load is
assumed to be acting at the C.G. of the triangle i.e.
the distance of the 23 rd of the total length of beam
from left end.

 Applied couple
BEAM’S REACTION
CLASS EXERCISE – 5 mins?
+

+ A force that tends to bend the

beam downward is said to
produce a positive bending
moment. A force that tends to
shear the left portion of the beam
upward with respect to the right
portion is said to produce a
positive shearing force.
 IMPORTANT POINTS FOR DRAWING SHEAR FORCE AND
BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS

 In these diagrams, the shear force or bending moment are represented

by ordinates whereas the length of the beam represents abscissa.
 The following are the important points for drawing shear force and
bending moment diagrams:
o Consider the left or the right portion of the section
o Add the forces (including reactions) normal to the beam on one
of the portion.
o If the left portion of the section is chosen, a force on the left
portion acting upwards is positive while a force on the left
portion acting downwards is negative.
IMPORTANT POINTS FOR DRAWING SHEAR FORCE AND
BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS

o The positive values of shear force are plotted above the base line
and negative values below the base line.
o The positive values of bending moments are plotted below the
baseline and negative values above the base line.
o The shear force diagram will increase or decrease suddenly i.e. by
vertical straight line at section where there is a vertical point load.
o The shear force between any two vertical loads will be constant and
hence the shear force diagram between two vertical loads will be
horizontal.
o The bending moment at the two supports of a simply supported
beam and at the free end of a cantilever will be zero.
 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR SIMPLY SUPPORTED
BEAM WITH A POINT LOAD AT THE CENTRE OF THE BEAM
 The figure below shows a beam AB of length L simply supported
beam at both ends A and B and carrying a point load P at its middle
point C. P

A C B
L/2
L

 The reactions at the support will be equal to

P
as the load is
acting at the middle point of the beam. 2
Hence RA= RB = P
2
Take the section at a distance x from A (between A and C)
Mx
Tx – Shear force: balances the reaction RA
x Mx- Reaction moment at x: balances the moment RA*x
RA Tx

P
 Fi  0; Tx  RA  0  Tx  RA   2
 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR SIMPLY SUPPORTED
BEAM WITH A POINT LOAD AT THE CENTRE OF THE BEAM
 Considering any section between C and B at a distance x from A
P Mx Tx  P  RA  0
A L/2 C P P
x Tx  RA  P   P  
RA 2 2
Tx
P P
 At the section C, the shear force changes from + to -
2 2
 BM at any section between A and C at a distance x from A.
P
M x  RA x  0; M x  RA x   x (1)
2
At A, x  0; M A  RA  0  0
At C, x  L ; M C  RA  L  P  L  PL
2 2 2 2 4

At (1), it is clear that BM varies according to straight line law

between A and C. BM is zero at A and it increases to PL at C.
4
 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR SIMPLY SUPPORTED
BEAM WITH A POINT LOAD AT THE CENTRE OF THE BEAM

 The BM between C and B at a distance x from A.

L
M x  RA x  P( x  )  0
2
L P PL
M x  RA x  P ( x  )  x  Px 
2 2 2
L PL PL PL PL
 At C, x , MC    
2 4 2 2 4
 At B, x  L, M B 
P
L  PL 
PL
0
2 P 2
A C
B
L/2 L/2
P  Base line
C
2 P
 (S.F)
2
Base line
C
 (B.M)
PL
4
 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR SIMPLY SUPPORTED
BEAM WITH AN ECCENTRIC LOAD
 The figure below shows a beam AB of length L simply supported
beam at both ends A and B and carrying a point load P at C at a
distance of “a” from the end A. Pb
P
RA 
A C B
L
a b Pa
L RB 
L
 Consider a section at a distance x from the end A, between A and C,
(0 ≤ x ≤ a) Tx  RA  0
Mx
Pb
x Tx  RA 
L
RA Tx
 Now consider any section between C and B, (a ≤ x ≤ L)
Tx  R A  P  0;
P Pb b
Mx Tx  R A  P   P  P (  1)
L L
x bL Pa
RA  P( )
Tx L L
 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR SIMPLY SUPPORTED
BEAM WITH AN ECCENTRIC LOAD
 SF between C and B is constant and equal to  Pa
L
Pb Pa
 At the section C, the SF changes from L to  L
 BM at any section between A and C, 0 ≤ x ≤ a
Pb
M x  R A x  0, M x  R A x  x
L
At A x  0, M A  o
At C x  a, M C  Pab
L
 Hence the BM increases from zero at A to Pab at C by straight line
L
law.
 Bending moment at any section between C and B, a ≤ x ≤ L
 Mx  0; M x  R A x  P ( x  a )  0
Pb
M x  RA x  P ( x  a)  x  P ( x  a)
L
 At C, x = a Mx 
Pb
a  P(a  a) 
Pab
L L
 At B, x = L M  Pb L  P( L  a)  Pb  Pb  0
x
L
 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR SIMPLY
SUPPORTED BEAM WITH AN ECCENTRIC LOAD
Pab
 Hence BM decreases from C to B, with L at C and 0 at B
following a straight line law.
P
A C B
RA a b RB
Pb
L T
 Pa
L

M


Pab
L
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR A CANTILEVER WITH
A POINT LOAD AT THE FREE END

 The figure below show a cantilever AB of length L fixed at A and

free at B and carrying a point load P at the free end B.
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR A
CANTILEVER WITH A POINT LOAD AT THE FREE END
 Let Tx= Shear force at X and
Mx = Bending Moment at X
 Take a section X at a distance x from the free end.
Considering the right portion of the section.
 The shear force at this section is equal to the resultant force
acting on the right portion at the given section.
 But the resultant force acting on the right portion at the
section X is P and acting in the downward direction.
 But a force on the right portion acting downwards is
considered positive.
o Therefore shear force at X is positive
Tx   P
 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR A
CANTILEVER WITH A POINT LOAD AT THE FREE END
 Bending Moment Diagram
o The bending moment at the section X is given by
M x  P  x (i)

o the bending of cantilever will take place in such a manner that

concavity will be at the top of the beam.
o From equation (i), it is clear that B.M.at any section is
proportional to the distance of the section from the free end.
At x=0 i.e. at B B.M.=0
At x=L i.e. at A B.M.= -P×L
o The S.F. and B.M. diagrams for several concentrated loads acting
on a cantilever will be drawn in the similar manner.
 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR A
CANTILEVER WITH A POINT LOAD AT THE FREE END
 The shear force will be constant at all sections of the cantilever
between A and B as there is no other load between A and B.
 The SF and BM diagrams are shown below:
P
A x
X
B

P + P SF
B
A S.F.DIAGRAM

P L
 BM

B.M .DIAGRAM
 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR SIMPLY SUPPORTED
BEAM CARRYING A UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
 The figure below shows a beam AB of length L simply supported at
the ends A and B and carrying a uniformly distributed load of q per
unit length over the entire length.
 The reactions at the supports will be equal and their magnitude will
be half the total load on the entire length.
q (load/ unit length)
qL
A C B
RA  RB 
L
2
 Consider any section at a distance x from the left end A, the SF at
the section: 0 xL
q
Mx Tx  RA  qx  0
x Tx qL
RA Tx  RA  qx  Tx   qx (1)
2
 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR SIMPLY
SUPPORTED BEAM CARRYING A UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
 From the equation (1), it is clean that Tx varies according to
straight line law.
qL qL
 At x  0, Tx   0 
2 2
qL qL
x  L, Tx   qL  
2 2
L qL qL
x  , Tx   0
2 2 2
 The BM at this section is given by equation
x2
M x  RA x  q  0
2
x2 L q
M x  RA x  q  q x  x2 (2)
2 2 2
 From the equation (2), it is clean that Mx varies according to
parabolic law
 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR SIMPLY
SUPPORTED BEAM CARRYING A UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD

 The value of BM at different points are

At A, x  0, M ( x 0)  0 At B
At C L qL L qL2 qL2 qL qL2
x ,M    x  L, M ( x  L )  L 0
2 4
L
2 ( x ) 2 2 8 2 2
2

C
L L
2 2

qL

2  qL S.F
2

 2
B.M
qL
8
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOAD INTENSITY, SHEAR
FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
Thus, the rate of change of the bending moment
with respect to x is equal to the shearing force.
Thus, the rate of change of the shearing force with
respect to x is equal to the load.
EXERCISES
 ANALYSIS OF
DETERMINATE FRAMES
• A frame is a structure composed of straight-line
members. The members may be connected by
rigid(fixed=moment resisting) joints, pin-connected
joints and semi-rigid joints.
• If all the joints are pins (which transmit no bending
moments), the frame is commonly called a truss.
Rigid joints are capable of transmitting both forces
and bending moments.
• A rigid frame is one in which some or all of its joints
are rigid. Rigid frames are usually statically
indeterminate.
• Our study will be confined to determinate plane
frames. In a plane frame, all the members and
loading must be in the same plane.
Fig. Deflected shape of rigid connected frame

P.I=point of inflection
 PROCEDURES FOR THE ANALYSIS OF DETERMINATE
PLANE FRAMES

1. Find the support reactions. (By using the equations of

equilibrium).

2. Find the member end forces.

(a) Take each member as free-body (by cutting the frame into its
component members), find the axial force, shear force and bending
moment at the ends of the member (by solving the equations of
equilibrium for each member).
(b) Each free-body diagram must show all external loads, support
reactions and possible internal forces acting on the member.
(c) A rigid joint can transmit two force components (V & N) and a
moment.
Example of cutting the frame into its component members
 Plot the axial force, shear force and bending moment diagrams on an
outline of the frame.
(a) A common convention is to draw the bending moment diagram on the
tension side of the frame.

(b) The axial force diagram may be plotted on either side of the
member, with proper indication for tension and compression.
(Tension --- +ve, compression --- -ve)

(c) The shear force diagram may be plotted on either side of the member but
normally follows the convention used for the bending moment diagram. (i.e.
follows the convention of plotting shear force and bending moment of beam).
This can be done by treating each individual member as a beam element, plot
the shear force diagram from the left end to the right end of the member and
draw the bending moments on the tension side of the member.
 UNIT 3

ANALYSIS OF DETERMINATE
TRUSSES
 Analysis of trusses
Generally truss members are assumed to be
joined together so as to transfer only the axial
forces and not moments and shears from one
member to the adjacent members (they are
regarded as being pinned joints).
• A truss is a structure made up of slender members
pin-connected at ends and is capable of taking
loads at joints. They are used as roof trusses to
support sloping roofs and as bridge trusses to
support deck. Transmission towers are also the
examples of trusses.
• In the case of wooden trusses, the ends are
connected by making suitable joints or by nailing
and bolting whereas in steel trusses ends are
connected by bolting or welding. The trusses are
also known as ‘pin jointed frames’.
• A truss in which all the members lie in a single
plane is called as a plane truss. In such trusses
loads act in the plane of the truss only. Roof
trusses and bridge trusses can be considered as
plane trusses.
• If all the members of a truss do not lie in a single
plane, then it is called a space truss. Tripod and
transmission towers are the examples of space
trusses.
 TYPES OF PIN-JOINTED FRAMES
Though there are many types of frames, yet
from the analysis point of view, the frames
may be classified into the following two
groups:
• 1. Perfect pin jointed frame.
• 2. Imperfect pin jointed frame.
Perfect Pin jointed frame
Imperfect Pin jointed frame
 ASSUMPTIONS
(1) The ends of the members are pin-connected
(hinged);
(2) The loads act only at the joints;
(3) Self-weights of the members are negligible;
(4) Cross-section of the members is uniform.
 NATURE OF FORCES IN MEMBERS
• The members of a truss are subjected to either tensile or compressive
forces.
• A typical truss ABCDE loaded at joint E is shown in Fig. 3.7(a). The
member BC is subjected to compressive force C as shown in Fig.
3.7(b). Effect of this force on the joint B (or C) is equal and opposite
to the force C as shown in Fig. 3.7(b).
• It may be noted that compressive force in a
member is represented in a figure by two arrows
going away from each other and a tensile force by
two arrows coming towards each other.
• This is quite logical considering the fact that the
markings on the members represent the internal
reactive forces developed which are opposite in
direction to the applied forces.
 METHODS OF ANALYSIS
The following three methods are available for the
analysis of pin-connected frames:
• (1) Method of joints
• (2) Method of section
• (3) Graphical method.
The first two are analytical methods and they are
dealt in this topic.
 METHOD OF JOINTS
• At each joint the forces in the members meeting and the
loads acting, if any, constitute a system of concurrent forces.
Hence, two independent equations of equilibrium can be
formed at each joint.
• First, a joint is selected where there are only two unknown
forces. Many times such a joint can be identified only after
finding the reaction at the support by considering the
equilibrium of the entire frame.
• Then making use of the two equations of equilibrium at that
joint the two unknown forces are found. Then, the next joint
is selected for analysis where there are now only two
unknown forces.
• Thus, the analysis proceeds from joints to joint to find the
forces in all the members.
METHOD OF SECTION
The method of joints is good if we have to find the internal
forces in all the truss members.
In situations where we need to find the internal forces only
in a few specific members of a truss, the method of
sections is more appropriate.

Method of sections:
1.Imagine a cut through the members of interest
2. Try to cut the least number of members
(preferably 3).
3. Draw FBD of the 2 different parts of the truss
Enforce Equilibrium to find the forces in the 3
members that are cut.
For example, find the force in members AB,EB and EF:
Example 2: Determine the forces in the members FH, HG and GI in the truss
shown in Fig. below
Each load is 10 kN and all triangles are equilateral with sides 4 m.
 Assignement II/10
The truss shown in Figure below has external forces and boundary conditions
provided. We must find the internal axial forces in the specific truss members AB,
AD, DF and FG.
Exercises
 UNIT 4:
Deflections of Determinate
Structures
Introduction:
When a structure is subjected to the action of applied loads each
member undergoes deformation due to which the axis of
structure is deflected from its original position.
The deflections also occur due to temperature variations and lack-
of-fit of members.
The deflections of structures are important for ensuring that the
designed structure is not excessively flexible.
The large deformations in the structures can cause damage or
cracking of non-structural elements.
The deflection in beams is dependent on the acting bending
moments and its flexural stiffness.
The computation of deflections in structures is also required for
solving the statically indeterminate structures.
In this chapter, several methods for computing deflection of
structures are considered.
Introduction
For finding deflections in beams, the following methods
are dealt in this chapter:

1. Moment area method

2. Strain energy method
3. Unit load method
Moment Area Method:
The moment-area method is one of the most effective
methods for obtaining the bending displacement in beams
and frames.
In this method, the area of the bending moment diagrams
is utilized for computing the slope and or deflections at
particular points along the axis of the beam or frame.
Two theorems known as the moment area theorems are
utilized for calculation of the deflection.
One theorem is used to calculate the change in the slope
between two points on the elastic curve.
The other theorem is used to compute the vertical distance
(called tangential deviation) between a point on the elastic
curve and a line tangent to the elastic curve at a second
point.
Theoretical Basis
We consider a length of beam AB in its undeformed and deformed state, as shown on
the next page. Studying this diagram carefully, we note:
1. AB is the original unloaded length of the beam and A’B’ is the deflected
position of AB when loaded.
2. The angle subtended at the centre of the arc A’OB’ is  and is the change in
slope from A’ to B’.
3. PQ is a very short length of the beam, measured as ds along the curve and dx
along the x-axis.
4. d is the angle subtended at the centre of the arc ds .
5. d is the change in slope from P to Q.
6. M is the average bending moment over the portion dx between P and Q.
7. The distance  is known as the vertical intercept and is the distance from B’ to
the produced tangent to the curve at A’ which crosses under B’ at C. It is
measured perpendicular to the undeformed neutral axis (i.e. the x-axis) and so
is ‘vertical’.
Energy methods
 Strain Energy

Fig. 2.4 Linear Spring

Principle of Superposition,
4 April 2024 147
Strain Energy
 Strain Energy
• Consider an elastic spring as shown in the Fig. 2.4. When the
spring is slowly pulled, it deflects by a small amount u1. When
the load is removed from the spring, it goes back to the
original position.

• When the spring is pulled by a force, it does some work and

this can be calculated once the load-displacement
relationship is known.

• It may be noted that, the spring is a mathematical idealization

of the rod being pulled by a force P axially.

Principle of Superposition,
4 April 2024 148
Strain Energy
 Strain Energy
• It is assumed here that the force is applied gradually so that it
slowly increases from zero to a maximum value P.

• Such a load is called static loading, as there are no inertial

effects due to motion.

• The work done by the external force may be calculated as:

Principle of Superposition,
4 April 2024 149
Strain Energy
 Strain Energy

Fig. 2.5 Force-displacement relation

• The area enclosed by force-displacement curve gives the total
work done by the externally applied load.

Principle of Superposition,
4 April 2024 150
Strain Energy
 Strain Energy
• Here it is assumed that the energy is conserved i.e. the work
done by gradually applied loads is equal to energy stored in
the structure.

• This internal energy is known as strain energy. Now strain

energy stored in a spring is

Principle of Superposition,
4 April 2024 151
Strain Energy
 Strain Energy

• Work and energy are expressed in the same units. In SI

system, the unit of work and energy is the joule (J), which is
equal to one Newton metre (N.m).

• The strain energy may also be defined as the internal work

done by the stress resultants in moving through the
corresponding deformations.

• Consider an infinitesimal element within a three dimensional

homogeneous and isotropic material.

Principle of Superposition,
4 April 2024 152
Strain Energy
 Strain energy under axial load

Fig. 2.8
Principle of Superposition,
4 April 2024 154
Strain Energy
 Strain energy under axial load
• Consider a member of constant cross sectional area A,
subjected to axial force P as shown in Fig. 2.8.

• Let E be the Young’s modulus of the material. Let the member

be under equilibrium under the action of this force, which is
applied through the centroid of the cross section.

• Now, the applied force P is resisted by uniformly distributed

internal stresses given by average stress σ = P/A as shown by
the free body diagram (Fig. 2.8). Under the action of axial load
P applied at one end gradually, the beam gets elongated by
(say) u.

Principle of Superposition,
4 April 2024 155
Strain Energy
 Strain energy under axial load

• This may be calculated as follows. The incremental elongation

du of small element of length dx of beam is given by,

• Now the total elongation of the member of length L may be

obtained by integration

Principle of Superposition,
4 April 2024 156
Strain Energy
 Strain energy under axial load
• Now the work done by external loads W = PU/2

• In a conservative system, the external work is stored as the

internal strain energy. Hence, the strain energy stored in the bar
in axial deformation is,

• Substituting, we get:

Principle of Superposition,
4 April 2024 157
Strain Energy
• Hence the elastic strain energy stored in a member of length s
(it may be curved or straight) due to axial force, bending
moment, shear force and torsion is summarized below.

Fig. 2.9 Bending Deformation

Principle of Superposition,
4 April 2024 158
Strain Energy
 Strain energy due to torsion
• Hence the elastic strain energy stored in a member of length s
(it may be curved or straight) due to axial force, bending
moment, shear force and torsion is summarized below.

1. Due to axial force

2. Due to bending

3. Due to shear

4. Due to torsion
Principle of Superposition,
4 April 2024 159
Strain Energy
 Castigliano’s First Theorem

• For linearly elastic structure, where external forces only cause

deformations, the complementary energy is equal to the
strain energy.

• For such structures, the Castigliano’s first theorem may be

stated as the first partial derivative of the strain energy of the
structure with respect to any particular force gives the
displacement of the point of application of that force in the
direction of its line of action.

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 160

 Castigliano’s First Theorem

Fig. 3.1 Castigliano’s First Theorem

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 161
 Castigliano’s First Theorem
• Let P1, P2, ……Pn be the forces acting at x1, x2, ……, xn from
the left end on a simply supported beam of span L. Let u1, u2,
……., un be the displacements at the loading points
respectively as shown in Fig. 3.1.

• Now, assume that the material obeys Hooke’s law and

invoking the principle of superposition, the work done by the
external forces is given by

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 162

 Castigliano’s First Theorem
• Work done by the external forces is stored in the structure as
strain energy in a conservative system. Hence, the strain
energy of the structure is,

• Displacement u1 below point P1 is due to the action of P1, P2,

……Pn acting at distances x1, x2, ……, xn respectively from left
support. Hence, u1 may be expressed as,

U1 = a11P1 + a12P2 + ……………………. + a1nPn

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 163

 Castigliano’s First Theorem
• In general,
Ui = ai1P1 + ai2P2 + .. + ainPn i = 1, 2, ….. n
• Where aij is the flexibility coefficient at i due to unit force
applied at j. Substituting the values of u1, u2, …., un, we get,

• We know from Maxwell-Betti’s reciprocal theorem aij = aji.

Hence, equation (above) may be simplified as,

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 164

 Castigliano’s First Theorem

• Now, differentiating the strain energy with any force P1 gives,

• It may be observed that equation (3.7) is nothing but

displacement u1 at the loading point.
• In general,

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 165

 Castigliano’s First Theorem
• Hence, for determinate structure within linear elastic range
the partial derivative of the total strain energy with respect to
any external load is equal to the displacement of the point of
application of load in the direction of the applied load,
provided the supports are unyielding and temperature is
maintained constant.

• This theorem is advantageously used for calculating

deflections in elastic structure.

• The procedure for calculating the deflection is illustrated with

few examples.

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 166

 Example 3.1
• Find the displacement and slope at the tip of a cantilever
beam loaded as in Fig. 3.2. Assume the flexural rigidity of the
beam EI to be constant for the beam.

Fig. 3.2 Example 3.1

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 167

 Solution
M = −Px

• Now, according to Castigliano’s theorem, the first partial

derivative of strain energy with respect to external force P
gives the deflection uA at A in the direction of applied force.
Thus,

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 168

 Solution
• To find the slope at the free end, we need to differentiate
strain energy with respect to externally applied moment MA
at A.

• As there is no moment at A, apply a fictitious moment M0 at

A. Now moment at any section at a distance x away from the
free end is given by

M = - Px – M0
Now, strain energy stored in the beam may be
calculated as,

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 169

 Solution
• Taking partial derivative of strain energy with respect to M0,
we get slope at A.

But actually there is no moment applied at A. Hence

substitute M0 = 0, we get the slope at A.

θA = PL2/2EI

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 170

 Example 3.3
• Find horizontal displacement at D of the frame shown in Fig.
3.4. Assume the flexural rigidity of the beam EI to be constant
through out the member. Neglect strain energy due to axial
deformations.

Fig. 3.4 Example 3.3

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 173

 Solution
• The deflection D may be obtained via. Castigliano’s theorem.
The beam segments BA and DC are subjected to bending
moment Px (0 < x < L) and the beam element BC is subjected
to a constant bending moment of magnitude PL.

• Total strain energy stored in the frame due to bending

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 174

 Solution

• After simplifications,

• Differentiating strain energy with respect to P we get,

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 175

 Example 3.4
• Find the vertical deflection at C of the structure shown Fig.
3.5. Assume the flexural rigidity EI and torsional rigidity GJ to
be constant for the structure.

Fig. 3.5 Example 3.4

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 176

 Solution
• The beam segment BC is subjected to bending moment Px (0
< x < a; x is measured from C) and the beam element AB is
subjected to torsional moment of magnitude Pa and a
bending moment of Px (0 ≤ x ≤ b; x is measured from B).

• The strain energy stored in the beam ABC is,

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 177

 Solution
• After simplifications,

• Vertical deflection uA at A is,

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 178

 Example 3.5
• Find vertical deflection at C of the beam shown in Fig. 3.6.
Assume the flexural rigidity EI to be constant for the structure.

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 179

 Solution
• The beam segment CB is subjected to bending moment Px (0 <
x < a) and beam element AB is subjected to moment of
magnitude Pa.
• To find the vertical deflection at C, introduce an imaginary
vertical force Q at C. Now, the strain energy stored in the
structure is,

• Differentiating strain energy with respect to Q,

vertical deflection at C is obtained.

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 180

 Solution

• But the force Q is fictitious force and hence equal to zero.

Hence, vertical deflection is,

uC = Pab2/2EI

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 181

 Example 3.6
• Find Horzontal deflection at C of the beam shown in Fig. 3.6.
Assume the flexural rigidity EI to be constant for the structure.

4 April 2024 Castigliano’s Theorems 182

3.Unit Load method

M=moment acting at the section due to load applied

m=moment acting at the section due to unit load