Internal Combustion Engines General Course

Layout
SUBJECT: ME-448 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
CREDIT HOURS: 3-0
CONTACT HOURS:
3 Hours per Week
TEXT BOOK:
Internal Combustion Engines: Applied Thermo sciences, Colin R.
Ferguson, Allan T. Kirkpatrick, 2nd Edition, Wiley
REFERENCE BOOKS:
Edward F. Obert, Internal Combustion Engines and Air Pollution,
Harper & Row NewYark.
Internal Combustion Engines by [Link]
Internal Combustion Engine by Willard W. Pulkrabek

Internal Combustion Engine.

(I. C. Engine)

What is a Heat engine?

Just a device which converts one form of energy into
another.
Normally heat energy is converted into mechanical energy.
Efficiency of conversion is very important in an engine.
There are two broad categories;

Heat Engines
Internal
Combustion
Engines (ICE)

External
Combustion
Engines (ECE)

Heat Engine

Heat Engine
Most commonly used are ICE, Gas Turbines and Steam
Turbines (now used rarely).
Advantages of ICE over others;
1. Absence of heat exchangers like boilers and condensers means
more mechanical simplicity and higher efficiency.
2. Components work at an average temperature which is much
below the max temp of the working fluid. (Why? And benefit?)
3. Smaller units can be made and give reasonable thermal
efficiency and cost.
4. The power to weight ratio of ICE is also high.
Major Disadvantages;
1. The disadvantages are that due to reciprocating parts, there is
a lot of vibration.
2. Only liquid fuels and gases of given specifications can be used.

Classification of I. C. Engines
Nature of Thermodynamic Cycle
1. Otto cycle engine
2. Diesel cycle engine
3. Dual combustion cycle engine
Type of the Fuel- used
1. Petrol engine
2. Diesel engine
3. Gas engine
4. Bi-fuel Engine

Classification of I. C. Engines
Number of Strokes
1. 2 - stroke engine
2. 4 - stroke engine
Method of Ignition
1. Spark ignition engine, [S.I. Engine]
2. Compression ignition engine, [C.I. engine]
Number of Cylinders
1. Single cylinder engine
2. Multi-cylinder engine

Classification of I. C. Engines
Position of the Cylinder
1. Horizontal engine
2. Vertical engine
3. V- engine
4. Radial engine
Method of Cooling
1. Air cooled engine
2. Water cooled engine
Speed of the Engine
1. Low speed engine
2. Medium speed engine
3. High speed engine

Assignment

PARTS OF I.C. ENGINES

I C Engine Parts

Nomenclature
Dead Centre:
The position of the working piston and the mechanical parts
which are connected to it, at the moment when the direction
of piston motion is reversed at either end of the stroke is
called the dead centre.

Top Dead Centre (TDC):

It is the dead centre when the piston is farthest from the
crank shaft. Known as Inner Dead Centre (IDC) for horizontal
engines.
Bottom Dead Centre (BDC):
It is the dead centre when the piston is closest to the crank
shaft. Known as Outer Dead Centre (ODC) for horizontal
engines.

Nomenclature
Stroke:
It is the linear distance
traveled by the piston
when it moves from one
end of the cylinder to the
other end.
Bore:
The
nominal
inner
diameter of the working
cylinder. It is usually
denoted by d and is
expressed in mm.

Nomenclature
Stroke to Bore ratio:
An important parameter in
classifying the size of the
engine.
Stroke to Bore Ratio: L/d
d L Under Square
d =L Square
d L Over Square

Nomenclature

Swept volume or
(Displacement volume)
It is the volume swept through
by the piston in moving
between TDC and BDC. (Vs)

Vs

= A x L = (/4)d2 L
Clearance volume:

It is the volume contained in

the cylinder above the top of
the piston, when the piston is
at TDC. Denoted by Vc and
expressed in cubic centimeters.

 Total volume (VT)

swept volume + clearance volume = Vs + Vc

Compression ratio: r
It is the ratio of total cylinder volume to clearance volume.
r = Total volume
clearance volume
r=

= 1+

Value of r for,
petrol engine lies between 6 to 10
Diesel engine lies between 16 to 20
Cubic Capacity
VS x K
( K= No of Cylinders)

Working of 4-Stroke Petrol/SI Engine

The petrol engines work on the principle of OTTO
CYCLE, also known as constant Volume cycle.
The engines operating on this cycle use either
petrol or other spirit fuels or the gases such as LPG
/ CNG as their fuels.
Spark Ignition engines are also called petrol
engines.

Working of 4-Stroke Petrol/SI Engine

In a 4-Stroke petrol engine, the charge is admitted

to the engine cylinder is a homogeneous mixture
of petrol and air.

Depending on the load on the engine, the fuel and

air is mixed in proper proportions and sent in to

the cylinder by a popular device known as

carburetor.

Working of 4-Stroke Petrol/SI Engine

In a 4-stroke petrol engine there are four main events

taking place
1. Suction

2. Compression
3. Power or expansion

4. Exhaust
Each event is performed during a single stroke of the

piston

INTAKE [Suction]: During the intake stroke, the piston moves

down ward, drawing a fresh charge of vaporized fuel-air
mixture, This operation is represented by the line AB on the
P-V diagram.
Pressure [P]
TDC

BDC
A

B
Volume [V]

2. Compression Stroke: During compression stroke, the piston moves

from BDC to TDC, thus compressing air petrol mixture. Due to
compression, the pressure and temperature are increased and is
shown by the line BC on the P- V diagram. Just before the end of this
stroke the spark - plug initiates a spark which ignites the mixture and
combustion takes place at constant volume as shown by the line CD
Pressure [P]

TDC
C

BDC
A

B
Volume [V]

3. Working Stroke: The expansion of gases due to the heat

of combustion exerts a pressure on the piston. Under this
impulse, the piston moves from TDC to BDC and thus the
work is obtained in this stroke as shown by the line DE

Pressure [P]

TDC
C
E
BDC

B
Volume [V]

4. Exhaust Stroke: At the end of the power stroke, the exhaust

valve is opened & greater part of the burnt gases escapes
because of their own expansion. The drop in pressure at constant
volume is represented by the line EB. During this stroke the
piston moves from BDC to TDC and pushes the remaining gases
to the atmosphere. This stroke is represented the line BA on the
P-V diagram.
Pressure [P]

TDC
C
E
BDC

B
Volume [V]

P V diagram for
SI Engine / Otto cycle engine

TDC
C
Pressure
E
A

BDC

B
Volume
Theoretical Otto cycle

Diesel Engines
Diesels come in two stroke and four stroke versions
and operate much like the gasoline driven engines.
Diesels have a greater compression ratio than
gasoline engines.
Diesel

16:1 20:1

Gasoline

6:1 10:1

Working of 4-S Diesel/CI Engine

The basic construction of a four stroke diesel engine is
same as that of four stroke petrol engine.

Except that instead of a spark plug, a FUEL INJECTOR is

mounted in its space.

Fuel injector injects the fuel in to the cylinder as a fine

spray at very high pressure

In case of diesel engine, the air enters the inside the cylinder
during suction, and it will get compressed during the
compression stroke. (i.e.. charge is only air)
At the end of the compression stroke the diesel is injected in
to the cylinder in the form of fine spray
When this fine spray diesel comes in contact with hot air in
the cylinder, it auto ignites and results in a combustion of

injected diesel fuel.

Since ignition in these engines is due to the temperature of
the compressed air, they are also called compression ignition
engines.

1. INTAKE [Suction]:
During the intake stroke, the piston moves down ward,
drawing a fresh charge [AIR]. This operation is
represented by the line AB on the P-V diagram.

Pressure [P]
TDC

BDC

B
Volume [V]
28

2. Compression Stroke: During compression stroke, the

piston moves from BDC to TDC, thus compressing air.
Due to compression, the pressure and temperature are
increased and is shown by the line BC on the P- V
diagram. Just before the end of this stroke, a metered
quantity of Diesel is injected intoD the hot compressed
C
air in the form of fine sprays
by means of fuel injector.
[P] at constant pressure shown by
The fuel startsPressure
burning
the line [Link]

BDC

B
Volume [V]

3. Working Stroke: The expansion of gases due to the

heat of combustion exerts a pressure on the piston.
Under this impulse, the piston moves from TDC to BDC
and thus the work is obtained in this stroke as shown by
the line DE
C

Pressure [P]
TDC
E

BDC

B
Volume [V]

4. Exhaust Stroke: At the end of the power stroke, the

exhaust valve is opened & greater part of the burnt
gases escapes because of their own expansion. The
drop in pressure at constant volume is represented by
the line EB. During this stroke the piston moves from
BDC to TDC and pushes the remaining
gases to the
D
atmosphere. This stroke isC represented the line BA on
Pressure [P]
the P-V diagram.
TDC
E

BDC

B
Volume [V]

P V diagram for
C.I. Engine / Diesel Cycle Engine
D

TDC
Pressure
E

BDC

B
Volume
Theoretical Diesel cycle

Working of the Two Stroke Engine

In a two stroke engine, a cycle is completed by the two
strokes of the piston.
Out of the four strokes, the two strokes that are
eliminated are, suction and exhaust strokes.
However, the exhaust process is achieved by the

admission of charge which is extremely compressed,

which drives out the burnt gases out and this process is
popularly called as SCAVENGING.

Working of the Two Stroke Engine

In case of the two stroke engines instead of valves,
ports are used.
Ports in the cylinder liner, opened and closed by the
piston motion itself

Working of Two Stroke Petrol Engine

First stroke

Second stroke

Working of Two Stroke Petrol Engine

First stroke (Downward) As soon
as the charge is ignited, the hot
gases force the piston to move
downwards,
rotating
the
crankshaft, thus doing the useful
work. During this stroke the inlet
port is covered by the piston and
the new charge is compressed in
the crank case as shown in the fig.

 Further downward movement of the piston uncovers first

the exhaust port and then the transfer port.
The burnt gases escape through the exhaust port.
As soon as the transfer port opens, the
compressed charge from the crankcase
flows into the cylinder.
As the compressed charge enters into
the cylinder, it pushes out the exhaust
gases from the cylinder.
The process of removal of exhaust
gases by the fresh incoming charge is
known as scavenging.

 Second stroke: (upward)

Here the piston moves from BDC
to TDC, during the process the
exhaust port and transfer port are
covered and the charge in the
cylinder is compressed.
Simultaneously, vacuum is created
in the crankcase, and a new charge
is drawn into the crankcase
through the uncovered inlet port.

 The compressed charge is

ignited in the combustion
chamber by a spark
provided by the spark plug
and the cycle of events is
then repeated.

Working of Two Stroke Diesel Engine

First stroke

Second stroke

 First
stroke
(Downward)
Combustion starts once the diesel
is injected in to the hot
compressed air, the hot gases force
the piston to move downwards,
rotating the crankshaft, thus doing
the useful work. During this stroke
the inlet port is covered by the
piston and the new charge [air] is
compressed in the crank case as
shown in the fig.

 Further downward movement of the piston uncovers

first the exhaust port and then the transfer port.
The burnt gases escape through the exhaust port.
As soon as the transfer port opens, the
compressed charge from the crankcase
flows into the cylinder.
As the compressed charge enters into the
cylinder, it pushes out the exhaust gases
from the cylinder.
The process of removal of exhaust gases
by the fresh incoming air is known as
scavenging.

 Second stroke: (upward)

Here the piston moves from
BDC to TDC, during the process
the exhaust port and transfer
port are covered and the fresh
air in the cylinder is compressed.
Simultaneously,
vacuum
is
created in the crankcase, and a
new charge [air] is drawn into
the crankcase through the
uncovered inlet port.

45

 At the end of the compression diesel is injected to the

compressed air which is at a temperature higher than
the self ignition temperature of diesel. Hence, the
injected diesel auto ignites when it comes in contact
with hot air. And the cycle of events is then repeated.

Disadvantages of Two Stroke Engine as

Compared to Four Stroke Engine
Reduced Effective Expansion Stroke
For SI Engines only:
During Scavenging both the inlet and exhaust valves
are open simultaneously there is a lot of fuel
wastage this use limited to only smaller units.
Lower thermal efficiency for the same reason.
At part throttling conditions, the amount of charge
entering might not be enough to remove all the
exhaust gases.
More power strokes more heat production
greater cooling and lubricating required.
More noise
More pollution

Performance Parameters

PERFORMANCE PARAMETRES
Before we can move on with the parameters
parameters, we have to understand the energy flow
(energy balance) of the system.

Efficiencies
Indicated thermal efficiency ( ) =

Brake thermal efficiency ( ) =

Mechanical Efficiency ( ) =

Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio

Relative efficiency is the ratio thermal efficiency of
actual cycle to ideal cycle
rel =

Actual Thermal Efficiency

Air Standard Efficiency

PERFORMANCE PARAMETRES
Volumetric efficiency:
Volumetric efficiency is a ratio or percentage of what
quantity of air-fuel mixture enters actually the
cylinders during suction process to the actual
capacity of the cylinder under static conditions.

Your engine will not use the full volume 100%

because of friction losses and leakage.
Volumetric efficiency above 100% can be reached by
using forced supercharging or turbocharging.
Remember more air means that more fuel can be
burnt and more power can be derived from the same
stroke.

PERFORMANCE PARAMETRES
Volumetric efficiency:

Remember that irrespective of whether you engine is CI, SI or even gas

engine for that matter, the volumetric rate of flow of air is to be
considered only.

Mean Effective Pressure

=
ip
pim
L
A
N
n
K

= Indicated power [kW]

= Indicated mean effective pressure [N/m2 ]
= Length of the stroke [m]
= Area of the piston [m2]
= Speed in revolutions per minute [rpm]
= Number of strokes N/2 (4S) & N (2S)
= Number of cylinder
=

PERFORMANCE PARAMETRES
Indicated mean effective pressure is
= ( 6000)/
Break mean effective pressure is
= ( 6000)/
ip
pim
L
A
N
n
K

= Indicated power [kW]

= Indicated mean effective pressure [N/m2 ]
= Length of the stroke [m]
= Area of the piston [m2]
= Speed in revolutions per minute [rpm]
= Number of stroke N/2 & N
= Number of cylinder

Mean Piston Speed

Sp = 2LN
L
N

= Length of the stroke [m]

= Crank Speed in revolutions per minute [rpm]

An important parameter for correlating engine

behavior as a function of speed.
Resistance to air inflow and inertia due to moving
parts restrict the value of this parameter to within
5-20m/s.
Higher end values for automobiles and lower end
values for large diesel units (marine, industry).

Specific Power Output

Ps = bp/A
= constant x pbm x Sp
Power output per unit piston area.
Designer has to use available piston area regardless of the engine size.
Specific power is proportional to the product of mean effective
pressure and mean piston speed.

Either increase the speed or the bmep.

Specific Fuel Consumption

sfc = Fuel Consumption per unit Time

Power
Kilograms of fuel per kilowatt-hour.
Engine Performance Parameter.
Inversely proportional to the thermal efficiency of the
engine.

Calorific Value ( CV)

Calorific value of a is the thermal energy released per
unit quantity of the fuel when the fuel is burning
completely and the products of combustion are
cooled back to the initial temperature of the
combustible mixture.
When water vapors resulting from the combustion
process are condensed, the heating value so obtained
is called the higher or gross calorific value.
Lower or net calorific value.

Air/Fuel or Fuel/Air Ratio

A mixture which contains just enough air for complete
combustion of all the fuel in the mixture is chemically
correct or stoichiometric fuel-air ratio.

A mixture having more fuel than the chemically correct

mixture is termed as rich mixture.
Similarly, a mixture that contain less fuel or more air is
called a lean mixture.

Air/Fuel or Fuel/Air Ratio

( )
=
(h )
Where
= 1 means stoichiometric ( chemically correct)
mixture
1 means lean mixture
1 means rich mixture

Air/Fuel or Fuel/Air Ratio

These ratios are critical for combustion and efficiency of

engine standpoints.
In a SI engine, the fuel air ratio remains practically constant
over a wide range of operations (15:1).
In a CI engine, at a given speed, the air flow does not vary
with the load; rather, the fuel flow varies directly with load.
Therefore the term fuel-air ratio is considered rather than
the air fuel ratio.

Combustion Efficiency
Combustion efficiency is defined to account for the fraction
of fuel that burns in a combustion process.
A small fraction of fuel does not burn and is wasted with the
exhaust.
Typical values range from 0.95-0.98 when an engine is
operating properly.
For one engine cycle in one cylinder the heat added is;
=
For Steady State

= mass flow rate of fuel for one cycle

= heating value of fuel

Combustion Efficiency
The thermal efficiency will be
0
= W/ = 0 /
= 0 /0

Inlet Valve Mach Index (Z)

In a reciprocating engine the flow of intake charge takes
place through the intake valve operation which is varying
during the induction process.
Also the maximum gas velocity through the area is limited by
the local sonic velocity.

Thus gas velocity is finally chosen by the given equation.

u = gas velocity through the inlet valve
= Piston Area
= Intake valve opening area
Ci = Inlet Valve Flow Coefficient

Vp = Mean Piston Speed

Inlet Valve Mach Index (Z)

=
=( )
=

Where
b = cylinder diameter
Di = inlet valve diameter
Vp = mean piston speed
= inlet sonic velocity
C = inlet valve average flow coefficient
Z = inlet valve Mach index

Inlet Valve Mach Index (Z)

There is a relationship between volumetric
efficiency and Z.
Maximum Volumetric efficiency can be achieved at
Inlet Mach No of 0.55 (Experimentally).
This adds up as an important design criteria.