Thermodynamics Power Cycles

Depending on the nature of the working fluid, the thermodynamic cycle is classified
as:
⁃ Vapor power cycles in which the working fluid undergoes a phase change during the
cyclic process.
⁃ Gas power cycles in which the working fluid remains in the gaseous phase throughout

Chapter 3 - Thermodynamics II [Meng 3204] the entire cycle.

⁃ Ex: Spark-ignition engines, diesel engines, and conventional gas turbines

Ideal vs Actual cycle

Gas Power Cycles / Air Standard Cycles  Ideal cycle – is the cycle when the actual cycle without all the internal irreversibilities
and complexities, resulting in a cycle that resembles the actual cycle closely.
 It enables to study the effects of the major parameters that dominate the cycle without
getting bogged down in the details.
 The analysis serves as the starting point for a more in-depth study.
Assumption:
 Cycle with no friction – meaning no pressure drop
 Quasi-equilibrium expansion and compression
Tewodros Belay, Ph.D. (Assis. Professor)  No heat loss 3

Topics Analysis Assumptions

Air-Standard Assumptions:
Gas Power Cycle
⁃ The working fluid is always air (no combustion products).
Analysis Assumptions ⁃ Fixed amount of air inside the piston-cylinder (Not for gas turbine engines)
I. Reciprocating Engines ⁃ Aways behaves as an ideal gas, Pv=RT, u(T) and h(T)
⁃ All the processes are internally reversible.
Otto Cycle
⁃ The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process.
Diesel Cycle ⁃ The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection process.
II. Gas Turbine Engines
Brayton Cycle
For power plant
Brayton Cycle with Regeneration, Intercooling, and Reheating
Cold-air-standard assumptions:
For propulsion
 Constant specific heats evaluated at room/ambient temperature (25oC or 300K).
Brayton Cycle for Jet-propulsion  And the resulting cycle is referred to as an air-standard cycle.

Why? Simplify the analysis – make the calculation more doable.

4
Reciprocating Engines/Internal Combustion Engines Reciprocating Engines

The reciprocating engine (a piston-cylinder device) is one of the rare inventions that  Mean effective pressure (MEP) – is a fictitious pressure that would produce the same
has proved to be very versatile and has a wide range of applications. amount of network as that produced during the actual cycle.
Ex: Automobiles, trucks, light aircraft, ships, and electric power generators.
Basic terminologies of a reciprocating engine:
 Top dead center (TDC) – is the position of the
piston when it forms the smallest volume in the
cylinder.
 The term MEP can be used as a parameter to
 Bottom dead center (BDC) – is the position of the
compare the performances of reciprocating engines
piston when it forms the largest volume in the
of equal size.
cylinder.
 Stroke – is the distance between the TDC and the
BDC.
 Bore – is the diameter of the piston.
Depending on the combustion process initiated, Reciprocating engines are classified as:
 Intake valve – is through which air-fuel mixture
enters into the cylinder.  Spark-ignition (SI) engines or
 Exhaust valve – through which combustion
products are expelled from the cylinder.  Compression-ignition (CI) engines.

5 7

Reciprocating Engines Otto cycle

 Clearance volume – is the minimum volume formed in the cylinder when the piston is at ⁃ The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition reciprocating engines (gasoline engines).
TDC. ⁃ It is named after Nikolaus A. Otto, who built a successful four-stroke engine in 1876 in
 Displacement volume – is the volume displaced by the piston as it moves between TDC Germany.
and BDC. ⁃ In most spark-ignition engines, the piston executes four complete strokes. Thus called four-
stroke internal combustion engines.
 Compression stroke
 Power stroke
 Exhaust stroke
 Intake stroke
⁃ The

 Compression ratio (r) – is the ratio of the maximum volume formed in the cylinder to the
minimum (clearance) volume.

6 8
The Conventional Gasoline Engine Thermodynamic analysis of Otto cycle

In a gasoline engine, six processes occur during each cycle. ⁃ Processes 1–2 and 3–4: there is work but no heat transfer.

For a given cycle, the piston moves up and down twice. ⁃ Processes 2–3 and 4–1: there is heat transfer but no work.

This represents a four-stroke cycle.

−𝑣𝑒
The processes in the cycle can be approximated by the Otto cycle. +𝑣𝑒

−𝑣𝑒
−𝑣𝑒

⁃ The network of the cycle is expressed as:

Cold air standard assumptions

OR: net-work can be evaluated as the net heat added: ( )

⁃ The thermal efficiency is the ratio of the net-work of the cycle to the heat added

9 11

Otto cycle Thermodynamic analysis of Otto cycle

⁃ Ideal Otto cycle – based on Air-standard assumptions ⁃ Processes 1–2 and 3–4: are isentropic processes, and v2 = v3 and v4 = v1, thus

Adiabatic processes
AND

⁃ Substituting these equations into the thermal efficiency relation and simplifying give:
𝑐
(cold air-standard basis) ; 𝑘 (𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜) = 𝑐
𝒕𝒉,𝑶𝒕𝒕𝒐

where:

The ideal Otto cycle consists of four internally

reversible processes:
1-2: Isentropic (rev. and adiabatic) compression
2-3: Constant – volume heat addition
3-4: Isentropic expansion
4-1: Constant – volume heat rejection Fig. Thermal efficiency of the
ideal Otto cycle as a function
Isentropic process: of compression ratio (k = 1.4).
Fig. The thermal efficiency of the Otto
, and cycle increases with k of the working fluid.

( 10  The of actual spark-ignition engines range from about 25 to 30%. 12

Examples Diesel Cycle

1. An air-standard Otto cycle operates with 300K and 95kPa at the start of the compression ⁃ The Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for Compression-ignition (CI) reciprocating engines
(Diesel Engine).
stroke. The compression ratio is 10.5, and the maximum temperature of the cycle is
⁃ The CI engine was first proposed by Rudolph Diesel in the 1890s in Germany.
1800K. Consider constant specific heats evaluated at 300K. Determine:
⁃ Similar to SI engine in most ways differing mainly in the method of initiating combustion.
a) temperature at the end of the compression stroke, [in K], and
SI engine CI engine
b) peak pressure, [in kPa]
The air-fuel mixture is compressed to a The air is compressed to a temperature that is
c) heat addition for the cycle, [in kJ/kg]
temperature below the autoignition above the autoignition temperature of the fuel
d) net-work for the cycle, [in kJ/kg] temperature of the fuel.
e) thermal efficiency of the cycle, Air-fuel mixture is compressed during the Only air is compressed during the compression
compression stroke. stroke
f) mean effective pressure, [kPa]
The compression ratios are limited by the No possibility of autoignition thus operates at a
Using constant specific heats of cv = 0.718kJ/kg.K and cp = 1.005kJ/kg.K at 300K.
onset of autoignition or engine knock higher compression ratio (12 and 24).
R = 0.2870 kJ/kg.K for air. Depends on the fuel Octane number (rating). The fuel is less refined (thus less expensive)
Show the process in P-v and T-s diagrams and indicate/label all the points and the steps. Constant volume heat-addition process Constant pressure heat-addition process

13 15

Examples Otto cycle vs Diesel cycle

For variable-specific heat problems: Use Table A-17 to read the required properties of the air.

,
r = v1/v2 - Low r = v1/v2 – Very high
,

AND rc = v3/v2 ;cutoff

,
,

14 16
Diesel Cycle Examples

The ideal Diesel cycle consists of four internally reversible processes:

2. Air at 98kPa and 310K is at the start of the compression stroke in an air-standard Diesel
1-2: Isentropic (rev. and adiabatic) ) compression
cycle. The compression ratio is 20.0, and the cutoff ratio is 2.2. Use constant specific
2-3: Constant – pressure heat addition (only difference with SI engine)
heats of cv = 0.718kJ/kg.K, cp = 1.005kJ/kg.K, and R = 0.2870 kJ/kg.K. Determine:
3-4: Isentropic expansion
a) temperature at the end of the compression stroke, [in K]
4-1: Constant – volume heat rejection
b) peak pressure, [in kPa]
c) peak temperature, [in K]
d) heat addition for the cycle, [in kJ/kg]
e) net-work for the cycle, [in kJ/kg]
f) thermal efficiency of the cycle, and
g) mean effective pressure, [kPa].
Show the process in P-v and T-s diagrams and indicate/label all the points and the steps.

17 19

Thermodynamic analysis of Diesel cycle Examples

⁃ Processes 1–2 and 3–4: there is work but no heat transfer, v4 = v1.
(For variable specific heats) Use Table A-17 to read the required properties of the air.
⁃ Process 2–3: involve both work and heat transfer, P2 = P3
⁃ Process 4–1: there is heat transfer but no work.

(-ve)
,
,
Cutoff ratio (rc): the ratio of the cylinder
volumes after and before the combustion process AND
𝑞 = vend of heat addition/vTDC
Cold air standard assumptions
,
⁃ The thermal efficiency is the ratio of the net-work of the cycle to the heat added
,

⁃ For Isentropic process: (𝑠 = 𝑠 , 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠, 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑘) ; For the same r

AND
18 20
Brayton Cycle Analysis Assumptions

⁃ The Brayton cycle is the ideal cycle for Gas Turbine Engines. Air-Standard Assumptions:
⁃ It was first proposed by George Brayton and developed around 1870. ⁃ The working fluid is always air (no combustion products).
⁃ The two major application areas of gas-turbine engines are aircraft propulsion and electric ⁃ Fixed amount of air inside the piston-cylinder (Not for gas turbine engines)
power generation. ⁃ Aways behaves as an ideal gas, Pv=RT, u(T) and h(T)
⁃ In aircraft propulsion ⁃ All the processes are internally reversible.
– to produce thrust (to propel the aircraft) ⁃ The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process.
– to drive the compressor and a small generator to power the auxiliary equipment.
⁃ The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection process.
⁃ In electric power generation
– to produce electric power in a stationary plant
Brayton cycle can be:
I. Open gas-turbine cycle for Propulsion

Cold-air-standard assumptions:
 Constant specific heats evaluated at room/ambient temperature (25oC or 300K).
 And the resulting cycle is referred to as an air-standard cycle.

Why? Simplify the analysis – make the calculation more doable.

21 23

Brayton Cycle Thermodynamic analysis of Brayton cycle

⁃ Processes 1–2 and 3–4: there is work but no heat transfer.

II. Closed gas-turbine cycle – for Power plant
⁃ Processes 2–3 and 4–1: there is heat transfer but no work.

Cold air standard assumptions

⁃ The thermal efficiency is the ratio of the net-work of the cycle to the heat added

Major components of the Brayton cycle

Pressure ratio (rp): For Compressor: back work ratio (rbw):
Brayton cycle consists of four internally reversible processes:
1-2: Isentropic compression (in a compressor) For Turbine:
2-3: Constant – pressure heat addition : For isentropic processes: 1-2 and 3-4, P2 = P3 and P4 = P1, (𝑠 = 𝑠 , 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠, 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑘)
3-4: Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1: Constant – pressure heat rejection 22 AND 24
Examples Modified Brayton Cycle

Brayton Cycle with Regeneration, Intercooling, and Reheating

3. An air-standard Brayton cycle operates with 90 kPa and 300K at the compressor inlet. The
The net work of a gas-turbine cycle can be improved using:
compressor pressure ratio is 9.0. The maximum temperature is 1600K. On the basis of a I. Regeneration – by preheating the high-pressure gas from the compressor with the
exhaust gas from the turbine outlet.
cold air standard analysis, using cv = 0.718kJ/kg and cp = 1.005kJ/kg. Determine:
II. Intercooling – compressing the gas in multiple stages and use an intercooler in
a) thermal efficiency of the cycle, and between to reduce the work required
b) back ward ratio. III. Reheating – expanding the gas in stages and reheating it in between, that is, utilizing
multistage expansion with reheating.
Show the process in P-v and T-s diagrams and indicate/label all the points and the steps.

25 NB: Add heat exchanger between states ’10’ and ‘1’ to complete the cycle and analysis. 27

Examples Brayton Cycle with Regeneration

(For variable specific heats) Use Table A-17 to read the required properties of the air. The high-pressure air leaving the compressor can be heated by transferring heat to it from the
hot exhaust gases in a counter-flow heat exchanger, which is also known as a Regenerator.
 Use the hot gas normally rejected to the surroundings.
 Helps to decrease the heat input
 Works only when the turbine exhaust temperature is higher than the compressor
, exit temperature (to avoid reverse heat transfer).
,

AND

,
,

26 NB: Add heat exchanger between states ‘6’ and ‘1’ to complete the cycle and analysis. 28
Thermodynamic analysis Examples

⁃ The heat transfers from the exhaust gases to the air can be expressed as: (For variable specific heats) Use Table A-17 to read the required properties of the air.

, Actual

Maximum

,
⁃ Effectiveness (ε) – the extent to which a regenerator approaches an ideal regenerator.
,
,

, AND

⁃ With cold-air assumptions:

,
,

⁃ The thermal efficiency of an ideal Brayton cycle with regeneration is:

( )
,
29 31

Examples Brayton Cycle with Reheating

4. Air enters the compressor of a regenerative air—standard Brayton cycle with a volumetric The work output of a turbine can be increased by expanding the gas in stages and
flow rate of 75 m3/s at 1 bar and 290K. The compressor pressure ratio is 22, and the reheating it in between—that is, utilizing multistage expansion with reheating.
maximum cycle temperature is 1900K. Assume both the compressor and the turbine to be
isentropic and the regenerator effectiveness is 80%. Take an ideal gas assumptions with
cv = 0.718kJ/kg and cp = 1.005kJ/kg. Determine:
a) net power developed [in MW]
b) back work ratio,
c) rate of heat addition in the combustor [in MW]
d) thermal efficiency of the cycle, and
Show the process in a T-s diagram and indicate/label all the points and the steps.

 The net work for the reheat cycle is greater than that of the cycle without reheat by area
a-b-4-4’.
 Despite the increase in net work with reheat, the cycle thermal efficiency would not
necessarily increase because a greater total heat addition would be required.
30 32
Brayton Cycle with Intercooling Jet-propulsion Cycle

 The net work output of a gas turbine also can be increased by reducing the compressor  It is an aircraft gas turbine that operates on an open Brayton cycle.
work input. This can be accomplished by means of multistage compression with  Power produced by the turbine is very small and only used to drive the compressor and
intercooling – cooling the gas between stages. auxiliary equipment (hydraulic pumps, generator).
𝑊̇
𝑚̇
=− 𝑣 𝑑𝑃 (∆𝐾𝐸 = ∆𝑃𝐸 = 0)  The net work output of a jet-propulsion cycle is zero.
,
 High pressure gas leaving the turbine used to provide Thrust through a nozzle.
 Aircraft are propelled by accelerating a fluid in the opposite direction to motion.

Process 1–c: Isentropic compression from state 1  The cross-hatched area on the p–v
to state c where the pressure is pi. diagram represents the reduction in
Process c–d: Constant-pressure cooling from work achieved with intercooling. The engine consists of three main sections:
temperature Tc to Td.  It increases the net work by reducing  the diffuser,
Process d–2: Isentropic compression to state 2. the compression work.  the gas generator (compressor, combustor, and turbine), and
33  the nozzle 35

Examples Thermodynamic analysis of Jet-propulsion Cycle

5. An air-standard regenerative Brayton cycle operating at a steady state with intercooling

and reheat. The cycle produces 10MW of net power. Air enters at 1 bar and 300K. The
first compressor pressure ratio is 3 and the second compressor pressure ratio is 4. The first
turbine pressure ratio is 4 and the second is 3. The intercooler cools the air to 300K. The
air temperature after each combustor is 1450K. Assume both the compressor and the
turbine to be isentropic and the regenerator effectiveness is 80%. Assuming ideal gas
behaviour cv = 0.718kJ/kg and cp = 1.005kJ/kg. Determine:
a) air mass flow rate [in kg/s], 1-2: Isentropic compression in a Diffuser
b) rate of heat addition in the combustors [in MW],
2-3: Isentropic compression in a Compressor
c) back work ratio, and
d) thermal efficiency of the cycle. 3-4: Constant–pressure heat addition in a Combustion chamber
4-5: Isentropic expansion in a Turbine
 Show the process in a T-s diagram
and indicate/label all the points and 5-6: Isentropic expansion in a Nozzle
the steps. 6-1: Constant pressure heat rejection to the atmosphere

Power produced to propel the aircraft :

NB: Add heat exchanger between states 10
and 1 to complete the cycle and
analysis.
Propulsive efficiency:
34 36
Examples

6. An enters a turbojet engine at 26kPa, 230K and an inlet velocity of 220m/s. The air mass
flow rate is 25kg/s. Air is slowed in the diffuser. The pressure ratio across the
compressor is 11. The turbine inlet temperature is 1400K. The work developed by the
turbine equals the compressor work input. The compressor, turbine, diffuser and nozzle
processes are isentropic. Kinetic energy is negligible except at the inlet at the exit of the
engines. Perform an air-standard analysis to determine the:
a) velocity at the nozzle exit
b) power developed by the engine
c) propulsive efficiency
Assuming ideal gas behaviour with cv = 0.718kJ/kg and cp = 1.005kJ/kg.
Show the process in a T-s diagram and indicate/label all the points and the steps.

37

End !!

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