1.
TRANSLATION STUDIES
The term translation has several meanings. It can refer to:
1. the general subject field
2. the product (the text that has been translated)
3. the process (the act of producing the translation-translating)
The process of translation btw two different written lgs involves that the translator changes an
original written text (source text) in original lg into a written text (target text) in a different lg. this type is
called interlingual translation and it is one of the categories described by the Czech structuralist Roman
Jacobson. His categories are as follow:
-INTRALINGUISTIC TRANSLATION is an interpretation of signs by means of other signs in the
same lg. it may occur hen we try to rephrase an expression or text in the same lg to explain or clarify sth we
have said or written.
-INTERLINGUAL TRANSL(translation proper) is an interpretation of verbal signs by means
of some other lg. it represents the traditional focus on translation studies.
-INTERSEMIOTIC TRANSL (transmutation) is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of
signs of non-verbal sign system. It occurs if a written text is translated into music, film, painting.
According to Holmes, translation studies are divided into PURE and APPLIED areas of research.
-PURE AREAS are:
1. DESCRIPTIVE TRANSLATION THEORY → the description of the phenomena of transl
2. TRANSLATION THEORY → the establishment of general principles to explain and predict such
phenomena.
Descriptive translation studies have three possible fields:
1. examination of the product/product oriented
2. examination of function/ function-oriented
3. examination of process / process-oriented
Product-oriented DTS examines existing translations. This can involve the description or
analyses of of a single ST-TT pair or a comparative analysis of several texts of the same source text into one
or more target lgs. These smaller-scale studies may build up into a larger body of translation analysis looking
at a specific period, language or text. Larger-scale studies can be either diachronic (following development
over time) or synchronic (at a single point or period of time).
One of the eventual goals of product-oriented studies may be a general history of translation.
Function-oriented DTS is the description of translations in the recipient sociocultural situations.
It is a study of contexts rather than texts. It can be researched which books were translated, whene and
where, and what influenced their translation. This is pretty much used nowadays.
Process-oriented DTS is the psychology of translation. It is concerned with what is going on in
the mind of the translator. This area is not still systematically analyzed.
Theoretical branch can be GEENRAL and PARTIAL.
GENERAL branch describes every type of translation and makes generalizations of what is relevant
for translation.
PARTIAL THEORETICAL STUDIES refer to:
1. medium restricted theories which concern translation by machines and humans
ex: - whether the computer is working alone or as an aid to the human
- whether the translation is written or spoken
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- whether the oral translation Is consecutive or simultaneous
2. RANK RESTRICTED theory deal with texts/discourses as a whole, but are concerned with
low linguistic ranks and levels. They are restricted to a specific level of words or sentences.
3. AREA RESTRICTED theories are restricted to specific languages or groups of languages or
cultures.
4. TEXT-TYPE RESTRICTED theory deals with the problem of translating specific types of genres
of lingual messages. Those are: Bible, literally, business, technical translation.
5. TIME RESTRCTED theories are limited according to specific time frames and periods. The
history of translation falls into this category.
6. PROBLEM RESTRICTED:
- Metaphors
- Proper names
- Equivalents …..
Despite categorization, several restrictions can be applied at any time
-APPLIED AREA
1. translator training → teaching methods, testing techniques, curriculum design
2. translation aids → dictionaries, grammar books, info technologies
3. translation criticism: the evaluation of translators
2. TRANSLATION: PROCESS AND PRODUCT
Translation is the representation of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an
equivalent text in a second language. Total equivalence can rarely be achieved in the process of translation.
Languages are different from each oter: they are different in form, having distinct codes and rules. There is
no absolute synonymy btw languages.
The translator must focus on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context of the text.
The translator must focus on:
1. WHAT is the message contained in the text and preserve it in the product (a translated text)
2. WHY → the purpose of the text
3. WHEN → the time of the text and setting in its historical context
4. HOW → manner of delivery
- Whether the text is serious, ironic…
- Medium of communication (the mode of discourse…)
5. WHERE → place of communication in the text
6. WHO → participants involved in communication
Other features of TL and SL should be also considered: phonological, semantic, syntactic and lexical.
Dialect and register are also important.
- Translation should give a complete transcript of ideas of the original work
- Style and manner of writing should be of the same character with the original text
- Translation should have all the ease of the original composition
If the text is a part of literature, it may be similar to the source text as possible
3. THEORIES, MODELS, APPROACHES
(functional, DTS, postcolonial, Venuti)
Venuti’s book “The scandals of translation “ represents the examination of the marginalization of
translation and translation studies. He acknowledges in the very frst sentence that these scandals are cultural,
economic and political. The main point of his project to expose these “scandals” is to understand translation
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not as ethics of sameness but one of difference. He claims that the English language is a vehicle of
marginalization since it is the most translated language and one of the least translated into.
In the first section of the book, he discusses some of the characteristics of a good translation. A good
translation is one that:
1. Demystifies and minoritizes
2. Is readable and intelligible
3. Possesses the “illusory effect of transparency”
He is also concerned with the role of the translator. He claims that the translator should assume the role
of the new author and make a new literary creation. However, the main problem appears to be that the
academic community doesn’t want to accept the transformation of the translated work and would rather
assume that the translated work is, in fact, the original. Therefore, the translator may have the most artistic
freedom, but they in fact have the least freedom.
Another important point examined by Venuti is that the so-called “inferior” cultures are able to benefit
from this insistence on learning English. In other words, the colonizers’ effort to force English literacy upon
its conquered population actually has marked again the colonizer since the conquered populations used
English to establish their own cultures.
Finally, his message is to let the scandals know that it is not too late, to depart from their ethics of
sameness and to adopt a new ethics of difference.
4. LITERAL TRANSLATION
It is also called word for word translation. It is the direct transfer of the source language text into a
grammatically and idiomatically appropriate target language text. The translator’s task is limited to
observing the adherence to the linguistic servitudes of the TL. It is a unique solution which is reversible and
complete in itself. It is most common in translating btw two languages of the same family and even more so
when they also share the same culture. However, sometimes literal translation is unacceptable if:
- It gives another meaning
- Has no meaing
- Is structurally impossible
- Does not have a corresponding expression in TL
- Has a corresponding expression but not in the same register
Translators may offer some similar expressions in order to aim at the equivalence. It depends on the situation
and context and this allows a translator to retain certain characteristics of reality that are unknown to the
source language.
5. TECHNICAL TRANSLATION
It is one part of the specialized translation (institutional, area of politics, commerce, finance,
government…). It is non-cultural, it is, therefore, “universal”. The benefits of technology are not limited to
one speech community. Since technical translation mainly depends on the rise of technology, this is the field
where the translator must be most up to date. It is primarily distinguished from other forms of translation by
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terminology. The format of technical texts is also important-technical report, but, besides, it includes
instructions, notices, publicity.
TECHNICAL STYLE is usually free from emotive lg, connotations, sound effects and original
metaphor, if it is well-written.
TERMS
The main problem in technical translation is usually the new terminology. The best approach to technical
translation is to underline what appear to be its key terms, after the first reading, and then look up the terms
even if the translator thinks they know the words. Even then, the main problem is likely to be that some
technical neologisms in the source lg are context-free and appear only once. If they are context-bound, a
translator is more likely to understand them by gradually eliminating the less likely versions.
VARIETES OF TECHNICAL STYLE
There are three levels of technical style:
- Academic
- Professional
- Popular
ACADEMIC style includes transferred Latin and Greek words associated with academic papers
PROFESSIONAL style refers to formal terms used by experts
POPULAR style includes layman vocabulary, which may include familiar alternative terms
TECHNICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE TERMS
A further problem is the distinction btw technical and descriptive terms. The original source lg writer
may use a descriptive terms for a technical object for three reasons:
1. The object is new and has not yet got a name
2. The descriptive term is being used as a familiar alternative to avoid repetition
3. It is used to make a contrast with another one
Normally, technical and descriptive terms should be translated by their counterpart, particularly in
translating a descriptive term, it should not be changed with a technical term for the purpose of showing off
one’s knowledge, thereby sacrificing the linguistic force of a SL descriptive term. However, if it is used
because of the SL writer’s ignorance or negligence, or the term doesn’t exist in the SL, then it is justified to
use a technical term if it is appropriate in the TT.
Often, in professional tech transl, the use of descriptive terms is rejected. Tech terms are more precise,
but where there is not tech term in TL, a descriptive term should be used.
While translating a technical text, it is very important to understand the meaning, description and
function. In a sense, the translator should learn the lg rather than the content of the subject. The translator
should be able to stand back and understand roughly what is happening in real life and that the translated
sentences make sense linguistically. In a word, to translate a text it is not necessary to be an expert in
technology or its topic, but to understand the text and know the vocabulary used in it.
*When you approach a technical text, you read it first to understand it, then assess its nature, its degree
of formality, its intention, possible cultural and professional differences btw your readership and the original
one. You have to translate or transfer every word, every figure, letter, every punctual work. You always
transfer the name of the publication. You translate its reference, date and the general heading or superscript.
Normally, the title should be also taken into account. All titles are either descriptive or allusive
(imaginative literature and popular journalism). The advantage of the title of scientific article is that it
normally states the subject, but not always the purpose or intention of the process described. The translator
must adopt the title to the overall meaning of the whole text.
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6. TRANSLATION TOOLS
The process of translation btw two different lgs involves that the translator changes an original written
text into an equivalent text in the target lg. it is a very complex process which demands the translator’s
knowledge of syntax, morphology, lexicology and semantics of the target lg. there are many translation tools
that may be of a great help for translators. Namely, the first task in the process of translating is, of course, the
close reading of the source text. Another very important thing is underlying of the key words and finding
their meanings in various dictionaries. The translator is to check almost all the words, and even those for
which he/she knows the meaning bcs it is likely to happen that old words have new senses. There are various
types of dictionaries which may be useful in the process of translation such as dict of synonyms, symbols,
idioms, phrasal verbs, clichés and euphemisms. Good dictionaries also include an increasing number of
collocations.
Every translator has to know where and how to find necessary information. All reference books, however
bad, are potentially useful, provided that you know their limitations. Professional translators are supposed to
consult both mono and bilingual dictionaries. Monolingual are usually more detailed and contain more
examples for a particular word. Bilingual are essential, but they normally require checking in at least two TL
monolingual dict.
Besides these two, some other dictionaries are necessary.
A thesaurus dictionary is very useful, since it:
- brings up words from your passive memory
- extends your vocabulary
- gives you the descriptive words that show up the lexical gaps in the SL
A modern dict of collocations is also essential and it helps the translator to adapt the TL to the SL.
Then, there are dictionaries of phrasal verbs and dictionaries of technical terms and neologisms which
make the translator get acquainted with new terminology.
Besides dictionaries, translators should use grammar books while translating. Goog grammar books
contain detailed information about lg structures and the rules for their formation. Whenever the trasl is in
doubt about certain grammatical issues, he/she should consult a grammar book with detailed information and
usage of different grammar structures.
However, even after the usage of different dicts and gramm books, translators are likely to have
problems with some “unfindable” words. Those words are usually neologisms, new terms in the SL whose
equivalents are not precise in the TL. Acronyms are also very difficult to translate bcs they are most related
to a specific culture and its institutions whose initial letters are unique for the Sl. However, there are also
some general acronyms which should not be a big problem.
Then, there are dialects which are almost never appropriately translated since they are specific just for
one speech community. Colloquialisms, slang and taboo expressions are a kind of a nightmare for the
translators. The reason for this is the fact that slang and colloquialisms are bound to the specific groups
which differ from one culture to another. Also, the translator should always bare in mind the period in which
these terms were popular and to try to translate them so that they have the same impact on the readers.
7. LITERARY TRANSLATION
It involves the translation of serious literature and authoritative statements. It is the most testing type of
translation, bcs the first, basic articulation of meaning is as important as the second (the sentence, line) and
the effort to make words, sentences and texts cohesive, requires continuous compromise readjustment. Forms
of literature that are usually translated are lyrical poetry, short stories and novels and drama.
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POETRY is the most personal form of all the four forms. The word has greater importance than in any
other type text. It is the first unit of meaning; the second is not sentence, but usually the line. During the
translation, the integrity of both lexical units and lines has to be preserved within the:
- corresponding punctuation
- accurate translation of metaphors
Original metaphors have to be preserved in the target version of the poem even if they are likely to cause
cultural shock. Namely, the metaphors in the lg may have different meanings in the TL but it is up to a reader
to be aware of cultural differences and apply them while reading the poem. In the process of translation, the
translator first decides to choose a TL poetic form (sonnet, ballad, blank verse) as close as possible to that of
the SL. Although the rhyming scheme is a part of the form, its precise order has to be dropped. The fact is
that however good as a translation, its meaning may differ in many ways from the original.
Sound effects are bound to come last for the translator. Inevitably, the translator must try to do sth
about them in order to produce the effect of the poem.
THE SHORT STORY/NOVEL
From a translator’s point of view, the short story is, of literary forms, the second most difficult,
although it is released from many elements of poetry-meter, rhyme and sound-effects.
The key words that are specific for short stories and novels are:
- leitmotifs which are very peculiar to a short story, characterizing a character or a situation. If they
are repeated, they should be appropriately foregrounded and repeated in translation.
- The second type of the key word is the word or phrase that is typical for the writer. Some of these
words go into a ready one-to-one translation into English and get their connotational significance
from repetition and context (situational and linguistic).
For key-words, translators have to assess their texts critically, they have to decide which lexical units
are central and have more important function and which are peripheral.
The most obvious problems in translation are: the relative importance of the SL culture and the author’s
moral purpose to the reader.
DRAMA
The main purpose of translating a play is normally to have it performed successfully. Therefore, the
translator of a drama inevitably has to bear the potential spectator in mind. This type of text is dramatic, with
emphasis on verbs rather than description and explanatory.
The translation of a play must be concise-it must not be an over-translation.
Finally, the translator of drama in particular must translate into the modern target lg, but with a
corresponding time gap. If the characters speak in an old-fashioned way, the translator must adapt that way
into the modern lg, so that the modern audience also has an impression that the lg is old-fashioned. Although
the lg is old-fashioned, the spectators should understand it.
There should be no difference btw acting and a reading version. When a play is transferred from a SL to
a TL culture, it is usually no longer a translation, but an adaptation.
