Computer Memory

 It is a data storage unit or a data storage device

 Computer memory is just like the human brain.

 It is used to store data/information and instructions
Characteristics of memory systems
The memory system can be characterised with their Location, Capacity, Unit of transfer,
Access method, Performance, Physical type, Physical characteristics, Organisation.
Location
• Processor memory: The memory like registers is included within the processor and
termed as processor memory.
• Internal memory: It is often termed as main memory and resides within the CPU.
• External memory: It consists of peripheral storage devices such as disk and magnetic
tape that are accessible to processor via i/o controllers.
Capacity
• Word size: Capacity is expressed in terms of words or bytes.
— The natural unit of organisation
• Number of words: Common word lengths are 8, 16, 32 bits etc.
— or Bytes
Unit of Transfer
• Internal: For internal memory, the unit of transfer is equal to the number of data lines
into and out of the memory module.
• External: For external memory, they are transferred in block which is larger than a
word.
• Addressable unit
— Smallest location which can be uniquely addressed
— Word internally
— Cluster on Magnetic disks

Access Method
• Sequential access: In this access, it must start with beginning and read through a
specific linear sequence. This means access time of data unit depends on position of
records (unit of data) and previous location.
— e.g. tape
• Direct Access: Individual blocks of records have unique address based on location.
Access is accomplished by jumping (direct access) to general vicinity plus a
sequential search to reach the final location.
— e.g. disk
• Random access: The time to access a given location is independent of the sequence of
prior accesses and is constant. Thus any location can be selected out randomly and
directly addressed and accessed.
— e.g. RAM
• Associative access: This is random access type of memory that enables one to make a
comparison of desired bit locations within a word for a specified match, and to do this
for all words simultaneously.
— e.g. cache
Performance
• Access time: For random access memory, access time is the time it takes to perform a
read or write operation i.e. time taken to address a memory plus to read / write from
addressed memory location. Whereas for non-random access, it is the time needed to
position read / write mechanism at desired location.
— Time between presenting the address and getting the valid data
• Memory Cycle time: It is the total time that is required to store next memory access
operation from the previous memory access operation.
Memory cycle time = access time plus transient time (any additional time required
before a second access can commence).
— Time may be required for the memory to “recover” before next access
— Cycle time is access + recovery
• Transfer Rate: This is the rate at which data can be transferred in and out of a
memory unit.
— Rate at which data can be moved
— For random access, R = 1 / cycle time
— For non-random access, Tn = Ta + N / R; where Tn – average time to read or
write N bits, Ta – average access time, N – number of bits, R – Transfer rate
in bits per second (bps).
Physical Types
• Semiconductor
— RAM
• Magnetic
— Disk & Tape
• Optical
— CD & DVD
• Others
Physical Characteristics
• Decay: Information decays mean data loss.
• Volatility: Information decays when electrical power is switched off.
• Erasable: Erasable means permission to erase.
• Power consumption: how much power consumes?
Organization
• Physical arrangement of bits into words
• Not always obvious
- e.g. interleaved
Memory Hierarchy
Main Memory

 Memory is used to store the information (programs and data) that the
computer is currently using. It is sometimes called main or primary
memory. One form of memory is called
RAM - random access memory. This means that any location in memory
may be accessed in the same amount of time as any other location.
Memory access means one of two things, either the CPU is reading from
a memory location or the CPU is writing to a memory location. When
the CPU reads from a memory location, the contents of the memory
location are copied to a CPU register. When the CPU writes to a
memory location, the CPU copies the contents of a CPU register to the
memory location, overwriting the previous contents of the location. The
CPU cannot carry out any other operations on memory locations.
 RAM is a form of short term or volatile memory. Information stored in
short term storage is lost when the computer is switched off (or when
power fails e.g. if you pull out the power lead!). There is therefore a
requirement for permanent or long term storage which is also referred to
as secondary storage or auxiliary storage. This role is fulfilled by disk
and tape storage.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM(Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing
data, program and program result. It is read/write memory which stores data
until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is
erased.

Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location
inside the memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same
amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very
expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or
if there is a power failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system(UPS) is
often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and
in the amount of data it can hold.

RAM is of two types

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

1) Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power
is being supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to
volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors.
Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not have to
be refreshed on a regular basis.
Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM
for the same amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs
higher. So SRAM is used as cache memory and has very fast access.

Characteristic of the Static RAM

 It has long life

 There is no need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption

2) Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the

data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the
data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory
because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells which
are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM

 It has short data lifetime

 Need to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Lesser in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption

1.1.2 - Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot
write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in
such memories during manufacture. A ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start
a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the
computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Following are the various types of ROM

1) MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed
set of data or instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs
which are inexpensive.

2) PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user
buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program.
Inside the PROM chip there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

3) EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of

up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During
programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The
 charge is retained for more than ten years because the charge has no leakage
path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz
crystal window(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge.
During normal use the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

4) EEPROM(Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and

reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take
about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively
erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather
than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re- programming is flexible
but slow.
Advantages of ROM

The advantages of ROM are as follows:

 Non-volatile in nature
 These cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 These are static and do not require refreshing
 Its contents are always known and can be verified
Secondary Memory
Secondary Memory Primary memory has limited storage capacity and is
volatile. Secondary memory overcome this limitation by providing permanent
storage of data and in bulk quantity. Secondary memory is also termed as
external memory and refers to the various storage media on which a computer
can store data and programs. The Secondary storage media can be fixed or
removable. Fixed Storage media is an internal storage medium like hard disk
that is fixed inside the computer. Storage medium that are portable and can be
taken outside the computer are termed as removable storage media.
Types
 Magnetic Disk

 RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks)

 Solid State Drives

 Optical Memory

 Magnetic Tape

Hard disk :
The hard disk drive provide permanent storage in the computer where all
programs and data are stored for long time period. It the fixed memory system
where software are installed to provide basic application facility to computer .
The Hard disk provides relatively quick access to large amount of data stored on
electromagnetically charged surface or set of surfaces.
A hard disk is basically a set of disks, stacked together that has data recorded
electromagnetically in concentric circle known as tracts.
A single hard disk includes several platters that are covered with magnetic
recording medium. Each platter requires two read/write head one for each side.
The internal construction can be shown as :-
We have two type of mechanism in construction
1. Fixed head moveable plate hard disk
2. Moveable head fix plate hard disk
During accessing the disk , plate in hard disk drive spin with the help of spindle
and motor. Rotation of the plate decide the rate of data accessing generally 7200
rpm 5400 rpm hard disk is popular in the market.
The R/W head does not touches the disk platters instead just barely skims them,
supported by a cushion of moving air that is generated by the spinning of platters.
The performance of the disk depends on access time which is time required to
read and write on the disk.
Seek time :- this is time taken to position the R/W head over the appropriate
cylinder(tracks and sector)
Transfer time :- time taken by the R/w head to Read/Write data on the disk tracts
and sector
Rotational delay:- this is the time taken to bring the target sector to rotate under
the R/W head.
Seek time and rotational delay combinedly is known as latency time .
Advantage :-
1. Magnetic disks enable random access of data which is useful for all type of
real world application.
2. It can be used as shared device in multiuser environment.
3. Data can store both online and offline
4. It can store large amount of data .
5. Cost of data storage is very low.
6. Data transfer rate of magnetic hard disk is very high in comparison of other
magnetic media.

Disadvantage :
1. They must be stored in dust free environment.
2. They are larger in size and heavier in weight in comparison of other storage
device.

Solid State Storage Devices (SSD) :

It were developed by Storage Tek Company in 1978. In 1983 sharp 5000
laptop computers developed SSD 0f 128 KB. In 1995 M-System developed SSD
on Flash based memory.
SSD can be defined as the device that contains all the property of hard disk
device to store the data and use solid –state memory which has no moving
part. It do not use magnetic and optical medium to store data . these
memory are semiconductor memory .
Structure : The structure of SSD define as non volatility , low consumption
and high reliability of DRAM and NAND flash memory. So, we can say that it
is the type of DRAM. It is generally designed to store data and program in
portable computer like Laptop , notebook, Smart devices that consume low
power and access data with very high speed.

Advantages

1. It has better performance in terms of processing, searching ,and

accessing.

2. Low power consumption and low heat generation.

3. It has high reliability.

4. It has small dimension

5. small form factor.

Disadvantage :

1. It is costly memory

2. It has low capacity

3. Low writing speed

4. Low storage density

5. Affect by power loss, data can be damaged due to power failure .

RAID
Raid(Redundant Array of Independent Disks)

It is a type of data virtualization technology, which is used to combine components of multiple disks
into a logical unit so that they can improve the performance or create redundancy.

If there are multiple disks/drives, it will allow the employment of various techniques such as disk
mirroring, parity, and disk striping