2.2.3.

5 Storage hardware

Computer memory is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is the storage space
in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored.
The memory is divided into large number of small parts. Each part is called cell. Each location or
cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example, if
computer has 64k words, and then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory location. The
address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.

The storage Unit of a computer system holds (or stores) the following:
i. Data and instruction required for processing (received from input devices)
ii. Intermediate result of processing
iii. Final result of processing, before they are released to an output device

Types of Memory

i.Cache Memory
ii. Primary Memory/Main Memory
iii. Secondary Memory

a) Cache Memory

Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory, which can speed up CPU. It acts
as a buffer between the CPU and main memory.

It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by CPU. The
parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system,
from where CPU can access them.

Advantage
i.Cache memory is faster than main memory.
ii. It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
iii. It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
iv. It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantage
i.Cache memory has limited capacity.
ii.It is very expensive.

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 b) Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently
working. It has limited capacity and data gets lost when power is switched off.

It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers.
The data and instructions required to be processed earlier reside in main memory. It is
divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristic of Main Memory

i. These are semiconductor memories.
ii. It is known as main memory.
iii. Usually volatile memory.
iv. Data is lost in case power is switched off.
v. It is working memory of the computer.
vi. Faster than secondary memories.
vii. Relatively expensive

A computer cannot run without primary memory (Used to hold running program instructions,
used to hold data, intermediate results, and results of ongoing processing job(s))

Computer RAM

A RAM constitutes the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and
program result. It is read/write memory. It is called random access memory (RAM).

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 Since access time in RAM is independent of the
address to the word that is, each storage location
inside the memory is as easy to reach as other
location & takes the
same amount of time. We can reach into the
memory at
random & extremely fast but can also be quite
expensive.

RAM is volatile, i.e., data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure.

Hence, a backup uninterruptible power system (UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is
small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.

RAM is of two types:

a. Static RAM (SRAM)
b. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

i. Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power remains
applied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips
use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent
leakage, so SRAM need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.

Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the
same amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher.

Static RAM is used as cache memory needs to be very fast and small.

Characteristics of the Static RAM:

i. It has long data lifetime
ii. There is no need to refresh
iii. Faster
iv. Used as cache memory
v. Large size
vi. Expensive
vii. High power consumption

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 ii. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order for it to maintain the data. This
is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times
per second. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All
DRAMs are made up of memory cells. These cells are composed of one capacitor and one
transistor.

Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM:

i. It has short data lifetime
ii. Need to refresh continuously
iii. Slower as compared to SRAM
iv. Used as RAM
v. Lesser in size
vi. Less expensive
vii. Less power consumption

Computer - ROM

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write
on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions as are required to start
computer when electricity is first turned on, this operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM
chip are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine
and microwave oven.

Types of ROM

i. MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data
or instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs. It is inexpensive ROM.

ii. PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM programmer. Inside the PROM chip,
there are small fuses, which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only
once and is not erasable.

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iii. EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40

minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical
charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than ten years
because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed
through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge.
During normal use the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

iv. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed
about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond).
In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be
erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-
programming is flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM
i. Non-volatile in nature
ii.These cannot be accidentally changed
iii.Cheaper than RAMs
iv. Easy to test
v.More Reliable than RAMs
vi.These are static and do not require refreshing

c) Secondary Memory

This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main
memory. These are used for storing Data/Information permanently. There are several
limitations with primary storage:

- Limited capacity because the cost per bit of storage is high

- Volatile- data stored is lost is lost when electric power is turned off or interrupted

CPU directly does not access these memories; instead they are accessed via input-output
routines. Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory and then CPU
can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

i. These are magnetic and optical memories.
ii.It is known as backup memory.
iii.It is non-volatile memory.
iv.Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.

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v.It is used for storage of the data in the computer.
vi.Cheaper than primary storage
vii. Computer may run without secondary memory.
viii. Slower than primary memories.

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