Computer Architecture and

organization
 Books
 J. L. Hennessy & D.A. Patterson, Computer architecture: A
quantitative approach, Fourth Edition, Morgan Kaufman,
2004.
 W. Stallings, Computer organization and architecture,
Prentice-Hall,2001.
 M. M. Mano, Computer System Architecture, Prentice-
Hall,2005.
 J. P. Hayes, Computer system architecture, McGraw Hill.
 Carl Hamacher, Zvonko Vranesic, Safwat Zaky, Computer
Organization, fifth edition.
 Assesment

 CAT – I - 15
 CAT – II - 15
 Digital Assignment - 30
 Term End Exam - 40
 What is Computer Architecture?

I/O Chan
Link
ISA
API
Interfaces
Technology
IR

Regs

Machine Organization

Applications Computer
Architect Measurement &
Evaluation
Architecture &
Organization
 Architecture is those attributes visible to the
programmer
◦ Instruction set, number of bits used for data
representation, I/O mechanisms, addressing
techniques.
◦ e.g. Is there a multiply instruction?
 Organization is how features are
implemented
◦ Control signals, interfaces, memory technology.
◦ e.g. Is there a hardware multiply unit or is it done
by repeated addition?
 All Intel x86 family will share the same basic
architecture.
 The IBM System/370 family will share the same basic

architecture.
 This helps to enable code compatibility.(backwards)
 But organisation is different for different versions.
Transformation of Programs to
“bits”

Compiler
Instruction
Set
Architectur
Assembler e
(ISA)
 Classical Computer Components
and Organization
•The five classic components of a computer are
– Input
– Output
– Memory
– Data-path
– Control
 Functional units of a
computer
Input unit accepts Arithmetic and logic unit(ALU):
information: •Performs the desired
•Human operators, operations on the input
•Electromechanical devices information as determined
•Other computers by instructions in the memory

Memory Arithmetic
Input Instr1 & Logic
Instr2
Instr3
Data1
Output Data2 Control
I/O Stores
Processor
information: Control unit coordinates
Output unit sends various actions
•Instructions,
results of processing: •Input,
•To a monitor display, •Data
•Output
•To a printer •Processing

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How are the functional units
connected?
•For a computer to achieve its operation, the functional units need t
communicate with each other.
•In order to communicate, they need to be connected.

Input Output Memory Processor

Bus

•Functional units may be connected by a group of parallel wires.

•The group of parallel wires is called a bus.
•Each wire in a bus can transfer one bit of information.
•The number of parallel wires in a bus is equal to the word length o
a computer

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Organization of cache and main
memory

Main Cache
memory memory Processor

Bus

Why is the access time of the cache memory lesser than the
access time of the main memory?

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 Structure and Function
 Structure is the way in which components relate to each
other.

 Function is the operation of individual components as

part of the structure. The computer functions are,
◦ Data processing
◦ Data storage
◦ Data movement
◦ Control
 Functional View
Operating Environment (Source, Destination of Data)

Data Movement
apparatus

Control Mechanism

Data Storage Data Processing Facility

Facility
 Data Movement

movement

control

Storage Processing
 Storage

Movement

Control

Storage Process
Processing from/to storage

Movement

Control

Storage Process
Processing from storage to I/O

Movement

Control

Storage Process
 Structure

Communication Lines
Peripherals
Computer

Storage
Processing
 Structure - Top Level

Peripherals Computer

Central Main
Processing Memory
Unit

Computer
Systems
Interconnection

Input
Output
Communication
lines
 Structure - The CPU

CPU

Computer Arithmetic
Registers and
I/O Login Unit
System CPU
Bus
Internal CPU
Memory Interconnection

Control
Unit
 Structure - The Control Unit

Control Unit

CPU
Sequencing
ALU Login
Control
Internal
Unit
Bus
Control Unit
Registers Registers and
Decoders

Control
Memory
 Structural components
 CPU – controls the operation of the computer and
performs its data processing functions.
 Main Memory – Stores data
 I/O – Moves the data
 System Interconnection- some mechanism that provides
for communication among CPU, main memory and I/O.
 Control Unit – controls operation of the CPU
 ALU –performs data processing functions
 Registers – storage internal to CPU
 CPU Interconnection- some mechanism that provides for
communication among the control unit, ALU and
registers.
 ENIAC

◦ ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer)

◦ 1st general-purpose electronic computer.
◦ Designed by John Mauchly and John Presper Eckert at University of
pennsylvania.
◦ Funded by US BRL (Ballistic Research Lab) to develop range and
trajectory tables for new weapons
 Until then, BRL employee more than 200 people with desktop calculators
to solve the necessary ballistics equations
◦ The proposal accepted in 1943, the machine completed in 1946, and
dismantled in 1955
 Used for H-bomb research
◦ Characteristics
 30 tons, 15000 square feet, 18000 vacuum tubes, 140 KW power
dissipation
 Decimal machine
 20 accumulators each holding 10-digit decimal number
 Each digit is represented by a ring of 10 vacuum tubes
 Manually programmed by setting switches and plugging/unplugging
cables
 5,000 additions per second
ENIAC
 von Neumann/Turing
 Stored Program concept
 Main memory storing programs and data
 ALU operating on binary data
 Control unit interpreting instructions from memory and
executing
 Input and output equipment operated by control unit
 At Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies in 1946
◦ IAS
The Von Neumann Machine & IAS
Structure of IAS Computer
 The Stored Program Concept

 Von Neumann’s proposal was to store the program instructions

right along with the data
 The stored program concept was proposed about fifty years
ago; to this day, it is the fundamental architecture that fuels
computers.
 The Stored Program Concept and its
Implications
 The Stored Program concept had several technical
ramifications:
◦ Four key sub-components operate together to make the
stored program concept work
◦ The process that moves information through the sub-
components is called the “fetch execute” cycle
◦ Unless otherwise indicated, program instructions are
executed in sequential order
 Four Sub-Components
 There are four sub-components in von Neumann architecture:
◦ Memory
◦ Input/Output (called “IO”)
◦ Arithmetic-Logic Unit
◦ Control Unit
 While only 4 sub-components are called out, there is a 5th, key
player in this operation: a bus, or wire, that connects the
components together and over which data flows from one sub-
component to another
 Let’s look at each sub-component in more detail …
 Memory
 As you already know, there are several different flavors of
memory
 Each type of memory represents cost/benefit tradeoffs
between capability and cost .
Memory Types: RAM
 RAM is typically volatile memory (meaning it doesn’t retain
voltage settings once power is removed)
 RAM is an array of cells, each with a unique address
 A cell is the minimum unit of access. Originally, this was 8
bits taken together as a byte.
 RAM gets its name from its access performance. In RAM
memory, theoretically, it would take the same amount of time
to access any memory cell, regardless of its location with the
memory bank (“random” access).
Memory Types: ROM
 It gets its name from its cell-protection feature. This type of
memory cell can be read from, but not written to.
 Unlike RAM, ROM is non-volatile; it retains its settings after
power is removed.
 ROM is more expensive than RAM, and to protect this
investment, you only store critical information in ROM …
Memory Types: Registers
 There is a third, key type of memory in every computer –
registers.
 Register cells are powerful, costly, and physically located
close to the heart of computing.
Memory Types: Other
 Modern computers include other forms of memory, such as
cache memory.
 The study of memory organizations and access schemes is an
innovative one within Computer Science.
I/O: Input and Output
 There is both a human-machine interface and a machine-
machine interface to I/O.
◦ Examples of the human-machine interface include a
keyboard, screen or printer.
◦ Examples of the machine-machine interface include things
like mass storage and secondary storage devices.
 Input and output devices are the least standardized of the
various sub-components, which means that you have to pay
extra special attention to make certain that your input or
output devices are compatible with your machine.
The ALU
 The third component in the von Neumann architecture is
called the Arithmetic Logic Unit.
 This is the subcomponent that performs the arithmetic and
logic operations for which we have been building parts.
 The ALU is the “brain” of the computer.
 It contains the circuitry to perform addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division, as well as logical comparisons
(less than, equal to and greater than).
Control Unit

 The last of the four subcomponents is the Control Unit.

 The control unit drives the fetch and execute cycle.
 Controls which address is loaded into the memory and what
operation is taking place in the data.
 IAS - details
 The memory of the IAS consists of 1000 storage
locations, called words, of 40 binary digits each.
 Both data and instructions are stored there.
 Each number is represented by a sign bit and a 39-bit

value.
 A word may also contain two 20-bit instructions, with

each instruction consisting of an 8-bit operation code

specifying the operation to be performed and 12-bit
address designating one of the words in memory.
 IAS Memory Formats

NUMBER WORD
0 1 39

Sign
Bit
 Instruction Word

Left Instruction Right Instruction

0 8 20 28 39

Opcode Opcode Address

Address
 Set of registers (storage in CPU)
◦ Memory Buffer Register
◦ Memory Address Register
◦ Instruction Register
◦ Instruction Buffer Register
◦ Program Counter
◦ Accumulator
◦ Multiplier Quotient
Expanded Structure of IAS Computer
 Registers
 MBR – Memory Buffer Register contains a word to be stored
in memory or sent to the I/O unit or is used to receive a word
from memory.
 MAR – Memory Address Register specifies the address of the
word to be written from MBR, to be read into
MBR.
 Instruction Register (IR) - 8 bit opcode instruction being
executed.
 Instruction Buffer Register (IBR)– hold the right hand
instruction from a word in memory.
 Program Counter(PC) – address of the next instruction pair
fetched from memory.
Contd.,
Accumulator (AC) , Multiplier Quotient (MQ)
temporarily hold operands and the results of
ALU operations
Example:
40 bit multiply operation – 80 bit number
Most Significant Bit(40) - AC
Least Significant Bit (40) - MQ
 IAS Instruction Set
 Data Transfer – moves the data between Memory and ALU
registers or between two ALU registers
 Unconditional Branch – CU executes instructions in
sequence from memory, sequence can be changed by branch
instructions
 Conditional Branch – branch can be made dependent on
condition.
 Arithmetic – operations performed by ALU
 Address modify – permits the address to be computed by
ALU and then inserted into instructions stored in memory.
IAS Instruction Set