Operating Systems: Internals and Design Principles
Chapter 2 Operating System Overview
Seventh Edition By William Stallings
Operating Systems:
Internals and Design Principles
Operating systems are those programs that interface the machine with the applications programs. The main function of these systems is to dynamically allocate the shared system resources to the executing programs. As such, research in this area is clearly concerned with the management and scheduling of memory, processes, and other devices. But the interface with adjacent levels continues to shift with time. Functions that were originally part of the operating system have migrated to the hardware. On the other side, programmed functions extraneous to the problems being solved by the application programs are included in the operating system.
WHAT CAN BE AUTOMATED?: THE COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING RESEARCH STUDY, MIT Press, 1980
Operating System
A program
that controls the execution of application programs interface between applications and hardware
Main objectives of an OS:
An
Convenience Efficiency Ability to evolve
Program
development Program execution Access I/O devices Controlled access to files System access Error detection and response Accounting
Key Interfaces
Instruction
set architecture (ISA) binary interface (ABI)
Application
Application
programming interface (API)
A computer
is a set of resources for the movement, storage, and processing of data OS is responsible for managing these resources
The
Functions
in the same way as ordinary computer software
Program,
or suite of programs, executed by the processor
relinquishes control and must depend on the processor to allow it to regain control
Frequently
Operating System as Resource Manager
Evolution of Operating Systems
A major OS will evolve over time for a
number of reasons:
Hardware upgrades New types of hardware New services Fixes
Evolution of Operating Systems
Stages include:
Time Sharing Multiprogrammed Systems Batch Systems
Simple Batch Systems
Serial Processin g
Serial Processing
Earliest Computers:
Problems:
Scheduling:
No operating system programmers interacted directly with the computer hardware Computers ran from a console with display lights, toggle switches, some form of input device, and a printer Users have access to the computer in series
most installations used a hardcopy sign-up sheet to reserve computer time
time allocations could run short or long, resulting in wasted computer time
Setup time
a considerable amount of time was spent just on setting up the program to run
Simple Batch Systems
Early computers were very expensive
important to maximize processor utilization
Monitor
user no longer has direct access to processor job is submitted to computer operator who batches them together and places them on an input device program branches back to the monitor when finished
Monitor controls the sequence of events
Resident Monitor is software always in memory
Monitor reads in job and gives control Job returns control to monitor
Processor executes instruction from the memory containing the monitor Executes the instructions in the user program until it encounters an ending or error condition control is passed to a job means processor is fetching and executing instructions in a user program
control is returned to the monitor means that the processor is fetching and executing instructions from the monitor program
Job Control Language (JCL)
Special type of programming language used to provide instructions to the monitor
what compiler to use
what data to use
Memory protection for monitor
while the user program is executing, it must not alter the memory area containing the monitor Timer prevents a job from monopolizing the system Privileged instructions can only be executed by the monitor Interrupts gives OS more flexibility in controlling user programs
Modes of Operation
User Mode
user program executes in user mode certain areas of memory are protected from user access certain instructions may not be executed
Kernel Mode
monitor executes in kernel mode privileged instructions may be executed protected areas of memory may be accessed
Simple Batch System Overhead
Processor time alternates between execution of user programs and execution of the monitor Sacrifices:
some main memory is now given over to the monitor some processor time is consumed by the monitor
Despite overhead, the simple batch system improves utilization of the computer
Multiprogrammed Batch Systems
Processor is often idle
even with automatic job sequencing I/O devices are slow compared to processor
The processor spends a certain amount of time executing, until it reaches an I/O instruction; it must then wait until that I/O instruction concludes before proceeding
There must be enough memory to hold the OS (resident monitor) and one user program When one job needs to wait for I/O, the processor can switch to the other job, which is likely not waiting for I/O
Multiprogramming also known as multitasking memory is expanded to hold three, four, or more programs and switch among all of them
Multiprogramming Example
Effects on Resource Utilization
Table 2.2 Effects of Multiprogramming on Resource Utilization
Utilization Histograms
Can
be used to handle multiple interactive time is shared among multiple
jobs
Processor
users
Multiple
users simultaneously access the system through terminals, with the OS interleaving the execution of each user program in a short burst or quantum of computation
Table 2.3 Batch Multiprogramming versus Time Sharing
Compatible TimeSharing Systems
CTSS
Time Slicing
One of the first time-sharing operating systems
Developed at MIT by a group known as Project MAC Ran on a computer with 32,000 36-bit words of main memory, with the resident monitor consuming 5000 of that To simplify both the monitor and memory management a program was always loaded to start at the location of the 5000th word
System clock generates interrupts at a rate of approximately one every 0.2 seconds At each interrupt OS regained control and could assign processor to another user At regular time intervals the current user would be preempted and another user loaded in
Old user programs and data were written out to disk
Old user program code and data were restored in main memory when that program was next given a turn
Operating
Systems are among the most complex pieces of software ever developed
Major advances in development include:
Processes Memory management Information protection and security Scheduling and resource management System structure
Fundamental to the structure of operating systems
A process can be defined as:
a program in execution an instance of a running program the entity that can be assigned to, and executed on, a processor a unit of activity characterized by a single sequential thread of execution, a current state, and an associated set of system resources
Development of the Process
Three major lines of computer system development
created problems in timing and synchronization that contributed to the development:
multiprogramming batch operation processor is switched among the various programs residing in main memory time sharing be responsive to the individual user but be able to support many users simultaneously real-time transaction systems a number of users are entering queries or updates against a database
Causes of Errors
Improper synchronization
Nondeterminate program operation
a program must wait until the data are available in a buffer improper design of the signaling mechanism can result in loss or duplication
program execution is interleaved by the processor when memory is shared the order in which programs are scheduled may affect their outcome
Failed mutual exclusion
Deadlocks
more than one user or program attempts to make use of a shared resource at the same time only one routine at at time allowed to perform an update against the file
it is possible for two or more programs to be hung up waiting for each other may depend on the chance timing of resource allocation and release
A process contains three components:
The execution context is essential:
an executable program the associated data needed by the program (variables, work space, buffers, etc.) the execution context (or process state) of the program
it is the internal data by which the OS is able to supervise and control the process includes the contents of the various process registers includes information such as the priority of the process and whether the process is waiting for the completion of a particular I/O event
Process
Management
The entire state of the
process at any instant is contained in its context
New features can be
designed and incorporated into the OS by expanding the context to include any new information needed to support the feature
The
OS has five principal storage management responsibilities:
process isolation
automatic allocation and management
support of modular programming
protection and access control
long-term storage
A facility
that allows programs to address memory from a logical point of view, without regard to the amount of main memory physically available to meet the requirement of having multiple user jobs reside in main memory concurrently
Conceived
Allows processes to be comprised of a number of fixed-size blocks, called pages Program references a word by means of a virtual address
consists of a page number and an offset within the page each page may be located anywhere in main memory
Provides for a dynamic mapping between the virtual address used in the program and a real (or physical) address in main memory
Virtual Memory
Virtual Memory Addressing
The nature of the threat that concerns an organization will vary greatly depending on the circumstances The problem involves controlling access to computer systems and the information stored in them
Main issues
availability
authenticity data integrity
confidentiality
Scheduling and Resource Management
Key
responsibility of an OS is managing resources
allocation policies must consider:
Resource
efficiency
fairness
differential responsivene ss
Key Elements of an Operating System
Different Architectural Approaches
Demands
on operating systems require new ways of organizing the OS
Different approaches and design elements have been tried:
Microkernel architecture Multithreading Symmetric multiprocessing Distributed operating systems Object-oriented design
Microkernel Architecture
Assigns
only a few essential functions to the kernel:
address spaces interprocess communication (IPC) basic scheduling
The
approach:
provides flexibility is well suited to a distributed environment
simplifies implementation
Technique in which a process, executing an application, is divided into threads that can run concurrently
Thread
dispatchable unit of work includes a processor context and its own data area to enable subroutine branching executes sequentially and is interruptible
Process
a collection of one or more threads and associated system resources programmer has greater control over the modularity of the application and the timing of application related events
Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP)
Term that refers to a computer hardware architecture and also to the OS behavior that exploits that architecture
Several processes can run in parallel
Multiple processors are transparent to the user these processors share same main memory and I/O facilities all processors can perform the same functions
The OS takes care of scheduling of threads or processes on individual processors and of synchronization among processors
SMP Advantages
Performance
more than one process can be running simultaneously, each on a different processor
failure of a single process does not halt the system performance of a system can be enhanced by adding an additional processor vendors can offer a range of products based on the number of processors configured in the system
Availability
Incremental Growth
Scaling
Distributed Operating System
Object-Oriented Design
Provides the illusion of a single main memory space single secondary memory space unified access facilities
Used for adding modular extensions to a small kernel Enables programmers to customize an operating system without disrupting system integrity Eases the development of distributed tools and full-blown distributed operating systems
State of the art for distributed operating systems lags that of uniprocessor and SMP operating systems
Virtualization enables a single PC or server to simultaneously run multiple operating systems or multiple sessions of a single OS a machine can host numerous applications, including those that run on different operating systems, on a single platform host operating system can support a number of virtual machines (VM) each has the characteristics of a particular OS and, in some versions of virtualization, the characteristics of a particular hardware
Virtual Memory Concept
Process perspective: the machine on which it executes consists of the virtual memory space assigned to the process the processor registers it may use the user-level machine instructions it may execute OS system calls it may invoke for I/O ABI defines the machine as seen by a process Application perspective: machine characteristics are specified by high-level language capabilities and OS system library calls API defines the machine for an application OS perspective: processes share a file system and other I/O resources system allocates real memory and I/O resources to the processes ISA provides the interface between the system and machine
Process and System Virtual Machines
Process and System Virtual Machines
Symmetric Multiprocessor OS Considerations
A multiprocessor OS must provide all the functionality of a multiprogramming system plus additional features to accommodate multiple processors
Key design issues:
Memory Synchronizatio management n with multiple active the reuse processes of physical having potential pages is access to the biggest shared address problem of spaces or concern shared I/O resources, care must be taken to provide effective synchronization Reliability and fault tolerance the OS should provide graceful degradation in the face of processor failure
Schedulin Simultaneous g concurrent processes or any threads processor kernel may perform routines need scheduling, to be which reentrant to complicates allow several the task of processors to enforcing a execute the scheduling same kernel policy code simultaneousl y
Multicore OS Considerations
The design challenge for a many-core multicore system is to efficiently harness the multicore processing power and intelligently manage the substantial on-chip resources efficiently Potential for parallelism exists at three levels:
hardware parallelism within each core processor, known as instruction level parallelism
potential for multiprogramming and multithreaded execution within each processor
potential for a single application to execute in concurrent processes or threads across multiple cores
Developer must decide what pieces can or should be executed simultaneously or in parallel Grand Central Dispatch (GCD)
implemented in Mac Os X 10.6 helps a developer once something has been identified that can be split off into a separate task thread pool mechanism allows anonymous functions as a way of specifying tasks
Allows one or more cores to be dedicated to a particular process and then leave the processor alone to devote its efforts to that process Multicore OS could then act as a hypervisor that makes a high-level decision to allocate cores to applications but does little in the way of resource allocation beyond that
MS-DOS 1.0 released in 1981
Windows 2000
4000 lines of assembly language source code ran in 8 Kbytes of memory used Intel 8086 microprocessor
Windows 3.0 shipped in 1990 16-bit GUI interface implemented as a layer on top of MS-DOS
included services and functions to support distributed processing Active Directory plug-and-play and powermanagement facilities
Windows XP released in 2001
goal was to replace the versions of Windows based on MS-DOS with an OS based on NT
Windows 95
Windows Vista shipped in 2007 Windows Server released in 2008
32-bit version led to the development of Windows 98 and Windows Me
Windows NT (3.1) released in 1993 32-bit OS with the ability to support older DOS and Windows applications as well as provide OS/2 support
Windows 7 shipped in 2009, as well as Windows Server 2008 R2
Windows Azure
targets cloud computing
Windows
Architecture
Kernel-Mode Components of Windows
Executive
contains the core OS services controls execution of the processors
maps between generic hardware commands and responses and those unique to a specific platform
Kernel
Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL)
Device Drivers
dynamic libraries that extend the functionality of the Executive
Windowing and Graphics System
implements the GUI functions
User-Mode Processes
Four basic types are supported by Windows:
user-mode services needed to manage the system
Special System Processes Service Processes Environment Subsystems
the printer spooler, event logger, and user-mode components that cooperate with device drivers, and various network services
provide different OS personalities (environments)
User Applications
executables (EXEs) and DLLs that provide the functionality users run to make use of the system
Windows OS services, environmental subsystems, and applications are all structured using the client/server model Common in distributed systems, but can be used internal to a single system Processes communicate via RPC
Advantages:
it simplifies the Executive it improves reliability it provides a uniform means for applications to communicate with services via RPCs without restricting flexibility it provides a suitable base for distributed computing
Two important characteristics of Windows are its support for threads and for symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)
OS routines can run on any available processor, and different routines can execute simultaneously on different processors Windows supports the use of multiple threads of execution within a single process. Multiple threads within the same process may execute on different processors simultaneously Server processes may use multiple threads to process requests from more than one client simultaneously Windows provides mechanisms for sharing data and resources between processes and flexible interprocess communication capabilities
Windows Objects
Windows draws heavily on the concepts of object-oriented design Key object-oriented concepts used by Windows are:
Encapsulation Object class and instance Inheritance Polymorphism
W n w o d is K C lb n r e O o t s c e j
Changes and improvements:
Engineering improvements the system is now built in layers which can be separately tested Performance improvements amount of memory required has been reduced Reliability improvements user-mode heap is more tolerant of memory allocation errors by C/C++ programmers Energy efficiency many improvements have been made Security BitLocker is now easier to set up and use Thread improvements can support hundreds of CPUs Dynamic Fair Share Scheduling (DFSS)
Traditional UNIX Systems
Were developed at Bell Labs and became operational on a PDP-7 in 1970 Incorporated many ideas from Multics PDP-11was a milestone because it first showed that UNIX would be an OS for all computers
Next milestone was rewriting UNIX in the programming language C demonstrated the advantages of using a high-level language for system code
Was described in a technical journal for the first time in 1974
First widely available version outside Bell Labs was Version 6 in 1976
Version 7, released in 1978 is the ancestor of most modern UNIX systems Most important of the non-AT&T systems was UNIX BSD (Berkeley Software Distribution)
Descriptio n of UNIX
Traditional UNIX Kernel
Modern UNIX Kernel
Started out as a UNIX variant for the IBM PC Linus Torvalds, a Finnish student of computer science, wrote the initial version
Linux was first posted on the Internet in 1991
Today it is a full-featured UNIX system that runs on several platforms Is free and the source code is available Key to success has been the availability of free software packages Highly modular and easily configured
Loadable Modules
Includes virtually all of the OS functionality in one large block of code that runs as a single process with a single address space All the functional components of the kernel have access to all of its internal data structures and routines Linux is structured as a collection of modules
Relatively independent blocks A module is an object file whose code can be linked to and unlinked from the kernel at runtime A module is executed in kernel mode on behalf of the current process Have two important characteristics: Dynamic linking Stackable modules
Linux Kernel Module s
Linux Kernel Components
Linux Signals
Table 2.5 Some Linux Signals
Linux Vserver Virtual Machine Architecture
Open-source, fast, lightweight approach to implementing virtual machines on a Linux server Only a single copy of the Linux kernel is involved Supports a number of separate virtual servers Each virtual server is isolated from the others
Involves four elements:
chroot UNIX or Linux command to make the root directory become something other than its default chcontext allocates a new security context
chbind executes a command and locks the resulting process and its children into using a specific IP address
capabilities a partitioning of the privileges available to a root user
Linux Vserver Architecture
Operating system objectives and functions: convenience, efficiency, ability to evolve user/computer interface resource manager Evolution:
Process Memory management real address, virtual address Scheduling and resource management Multithreading Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) distributed OS object oriented design
serial processing, simple batch systems, multiprogrammed batch systems, time sharing systems
Microsoft Windows/Windows 7 UNIX/Linux systems
Virtual machines
virtualization
