C Programming Languages

Department of Computer Engineering

 Review Of Course Materials
• Overview of the C-portions of C++
– e.g., loops, structs, arrays, basic data types, etc.

• A quick tour through C++, focusing primarily on classes, templates, inheritance,

and dynamic binding

• An in-depth look at defining

– abstract data types in C++
– focusing primarily on classes, templates, and exception handling
– single and multiple inheritance
– dynamic binding
– pointer-to-member functions in C++
– dynamic memory management in C++
– container classes in C++

• Traps and pitfalls of using C++ and how to workaround them

• Thread and Graphic (2D and 3D) programming, Refactoring, TDD, Qt, …
 References
• P. Deitel, H. Deitel, C++: How to Program, 9th
Edition, Prentice Hall, 2011.

• Effective Modern C++, 42 Specific Ways to

Improve Your Use of C++11 and C++14, Scott
Meyers, 2014.

• J. Soulie, C++ Language Tutorial, 2009. Available at http://www.cplusplus.com/doc/tutorial/

• M. Fowler, K. Beck, J. Brant, W. Opdyke, D. Roberts, Refactoring: Improving the Design of

Existing Code, Addison Wesley, 1999.
 Grading policy
• Assignments : 4 pts
• Projects: 3 pts
• Quizzes: 1 pts
• Midterm: 6 pts
• Final Exam: 7 pts
• Programming Contest: +1 pt (bonus)
 C History
• BCPL ,1967, Martin Richards
– writing operating-systems software and compiler

• B, 1969, Ken Thomson

– based on BCPL

• C, 1972, Dennis Ritchie

– based on BCPL and B
– at Bell Laboratories
– originally implemented on a DEC PDP-11
 C++ Programming Language
• early 1980s, Bjarne Stroustrup
– at Bell Labroratory
– C++ a superset of C
– object-oriented programming
• Objects are essentially reusable software components
that model items in the real world

• filename.cpp
 Simple C Program
• Examples:
// int is return data type // Simplest c program
// main is entrance function int main()
{
int main() return 0;
{ }
statement 1;
statement 1; /*
// …. Objective: print on screen
*/
return 0; #include <stdio.h> // preprocessor statements have not ;
} int main() welcome to c!!!
{
printf("welcome to c!!!");
return 0; // indicate that program ended successfully
}
 Example
– Header file
#include <stdio.h> // (preprocessor )
– Constant
#define PI 3.14 // PI constant (preprocessor )
– Main function
– Variables
// calculating area of circle
– Input and output
int main()
– Process
{
/* variable definition */
float Radius;
float Area = 0;
// get radius of circle form user
printf("Enter Radius :\n");
scanf("%f", &Radius);
// calculating area of circle
Area = PI * Radius * Radius;
printf(“Area = %f", Area );

system("Pause");
return 0;
}
 Variable declaration
• Before using a variable, you must declare it

 Data_Type Identifier;
• int width; // width of rectangle
• float area; // result of calculating area stored in it
• char separator; // word separator
 Data_Type Identifier = Initial_Value;
• int width = 10; // width of rectangle
• float area = 255; // result of calculating area stored in it
• char seperator = ‘,’; // word separator
 Data_Type Identifier, Identifier, Identifier ,….;
• int width, length, temporary;
• float radius, area = 0;
 Data types
• Minimal set of basic data types
– primitive data types
• int
• float
• double
• char
• Void

• The size and range of these data types may

vary among processor types and compilers
 Data type qualifiers
• Modify the behavior of data type to which they are
applied:

– Size qualifiers: alter the size of the basic data types:

• short: multiply by 0.5
• long: multiply by 2
• short can be applied to: int
• long can be applied to: int and double

– Sign qualifiers: can hold both positive and negative

numbers, or only positive numbers.:
• signed: + and -
• unsigned: +
• they can be applied to : int and char
 Data type size and range
Range Size Example Qualifier Data type
-128 .. 127 8 signed char c; signed
0 .. 255 8 unsigned char c; unsigned char
-128 .. 127 8 char c;
16 signed short i;
16 signed short int i;
16 or 32 unsigned int i;
signed (16): -32768 .. 32767 16 or 32 int i;
16 or 32 signed int i;
unsigned (16): 0 .. 65535 16 short i; signed
16 short int i; unsigned
signed (32): 32 long i; short int
-2147483648 .. 2147483647 32
32
long int i;
signed long i;
long

unsigned (32): 0 .. 4294967295 32

64
signed long int i;
long long i;
64 long long int i;
64 signed long long i;
64 signed long long int i;
+/- 3.4e +/- 38 (~7 digits) 64 float f; float
+/- 1.7e +/- 308 (~15 digits) 64 double d; long double
80 long double d;
 Overflow and Underflow
/* The # character indicate a pre-processor directive; it's an instruction to the compiler to make it do something
The <> character tell C to look in the system area for the file stdio.h.
If I had given the name #include "stdio.h" instead it would tell the compiler to look in the current directory
/*
#include <stdio.h>
/*
* Function main begins program execution
* Semi-colon is statement terminator, so it is as a signal to the compiler for end of line
*/
int main()
{
/* The 2 curly brackets { }, are used to specify the limits of the program block */
char letter = 'A'; // char variable to show ASCII code
short shortVariable = 32769; // short variable for test overflow

// printf command display string on the monitor

printf("current value of shortVariable is = %d\n", shortVariable);
printf("current value of letter is = %d", letter);
current value of shortVariable is = -32767
printf("current value of letter is = %c", letter); current value of letter is = 65
system("PAUSE"); // pause the execution to show press any key … current value of letter is = A
return 0; // indicate that program ended successfully
}
 Program Error
• Compile-time or syntax
– is caused when the compiler cannot recognize a
statement

• Run-time
– E.g. division by zero

• Logical
– E.g. Overflow and Underflow
 Integer constant value
• Base 10: 1 915 +8 -90
• Base 8: 074 0123 084
• Base 16: 0x1 0X5 0x7fab

• unsigned: 5000u 4U
• long: 123456789l 56L
• unsigned long: 536489ul
• long long : 5361254865LL 25lL

• Example :
– 0xABu 0123uL 017LL
 floating-point constant value
• A floating-point value contains a decimal point
– 33.5 0.0 -657.983 .2 6.

• For example, the value 150.4582 is represented in

scientific notation as
– 1.504582 X 102

• and is represented in exponential notation (by the

computer) as
– 1.504582E+02
– This notation indicates that 1.504582 is multiplied by 10
raised to the second power (E+02)
• The E stands for “exponent”
Char and string constant value
• Char
char c;
c = 'A'; // d = 65;

• String
printf("string is array of char!!!");
printf("example of escape sequence is \n");
 Constant
• Constants provide a way to define a variable which
cannot be modified by any other part in the code
– #define: without memory consume
– const: memory consume

• #define Identifier constant_value

– #define PI 3.14
– #define ERROR "Disk error "
– #define ERROR "multiline \
message"
– #define ONE 1
#define TWO ONE + ONE
 Constant
• const [Data_Type] Identifier = constant_value;
– const p = 3; // const int p = 3;
– const p;
p = 3.14; // compile error
– const p = 3.14; // p = 3 because default is int
– const float p = 3.14;
 Operators
• Arithmetic Operators
Operator
– unary operators
• operators that require only one operand Width * High
– binary operators
• operators that require two operands Operand

• Assignment Operators
• Equality and Relational Operators
• Logical Operators
• Bitwise Operators
• Conditional Operator
• Comma Operator
• sizeof
 Arithmetic Operators
• Unary Operator

C operation Operator Expression Explanation

Positive + a = +3;

Negative - b = -4;

Increment ++ i++; Equivalent to i = i + 1

Decrement -- i - -; Equivalent to i = i - 1
 Arithmetic Operators
• Binary Operators

C operation Operator Expression

Addition + b = a + 3;
Subtraction - b = a – 4;
Multiplication * b = a * 3;
Division / b = a / c;
Modulus (integer) % b = a % c;
 Division
• The division of variables of type integer will
always produce a variable of type integer as
the result
Since b is declared as an integer,
• Example the result of a/2 is 3, not 3.5

int a = 7, b;
float z;
b = 3, z = 3.500000
b = a / 2;
z = a / 2.0;
printf("b = %d, z = %f\n", b, z);
 Modulus
• You could only use modulus (%) operation on
integer variables (int, long, char)
 z = a % 2.0; // error
 z = a % 0; // error
Modulus will result in the
remainder of a/2.

• Example 7 2
- a/2
int a = 7, b, c; 6 3
integral
1
b = a % 2; a%2
c = a / 2; remainder

printf("b = %d\n", b);

printf("c = %d\n", c);
 Assignment Operators
• lvalue = rvalue;
int i;
float f;
i = 2; // *&i = 2;
2 = i; // error: invalid lvalue in assignment
f = 5.6;
i = f; // i = 5;
i = -5.9; // i = -5;
 Assignment Operators
• Assignment operators are used to combine the '='
operator with one of the binary arithmetic or bitwise
operators
Operator Expression Equivalent Statement Results
+= c += 7; c = c + 7; c = 16
-= c -= 8; c = c – 8; c=1
*= c *= 10; c = c * 10; c = 90
/= c /= 5; c = c / 5; c=1
%= c %= 5; c = c % 5; c=4
&= c &= 2 ; c = c & 2; c=0
^= c ^= 2; c = c ^ 2; c = 11
|= c |= 2; c = c | 2; c = 11
<<= c <<= 2; c = c << 2; c = 36
• Example :
>>= c >>= 2; c = c >> 2; c=2
– c = 9;
Equality and Relational Operators
• Equality Operators:
Operator Example Meaning
== x == y x is equal to y
!= x != y x is not equal to y

• Relational Operators:

Operator Example Meaning

> x>y x is greater than y
< x<y x is less than y
>= x >= y x is greater than or equal to y
<= x <= y x is less than or equal to y
 Logical Operators
• Logical operators are useful when we want to test
multiple conditions
– AND
– OR
– NOT

• C has not bool data type, but:

– 0: evaluate to false
• If(0) printf(" …");
– other: evaluate to true
• If(1) printf(" …");
• If(-13) printf(" …");
 && - Logical AND
• All the conditions must be true for the whole
expression to be true
– Example: if (a == 1 && b == 2 && c == 3)
• means that the if statement is only true when a == 1
and b == 2 and c == 3
 If (a = 5) …

e1 e2 Result = e1 && e2 e1 e2 Result = e1 && e2

0 0 0 false false false
0 1 0 false true false
1 0 0 true false false
1 1 1 true true true
 || - Logical OR
• The truth of one condition is enough to make
the whole expression true
• Example: if (a == 1 || b == 2|| c == 3)
– means the if statement is true when
either one of a, b or c has the right value

e1 e2 Result = e1 || e2 e1 e2 Result = e1 || e2
0 0 0 false false false
0 1 1 false true true
1 0 1 true false true
1 1 1 true true true
 ! - Logical NOT
• Reverse the meaning of a condition
• Example: if (!(radius > 90))
– Means if radius not bigger than 90.

e1 Result = !e1 e1 Result = !e1

0 1 false true
1 0 true false
 Bitwise Operators
• Apply to all kinds of int and char types:
– signed and unsigned
– char, short, int, long, long long

Operator Name Description

& AND Result is 1 if both operand bits are 1
| OR Result is 1 if either operand bit is 1
^ XOR Result is 1 if operand bits are different
~ Not (Ones Complement) Each bit is reversed
<< Left Shift Multiply by 2
>> Right Shift Divide by 2
 Bitwise Operators
• Applicable for low level programming, e.g.:
– Port manipulation
– I/O programming

• Usually:
– &: set OFF one bit
– |: set ON one bit
– ^: reverse one bit
 Conditional Operator
• The conditional operator (?:) is used to simplify an
if/else statement
– Condition ? Expression1 : Expression2;

• The statement above is equivalent to:

if (Condition)
Expression1;
else
Expression2;

• Which are more readable?

 Comma Operator
• (Expression1 ,Expression2,…);
• Example:
– int x, y, z;
int x, y, z;
– z = (x = 2, y = x + 1); x = 2;
– printf("z = %d", z); y = x + 1;
z = y;
printf("z = %d", z);
 sizeof
• The sizeof keyword returns the number of bytes of the
given expression or type
– returns an unsigned integer result

• sizeof variable_Identifier;
• sizeof (variable_Identifier);
• sizeof (Data_Taype);

• Example:
– int x;
– printf("size of x = %d", sizeof x);
– printf("size of long long = %d", sizeof(long long));
– printf("size of x = %d", sizeof (x));
 Type Casting
• Explicit Type cast: carried out by programmer using casting
int k, i = 7;
float f = 10.14;
char c = 'B';
k = (i + f) % 3; // error
k = (int)(i + f) % 3;

• Implicit Type cast: carried out by compiler automatically

f = 65.6;
i = f; //f = (int)f;
c = i; // c = (int)i;
 Precedence Rules
Primary Expression Operators () [] . -> left-to-right
Unary Operators * & + - ! ~ ++expr --expr (typecast) sizeof right-to-left
* / %
+ -
>> <<
< > <= >=
== !=
Binary Operators left-to-right
&
^
|
&&
||
Ternary Operator ?: right-to-left
Assignment Operators = += -= *= /= %= >>= <<= &= ^= |= right-to-left
Post increment expr++ expr-- -
Comma , left-to-right
 Control Structures
• Sequence
• Decision selection statement
– The if statement is called a single-selection statement
because it selects or ignores a single action.
– The if…else statement is called a double-selection statement
because it selects between two different actions.
– The switch statement is called a multiple-selection statement
because it selects among many different actions
• Repetition
– while
– do…while
– for
 Compound Statements
• A statement is a specification of an action to
be taken by the computer as the program
executes

• Compound Statements is a list of statements

enclosed in braces, { }
 Decision Structure
• One of two possible actions is taken,
depending on a condition
• Selection structures are used to choose
among alternative courses of action

NO YES NO YES
x < y?

Process A Process B
 Decision Structure
• The flowchart segment below shows how a
decision structure is expressed in C as an
if/else statement

Flowchart C programming language

NO YES
if (x < y)
x < y?
a = x * 2;
else
Calculate a as Calculate a as
x plus y. x times 2. a = x + y;
 Decision Structure
• The flowchart segment below shows a
decision structure with only one action to
perform

Flowchart C programming language

NO YES
x < y? if (x < y)
a = x * 2;
Calculate a
as x times 2.
 Combining Structures

NO YES
x > min?

if (x > min)
{
Display “x is outside NO YES
the limits.”
x < max?
if (x < max)
printf("x is within the limits");
else
printf("x is outside the limits"); Display “x is outside Display “x is
the limits.” within limits.”
}
else
printf("x is outside the limits");
 Example

if(x) if(x) if(x)

if(y) { {
printf("Yes"); if(y) if(y)
else printf("Yes"); printf("Yes");
printf("No"); else }
printf("No"); else
} printf("No");

if (x < 0.25)
if (x < 0)
count1++;
sign = -1;
else if (x >= 0.25 && x < 0.5)
else if (x == 0)
count2++;
sign = 0;
else if (x >= 0.5 && x < 0.75)
else
count3++;
sign = 1;
else
count4++;
 Case Structure
• One of several possible actions is taken,
depending on the contents of a variable
 Case Structure
• indicates actions to perform depending on the
value in years_employed

If years_employed = 2, If years_employed = 3,
bonus is set to 200 bonus is set to 400
If years_employed = 1, If years_employed is
CASE
bonus is set to 100 years_employed any other value, bonus
is set to 800

1 2 3 Other

bonus = 100 bonus = 200 bonus = 400 bonus = 800

 switch
• A switch statement allows a single variable (integer
or char) to be compared with several possible
constants
– A constant can not appear more than once, and
there can only be one default expression
 switch
switch (variable)
{ switch (c = toupper(getch()))
{
case const: case ‘R’:
printf("Red");
break;
statements...; case ‘G’:
printf("Green");
default: break;
default:
statements...; printf("other");
}
}
 Example
switch(betty)
{
case 1: CASE
betty?
printf("betty = 1\n");
case 2: 1 2 3 Other
printf("betty=2\n");
break;
betty = 1 betty = 2 betty = 3 Not sure
case 3:
printf("betty=3\n");
break;
default:
printf("Not sure\n");
}
 Repetition Structure
• A loop tests a condition, and if the condition
exists, it performs an action. Then it tests the
condition again. If the condition still exists, the
action is repeated. This continues until the
condition no longer exists

YES
x < y? Process A
 Repetition Structure
• The flowchart segment below shows a
repetition structure expressed in C as a while
loop

Flowchart C programming language

while (x < y)

YES x++;
x < y? Add 1 to x
 While
while (loop_repetition_condition)
statement;

OR

//Compound statement
while (loop_repetition_condition)
{
statement1;
statement2; // …
}
Controlling a Repetition Structure
• The action performed by a repetition structure
must eventually cause the loop to terminate.
Otherwise, an infinite loop is created

• In this flowchart segment, x is never changed.

Once the loop starts, it will never end

YES
• How can this flowchart x < y? Display x
be modified so it is no
longer an infinite loop?
Controlling a Repetition Structure
• Adding an action within the repetition that
changes the value of x

YES
x < y? Display x Add 1 to x
A Pre-Test Repetition Structure
• This type of structure is known as a pre-test
repetition structure. The condition is tested
BEFORE any actions are performed
– if the condition does not exist, the loop will never
begin

YES
x < y? Display x Add 1 to x
 Example

int counter = 0;
while (1);
while (counter < 1000) ;

int counter = 0; int counter = 9;

while (counter < 9) while (counter > 0)
printf("%d\n", counter ++); printf("%d\n", counter --);

int counter = 0; int counter = 0;

while (counter < 9) while (counter < 9)
{ {
printf("%d\n", counter); printf("%d\n", counter ++);
counter++; }
}
A Post-Test Repetition Structure
• The condition is tested AFTER the actions are
performed
– A post-test repetition structure always performs
its actions at least once

C programming language
Display x

do
Add 1 to x
{
printf(…);
x++; YES
} while (x < y); x < y?
 do-while
do
statement;
while (loop_repetition_condition)

OR

do //Compound statement
{
statement1;
statement2; // …
}
while (loop_repetition_condition)
 For

for (initial_value ; condition; update_counter)

statement;

OR

// Compound statement
for (initial_value ; condition;
update_counter) {
statement;
statement; // …
}
 Array
• Generic declaration:
typename variablename[size];
– typename is any type
– variablename is any legal variable name
– size is a number the compiler can figure out
– For example : int a[10];
– Defines an array of ints with subscripts ranging from 0 to 9
– There are 10*sizeof(int) bytes of memory reserved for this array.
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
10 a

– You can use a[0]=10; x=a[2]; a[3]=a[2]; etc.

– You can use scanf("%d",&a[3]);
 Array Representation

;int A[3] All elements of same type – homogenous

A[2] 0x1008 Last element (index size - 1)

A[1] 0x1004
A[0] 0x1000 First element (index 0)
A[-1]

array[0] = 3;
array[2] = 4;
array[10] = 5;
No bounds checking!
array[-1] = 6;

sizeof(A)? 3 * 4 = 12
sizeof(A[0]) = sizeof(A[1]) = sizeof(A[2])? 4
Using Constants to Define Arrays
• It is useful to define arrays using constants:
#define MONTHS 12
float a [MONTHS];

• However, in ANSI C, you cannot

int n;
scanf(“%d”, &n);
float a[n];

• In GNU C, the variable length array is allowed.

 Initializing Arrays
• Initialization of arrays can be done by a comma
separated list following its definition
• For example:
int array [4] = { 100, 200, 300, 400 };
– This is equivalent to:
int array [4];
array[0] = 100;
array[1] = 200;
array[2] = 300;
array[3] = 400;
• You can also let the compiler figure out the array
size for you:
int array[] = { 100, 200, 300, 400};
 Initializing Arrays
• For example:
int array [4] = { 100, 200 };
• Also can be done by
int array [4] = { 100, 200, 0, 0 };
– This is equivalent to
int array [4];
array[0] = 100;
array[1] = 200;
array[2] = 0;
array[3] = 0;
 Multidimensional Arrays
• Arrays in C can have virtually as many dimensions as
you want

• Definition is accomplished by adding additional

subscripts when it is defined

• For example:
– int a [4] [3] ;
• 2-dimensional array
• 4 * 3 * sizeof(int)
– int a[4][3][2]
• 3-dimention array
• 4 * 3 * 2 * sizeof(int)
Multidimensional Arrays Representation

a[0][0] Column 0 Column 1 Column 2 Column 3

a[0][1] Row 0 a[ 0 ][ 0 ] a[ 0 ][ 1 ] a[ 0 ][ 2 ] a[ 0 ][ 3 ]
a[0][2] Row 1 a[ 1 ][ 0 ] a[ 1 ][ 1 ] a[ 1 ][ 2 ] a[ 1 ][ 3 ]
Row 2 a[ 2 ][ 0 ] a[ 2 ][ 1 ] a[ 2 ][ 2 ] a[ 2 ][ 3 ]
a[0][3]
a[1][0] Column subscript
a[1][1] Array name
a[1][2] Row subscript
a[1][3]
a[2][0] int a[n][m] ;
a[2][1] &a[i][j] = [(m * i) + j] * (sizeof(int)) + &a[0]
a[2][2]
a[2][3]
Initializing Multidimensional Arrays

• The following initializes a[4][3]:

int a[4] [3] = { {1, 2, 3} ,
{4, 5, 6} ,
{7, 8, 9} ,
{10, 11, 12} };
• Also can be done by:
int a[4] [3] = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 };
– is equivalent to
a[0][0] = 1;
a[0][1] = 2;
a[0][2] = 3;
a[1][0] = 4;
...
a[3][2] = 12;
 Examples
• Initialization
– Example:
• short b[ 2 ][ 2 ] = { { 1, 2 }, { 3, 4 } };
2 1
4 3

– If not enough, unspecified elements set to zero

• short b[ 2 ][ 2 ] = { { 1 }, { 3, 4 } };

0 1
4 3
 Examples
int a[10]; // Ok

int a[2.5]; // Syntax error

int a[-5]; // Syntax error
int a[0]; // Logical error

a[3.6] = 10; // Syntax error or a[3] = 10;

a[3.2] = 10; // Syntax error or a[3] = 10;

int b[2][3] = { {1, 2}, {3, 4}, {5, 6} }; // Syntax error

 Strings are Character Arrays
• Strings in C are simply arrays of characters
– Example: char s [10];

• This is a ten (10) element array that can hold a character

string consisting of  9 characters

• This is because C does not know where the end of an array is

at run time
– By convention, C uses a NULL character '\0' to terminate all strings
in its library functions
• For example:
char str [10] = {'u', 'n', 'I', 'x', '\0'};

• It’s the string terminator (not the size of the array) that
determines the length of the string
Accessing Individual Characters
• The first element of any array in C is at index 0. The
second is at index 1, and so on ...
char s[10];
s[0] = 'h';
s[1] = 'i’; ? ? ? ? ? ? 0\ ! i h

s[2] = '!'; ]9[ 8[ 7[ 6[ 5[ 4[ 3[ 2[ 1[ 0[ s

] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ]
s[3] = '\0';

• This notation can be used in all kinds of statements and

expressions in C:
– For example:
c = s[1];
if (s[0] == '-') …
switch (s[1]) ...
 String Literals
• String literals are given as a string quoted by
double quotes
– printf("Long long ago.");

• Initializing char array ...

– char s[10] = "unix"; /* s[4] is '\0'; */
– char s[ ] = "unix"; /* s has five elements */
 Pointer Fundamentals
• When a variable is defined the
compiler (linker/loader actually) * &

allocates a real memory address x 0000000

0
22F54

for the variable 0000000 22F55

– int x; // &x = 22f54; 0
0000000 22F56
– &x = 22f54; // Error 0
• When a value is assigned to a variable,
0000001 the
22F57
1
value is actually placed to the memory that
was allocated
– x = 3; // * (&x) = 3;
– *x = 3; // Error
 Pointer Fundamentals
• When the value of a variable is used, the contents in the
memory are used
– y = x;
* &
– y = *(&x);
x 0000000 22F54
0
0000000 22F55
0
0000000 22F56
0
0000001 22F57
• &x can get the address of x (referencing operator
1 &)
• The address can be passed to a function:
– scanf("%d", &x);
• The address can also be stored in a variable …
 Pointers
• To declare a pointer variable
type * PointerName; * &
? 22F50 x
? 22F51
• For example: ? 22F52
?
int x; 22F53
00 22F54 p
int * p; //p is a int pointer
02 22F55
// char *p2; 2F 22F56
p1 = &x; /* Initializing p1 */ 50 22F57
…
 Initializing Pointers
• Like other variables, always initialize pointers before
using them!!!
* &
?
void main() 22F50 x
? 22F51
{ ? 22F52

Developer
int x; ? 22F53
Compiler
00
int *p; 22F54 p
Don’t 02 22F55
scanf("%d", p); /* */ 2F 22F56
p = &x; 50 22F57
…
scanf("%d", p); /* Correct */
}
 Using Pointers
• You can use pointers to access the values of other variables, i.e. the
contents of the memory for other variables

• To do this, use the * operator (dereferencing operator)

– Depending on different context, * has different meanings

• For example: * & * & * & * &

int n, m = 3, *p; n n 3 n 3 n
p = &m; // Initializing 3 m 3 m 3 m 10 m
n = *p;
printf("%d\n", n); // 3 p p p p
printf("%d\n", *p); // 3
*P = 10;
printf("%d\n", n); // 3
printf("%d\n", *p); // 10
 Pointer Assignment
int a = 2, b = 3; * &

int *p1, *p2; 3 b

2 a
p1 = &a;
p2 = &b; p1
printf("%p %p", p1 ,p2); p2
* &
3 b
*p1 = *p2;
3 a
printf("%d %d", *p1, *p2);
p1
p2 = p1; p2

printf("%p %p", p1, p2);

printf("%p %p", &p1, &p2);
 Constant Pointers
• A pointer to const data does not allow modification
of the data through the pointer

const int a = 10, b = 20;

a = 5; // Error
const int *p;
int *q;
p = &a;
*p = 100; // Error : p is (const int *)
p = &b;
q = &a;
*q = 100; // OK !!!
 Constant Pointers
int x; /* define x */
int y; /* define y */

/*ptr is a constant pointer to an integer that can be

modified through ptr, but ptr always points to the
same memory location */
int * const ptr = &x;

*ptr = 7; /* allowed: *ptr is not const */

ptr = &y; /* error: cannot assign new address */
 Constant Pointers
int x = 5; /* initialize x */
int y; /* define y */

/*ptr is a constant pointer to a constant integer. ptr

always points to the same location; the integer at
that location cannot be modified */
const int * const ptr = &x;

*ptr = 7; /* error: cannot assign new value */

ptr = &y; /* error: cannot assign new address */
 Multiple indirection
int a = 3;
int *b = &a; * &

int **c = &b; 3 a

int ***d = &c; b

int ****f = &d; c
d
f
 NULL Pointer
• Special constant pointer NULL
– Points to no data
– Dereferencing illegal
– To define, include <stdlib.h> or <stdio.h>

– int *q = NULL;
 Generic Pointers: void *
• void *: a pointer to anything

type cast: tells the compiler to change an

void *p; object’s type (for type checking purposes
int i; – does not modify the object in any way)
char c;
p = &i;
p = &c;
putchar(*(char *)p);

• Lose all information about what type of thing

is pointed to
– Reduces effectiveness of compiler’s type-checking
– Can’t use pointer arithmetic
 Arithmetic Operations
• A pointer may be incremented or decremented

– An integer may be added to or subtracted from a pointer.

– Pointer variables may be subtracted from one another

int a, b;
int *p = &a, *q = &b;
p = p + q ; // Error
p = p * q; // Error
p = p / q; // Error
p = p - q; // OK
p = p + 3;
p += 1.6; // Error
p %= q; // Error
 Arithmetic Operations
• When an integer is added to or subtracted
from a pointer, the new pointer value is
changed by the integer times the number of
bytes in the data variable the pointer is
pointing to

– For example, if the pointer p contains the address

of a double precision variable and that address is
234567870, then the statement:
p = p + 2; // 234567870 + 2 * sizeof(double)
would change p to 234567886
 Logical Operations
* &
• Pointers can be used in comparisons p
q
int a[10], *p, *q , i; ? [0]

p = &a[2]; ? [1]
? [2]
q = &a[5];
? [3]
i = q - p; /* i is 3*/ ? [4]
i = p - q; /* i is -3 */ ? [5]
a[2] = a[5] = 0; ? [6]
? [7]
i = *p - *q; // i = a[2] – a[5]
? [8]
if (p < q) ...; /* true */ ? [9]
if (p == q)...; /* false */
if (p != q) ...; /* true */
 Pointers and Arrays

Array  pointer to the initial

(0th) array element
a  &a[0]
a[i]  *(a+i)
&a[i]  a + i int a[ 10 ], *p; int a[ 10 ], *p;
Example: p = &a[2];
int a, *p; p[0] = 10; a[2] = 10;
p=&a;
*p = 1; p[1] = 10; a[3] = 10;
p[0] = 1;
p printf("%d", p[3]); printf("%d", a[5]);
p[7] p[6] p[5] p[4] p[3] p[2] p[1] p[0]
[9] [8] [7] [6] [5] [4] [3] [2] [1] [0]
a
 Pointers and Arrays

Array  pointer to the initial (0th) array element

a  &a[0] 3 2 1 0
a[i]  *(a+i)
&a[i]  a + i a+3 a+2 a+1 a

int i; int *p;

int array[10]; int array[10];

for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) for (p = array; p < &array[10]; p++)

{ {
array[i] = …; *p = …;
} }

These two blocks of code are functionally equivalent

An Array Name is Like a Constant Pointer
• Array name is like a constant pointer which
points to the first element of the array

int a[10], *p, *q;

int * const a
p = a; /* p = &a[0] */
q = a + 3; /* q = &a[0] + 3 */
a ++; /* Error !!! */
 Example
int a[10], i;
int *p = a; // int *p = &a[0];

for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)

scanf("%d", a + i); // scanf("%d", &a[i]);

for (i = 9; i >= 0; --i)

printf("%d", *(p + i));
// printf("%d", a[i]);
//printf("%d", p[i]);

for (p = a; p < &a[10]; p++)

printf("%d", *p);
 An example
int a[10], *p, *q; * & * &
p p
p = &a[2];
q q
q = p + 3; ? [0] ? [0]
p = q – 1; ? [1] ? [1]
? [2] ? [2]
p++; ? [3] ? [3]
q--; ? [4] 123 [4]

*p = 123; ? [5] 123 [5]

? [6] ? [6]
*q = *p; ? [7] ? [7]
q = p; ? [8] ? [8]
? [9] ? [9]
printf("%d", *q);
 An Example
int a[10], *p;
a++; //Error
a--; // Error
a += 3; //Error
p = a; // p = &a[0];
p ++; //OK
p--; // Ok
P +=3; // Ok
 Strings
• In C, strings are just an array of characters
– Terminated with ‘\0’ character
– Arrays for bounded-length strings
– Pointer for constant strings (or unknown length)

char str1[15] = "Hello, world!“;

\0 ! d l r o w , o l l e H

char str1[] = "Hello, world!";

char *str2 = "Hello, world!";
\0 ! d l r o w , o l l e H
 An Example
void copy1(char * const s1, const char * const s2)
{
int i; /* counter */
/* loop through strings */
for ( i = 0; ( s1[ i ] = s2[ i ] ) != '\0'; i++ ); /* do nothing in body */

void copy2(char *s1, const char *s2)

{
/* loop through strings */
for ( ; ( *s1 = *s2 ) != '\0'; s1++, s2++ ); /* do nothing in body */

}
 Multi-Dimensional Arrays
int a[row][col];
a[row][col]  *(*(a + row) + col)
scanf(" %d ", &a[0][0])  scanf(" %d ", a[0])
a[row][col]  *(a[row] + col)
&a[row][col]  a[row] + col printf (" %d ", a[0][0])  printf(" %d ", *a[0])
a  a[0][0]  a[0]
scanf(" %d ", &a[2][2])  scanf(" %d ", a[2]+ 2)
a[0] + 2
printf (" %d ", a[2][2])  printf(" %d ", *(a[2] + 2))

[0][9] [0][8] [0][7] [0][6] [0][5] [0][4] [0][3] [0][2] [0][1] [0][0]  a[0]
[1][9] [1][8] [1][7] [1][6] [1][5] [1][4] [1][3] [1][2] [1][1] [1][0]  a[1]
[2][9] [2][8] [2][7] [2][6] [2][5] [2][4] [2][3] [2][2] [2][1] [2][0]  a[2]
[3][9] [3][8] [3][7] [3][6] [3][5] [3][4] [3][3] [3][2] [3][1] [3][0]  a[3]
[4][9] [4][8] [4][7] [4][6] [4][5] [4][4] [4][3] [4][2] [4][1] [4][0]  a[4]
 Array of Pointers
char *suit[ 4 ] = { "Hearts", "Diamonds", "Clubs",
"Spades" };

\0 s t r a e H  suit[0]
\0 s d n o m a i D  suit[1]
\0 s b u l C  suit[2]
\0 s e d a p S  suit[3]
 Array of Pointers
int a=1, b=2, c=3, d=4; * &
int *k[4] = {&a, &b, &c, &d}; k[0]
k[1]
k[2]
k[3]
1 a  k[0] 1 a
2 b  k[1] 2 b
3 c  k[2] 3 c
4 d  k[3] 4 d
printf("%d %d %d %d", *k[0], *k[1],*k[2],*k[3]);
 Functions
• Every C program starts with main() function

int main()
{
• Functions could be }
…

– Pre-defined library functions

• e.g., printf, sin, tan
– Programmer-defined functions
• e.g., my_printf, area
 Functions - Definition Structure

• Function 'header' type function_name (type arg1, type arg2 )

– Return data type {
(if any) statements;
– Name }
• Descriptive
– Arguments (or parameter list)
• Notice: data type and name A function that calculates
• Statements the product of two numbers
– Variable declaration double product(double x, double y)
– Operations {
– Return value (if any) double result;
result = x * y;
return result;
}
 An Example
#include <stdio.h>
/* function prototype */
Function prototype double product(double x, double y);
– Like a variable declaration
• Tells compiler that the function will be defined later
int main()
• Helps detect program errors {
• Note semicolon!! double var1 = 3.0, var2 = 5.0;
Function definition double ans;
– See previous slide
– Note, NO semicolon ans = product(var1, var2);
Function return printf("var1 = %.2f\n"
– return statement terminates execution of the "var2 = %.2f\n",var1,var2);
current function
printf("var1*var2 = %g\n", ans);
– Control returns to the calling function
– if return expression; return 0;
• then value of expression is returned as the value }
of the function call
• Only one value can be returned this way /* function definition */
Function call double product(double x, double y)
– main() is the 'calling function' {
– product() is the 'called function'
double result;
– Control transferred to the function code
– Code in function definition is executed result = x * y;
return result;
}
Formal and Actual Parameters
#include <stdio.h> Formal Parameters
int calSum(int,int); /*function prototype*/
int main(void)
Actual Parameters
{
…..
…..
sum = calSum(num1,num2); /* function call */
…..
}
int calSum(int val1, int val2) /*function header*/
{
……
…… Formal Parameters
……
}
 An Example
• If the function requires some arguments to be passed along, then the
arguments need to be listed in the ( ) according to the specified order

void Calc(int, double, char, int);

int main(void)
{
int a, b;
double c;
char d;
…
Calc(a, c, d, b); Function Call
return (0);
}
 Functions that do not return a value
• Use the return type of void
– void functionName( DataType arg_1,…)
– void functionName()
– void functionName( void)
 Function Call – An Example

1
#include <stdio.h> void fn1(void)
{
//function prototype local variable declaration;
//global variable declaration statements;
2 }
int main(void) 3
void fn2(void)
{
{
local variable declaration; local variable declaration;
statements; statements;
fn1( ); return;
4
fn2( ); }

return (0);
}
Call by value And Call by reference
• Call by value

– In this method, only the copy of variable’s value (copy of actual

parameter’s value) is passed to the function. Any modification to the
passed value inside the function will not affect the actual value

– In all the examples that we have seen so far, this is the method that
has been used

• Call by reference

– In this method, the reference (memory address) of the variable is

passed to the function. Any modification passed done to the variable
inside the function will affect the actual value

– To do this, we need to have knowledge about pointers and arrays

 Call by value – An Example
#include <stdio.h>
int calSum(int,int); /*function protototype*/
int main(void)
{
int sum, num1, num2;
printf("Enter two numbers to calculate its sum:\n"); num2
4
?
scanf("%d%d",&num1,&num2);
9
? num1
sum = calSum(num1,num2); /* function call */
printf("\n %d + %d = %d", num1, num2, sum); 13
? sum
return(0);
}
int calSum(int val1, int val2) /*function definition*/ 100
4 val2
{
int sum; 9 val1
sum = val1 + val2; 13
? sum
val2 = 100;
return sum; Enter two numbers to calculate its sum:
} 4
9
4 + 9 = 13
Press any key to continue
 Call by reference
#include <stdio.h>
void CalByVal(int a, int b)
{
a = 0; b = 10;
} b
CalByVal 10
5
void CalByRef(int *a, int *b) // CalByRef(int *p, int *q)
1
0 a
{ CalByRef b
*a = 0; *b = -5; // a = 0; !!!!
} a
int main(void)
{
int a = 1, b = 5; main 55- b
printf("Before cal CalByVal: a = %d, b = %d\n", a, b);
1
0 a
CalByVal(a, b);
printf("After cal CalByVal: a = %d, b = %d\n", a, b);

printf("Before cal CalByRef: a = %d, b = %d\n", a, b);

CalByRef(&a, &b);
printf("After cal CalByRef: a = %d, b = %d\n", a, b);
getch();
return 0; /* Exit program. */
}
 Pointers and Arrays
• Recall that the value of an array name is also an address

void main()
{
int x[10];
ReOrder(x); // ReOrder(&x);
}
void ReOrder(int *x)
{
int i, j, t;
for(i = 0; i < 9; i++)
for(j = i + 1; i < 10; ++j)
if(x[i] < x[j])
{
t = x[i]; x[i] = x[j]; x[j] = t;
}
}
 Organizing Multi-File Programs
• A large C program should be divided into multiple files

// main.c // math.c
#include <stdio.h> double mathVar;
void Test() double sin()
{ {
// … double tempSin;
} // …
int main() return tempSin;
{ }
// …
return 0;
}
 Identifiers and Scope
• Identifier
– The name of a variable, function, label, etc.
• int my_var1; /* a variable */
• pow_table(); /* a function */
• start: /* a label */
• Question:
– Does it make a difference where in a program an
identifier is declared?
YES! --> concept of ‘scope’
 Scope of Identifiers
• Scope of a declaration of an identifier
– The region of the program that the declaration is
active (i.e., can access the variable, function, label,
etc.)

• Five types of scope:

– Program (global scope)
– File
– Function prototype
– Function
– Block ("between the { } scope")
Scope of Identifiers - Program Scope
• Program (global) scope #include <stdio.h>
– if declared outside of all int a = 10;
functions double product(double x, double y);
int main()
– "Visible" to all functions from {
double var1 = 3.0, var2 = 5.0;
point of declaration
double ans; a = 10
ans = product(var1, var2);
– Visible to functions in other // … a = 20
source files }
/* function definition */
– Use only when necessary and double product(double x, double y)
then very carefully!! {
double result; a = 20;
– If there exist a local variable result = x * y;
and a global variable with the return result;
same name, the compiler will }
refer to the local variable
 An Example
// File name: main.c
#include <stdio.h>
int a = 10;

// File name: ExternFile.c /* function definition */

double product(double x, double y)
extern int a = 10; {
double result;
/* function definition */
void TestExtern() // …
{ a = 70;
// … return result;
}
a = 90;
// …
int main()
}
{
a = 80;
}
 Scope of Identifiers - File Scope

#include <stdio.h>
• File scope static int a = 10;
double product(double x, double y);
– Keyword static int main()
• Makes variable a ‘visible’ {
only within this source file double var1 = 3.0, var2 = 5.0;
double ans;
– Use file scope to avoid ans = product(var1, var2);
naming conflict if multiple // …
}
source files are used /* function definition */
double product(double x, double y)
{
double result;
result = x * y;
return result;
}
 An Example
// File name: main.c
#include <stdio.h>
static int a = 10;
// File name: ExternFile.c /* function definition */
double product(double x, double y)
extern int a = 10;
{
/* function definition */ double result;
void TestExtern() // …
{ a = 70;
// … return result;
a = 90; }
// …
} int main()
{
a = 80;
}
 Scope of Identifiers - Function Prototype Scope

#include <stdio.h>
• Function prototype scope double product(double x, double y);
– Identifiers x and y are not
int main()
visible outside the prototype {
int a = 10;
– Thus, names in the prototype double var1 = 3.0, var2 = 5.0;
do not have to match names in double ans;
the function definition ans = product(var1, var2);
• MUST match types, however! printf("var1 = %.2f\n"
"var2 = %.2f\n",var1,var2);
printf("var1*var2 = %g\n", ans);
}
/* function definition */
double product(double A, double B)
{
double result;
result = A * B;
return result;
}
Scope of Identifiers - Function Scope

• Function scope
– Active from the beginning to the end of a function
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a;
// …
return 0;
}

int FunctionScopeTest()
{
int b;
// …
return 0;
}
 Scope of Identifiers - Block Scope

• Block (local) scope #include <stdio.h>

double product(double x, double y);
– A block is a series of int main()
statements enclosed in braces {
{} int a = 10;
double var1 = 3.0, var2 = 5.0;
double ans;
– The identifier scope is active ans = product(var1, var2);
from the point of declaration // …
to the end of the block ( } ) }
/* function definition */
double product(double x, double y)
– Nested blocks can {
both declare the same double result; // a = 60; Error
variable name and not result = x * y;
interfere return result;
}
 An Example
#include <stdio.h>
int a = 10;
int f1()
{
int a;
a=?
a = 70;
{ a = 70
int a;
a = 100; a = 100
}
return a; a = 70
}

void main()
{ a = 10
a = 80;
f1(); a = 80
}
 Storage Classes
• Refers to the lifetime of a variable

• Local variables only exist within a function by default.

When calling a function repeatedly, we might want to
– Start from scratch – reinitialize the variables
• The storage class is ‘auto’
– Continue where we left off – remember the last value
• The storage class is ‘static’

• Another two storage classes (seldomly used)

– register (ask to use hardware registers if available)
– extern (global variables are external)
 Auto storage class
• Variables with automatic storage duration are
created when the block in which they are
declared is entered, exist when the block is
active and destroyed when the block is exited.

• The keyword auto explicitly declares variables

of automatic storage duration. It is rarely used
because when we declare a local variable, by
default it has class storage of type auto.
– int a, b; // is the same as
– auto int a, b;
 Static storage class
• However the static keyword can be applied to
a local variable so that the variable still exist
even though the program has gone out of the
function. As a result, whenever the program
enters the function again, the value in the
static variable still holds
 Auto - Example
#include <stdio.h>
void auto_example(void);
int main(void)
{
int i;
printf("Auto example:\n");

auto_example( ); Auto example:

auto_example( ); 1
auto_example( ); 1
1
return(0); Press any key to continue

}
void auto_example(void)
{
auto int num = 1;
printf(" %d\n",num);
num = num + 2;
}
 Static - Example
#include <stdio.h>
void auto_example(void);
int main(void)
{
int i;
printf("Static example:\n");
static_example( );
static_example( );
Static example:
static_example( ); 1
return(0); 3
} 5
Press any key to continue
void static_example(void)
{
static int num = 1;
printf(" %d\n",num);
num = num + 2;
}
 Recursion
• Recursion is a technique that solves a problem by solving a smaller problem of
the same type

• A recursive function is a function invoking itself, either directly or indirectly

– Recursion: A → B → C → D → A

• Concept of recursive function (generally):

– A recursive function is called to solve a problem
– The function only knows how to solve the simplest case of the problem. When the
simplest case is given as an input, the function will immediately return with an answer
– However, if a more complex input is given, a recursive function will divide the problem
into 2 (or more) pieces: a part that it knows how to solve and another part that it does
not know how to solve

if (stopping case)
solve it
else
reduce the problem using recursion
 Recursion solution of xy
#include <stdio.h>
double XpowerY(double, int);
int main(void)
{
double power, x; int y;
printf("Enter the value of x and y:\n");
scanf("%lf%d", &x, &y);
power = XpowerY(x, y);
printf("%.2f to the power of %d is %.2f\n\n", x, y, power);
return(0);
} Enter the value of x and y:
2
double XpowerY(double x, int y) 3
{ 2.00 to the power of 3 is 8.00
Press any key to continue
if (y ==1)
return x;
else
return x * XpowerY(x, y-1);
}
 Recursive Steps of xy
#include <stdio.h>
double XpowerY(double, int); ;x = 2; y = 2
int main(void)
2 ;return x
{
double power, x; int y;
printf("Enter the value of x and y:\n");
;x = 2; y = 2
scanf("%lf%d", &x, &y);
power = XpowerY(x, y); 2*2 x * XpowerY(2, 1)
printf("%.2f to the power of %d is %.2f\n\n", x, y, power);
return(0);
} ;x = 2; y = 3
double XpowerY(double x, int y) 2*4 x * XpowerY(2, 2)
{
if (y ==1)
return x;
;x = 2; y = 4
else
2*8 x * XpowerY(2, 3)
return x * XpowerY(x, y-1);
}
 Pointer to Function
#include <stdio.h>
void f1(float a){ printf("F1 %g", a);} A function pointer is defined in
void f2(float a){ printf("F2 %g", a);} the same way as a function
prototype, but the function
name is replaced by the pointer
int main(){ name prefixed with an asterisk
and encapsulated with
void (*ptrF)(float a); parenthesis
ptrF = f1; Example:
int (*fptr)(int, char)
ptrF(12.5);
fptr = some_function;
ptrF = f2;
ptrF(12.5); (*ftpr)(3,'A');
some_function(3,'A');
getch();
return 0;
}
 Array of Functions
#include<stdio.h>

void func1() { printf("Function 1 Called\n"); }

void func2() { printf("Function 2 Called\n"); }
void func3() { printf("Function 3 Called\n"); }

int main(int argc, char *argv[])

{
void (*ptr[3]) () = {func1, func2, func3};
int k = 0;
for(k = 0; k < 3; k++)
ptr[k]();
getch();
return 0;
}
Passing Arrays to Functions
#include <stdio.h>
void display(int a)
{
printf("%d",a);
}
int main()
{
int c[] = {2,3,4};
display(c[2]); //Passing array element c[2] only
return 0;
}
 Passing Arrays to Functions
#include <stdio.h>
float average(float a[], int count); // float average(float *a, int count)
int main(){
float avg, c[]={23.4, 55, 22.6, 3, 40.5, 18};
avg=average(c, 6); /* Only name of array is passed as argument */
printf("Average age=%.2f", avg);
return 0;
}
float average(float a[], int count){ // float average(float *a)
int I; float avg, sum = 0.0;
for(I = 0;I < count; ++i) sum += a[i];
avg = (sum / 6);
return avg; void func (int* x); /* this is a pointer */
void func (int x[]); /* this is a pointer */
}
void func (int x[10]); /* this is a pointer */
 Passing Arrays to Functions
#include <stdio.h>
void f1(float *a) { a[1] = 100;}
void f2(float a[]){ a[2] = 200;}
void printArrat(float a[])
{
int i = 0; Passing Array By Reference
for(; i < 6; i++) printf("%g ", a[i]);
}
int main(){
float c[]={23.4, 55, 22.6, 3, 40.5, 18};
f1(c);
printArrat(c);
puts(""); 18 40.5 3 22.6 55 23.4
f2(c);
printArrat(c); 18 40.5 3 22.6 100 23.4
getch(); 18 40.5 3 200 100 23.4
return 0;
}
Passing 2D, 3D,… Array to Functions
• Only the first dimension may be omitted
– int m[5][7];
– func(m);

– void func(int a[5][7]) { ... }

– void func(int a[][7]) { ... }
 Allocating Memory for a Pointer

// The following program is wrong! // This one is correct:

#include <stdio.h> #include <stdio.h>
int main() int main()
{ Don’t {
int *p; int *p;
scanf("%d", p); int a;
return 0; p = &a;
} scanf("%d", p);
return 0;
}
 malloc
• Prototype: void *malloc(size_t size); #include <stdlib.h>
– function returns the address of the first byte
– programmers responsibility to not lose the pointer
• Example:

Key
previously allocated
int *ptr;
ptr = (int *)malloc(sizeof(int)); // new allocation new allocation
10
Memory ptr

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
 free
• Prototype: void free(void *ptr)
– releases the area pointed to by ptr #include <stdlib.h>
– ptr must not be null
• trying to free the same area twice will generate an error

2
5
p2
p1

initial memory

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 NULL Key
free(p1); p1
p2 allocated memory
after free free memory
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Allocating Memory for a Pointer
• There is another way to allocate memory so the pointer can
point to something:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(){
int *p;
p = (int *) malloc( sizeof(int) ); /* Allocate 4 bytes */
scanf("%d", p);
printf("%d", *p);
// ....
free(p); /* This returns the memory to the system*/
/* Important !!! */
}
Allocating Memory for a Pointer
• You can use malloc and free to dynamically
allocate and release the memory

int *p;
p = (int *) malloc(1000 * sizeof(int) );
for(i=0; i<1000; i++)
p[i] = i;

p[999]=3;
p[1000]=3; /* Wrong! */
free(p);
p[0]=5; /* Wrong! */
 Structures
• Structures
– Be able to use compound data structures in programs

• Unions
– Be able to share storage space of their members

• Bit fields Structures

– Be able to do simple bit-vector manipulations

• Enumerations
– Be able to use compound symbolic constants
User Defined Data Types (typedef)
• The C language provides a facility called typedef for creating
synonyms for previously defined data type names.
• For example, the declaration:
typedef int Length;
makes the name Length a synonym (or alias) for the data type int.
• The data type name Length can now be used in declarations in
exactly the same way that the data type int can be used:
Length a, b, len ;
Length numbers[10] ;
typedef char String[50];
typedef int Array[10];
String name;
Array ages;
 Structures (struct)
• Structures—sometimes referred to as aggregates—are collections
of related variables under one name

• Structures may contain variables of many different data types—in

contrast to arrays that contain only elements of the same data type

• Structures are commonly used to define records to be stored in files

• Pointers and structures facilitate the formation of more complex

data structures such as linked lists, queues, stacks and trees

• Structures are derived data types—they are constructed using

objects of other types
 Declaring Structures (struct)
• The name "employee" is called a structure tag
• Variables declared within the braces of the structure
definition are the structure’s members

struct employee struct employee struct

{ { {
char firstName[ 20 ]; char firstName[ 20 ]; char firstName[ 20 ];
char lastName[ 20 ]; char lastName[ 20 ];
char lastName[ 20 ];
int age; int age;
int age; char gender; char gender;
char gender; double hourlySalary; double
double hourlySalary; } Ali, Sara, empDTS[20]; hourlySalary;
}; } Ali;
struct employee Ali, struct employee Reza,
emp[10]; *emp;
 Declaring Structures (struct)
• Often, typedef is used in combination with struct to declare a
synonym (or an alias) for a structure:

typedef struct struct employee

{ {
char firstName[ 20 ]; char firstName[ 20 ];
char lastName[ 20 ]; char lastName[ 20 ];
int age; int age;
char gender; char gender;
double hourlySalary; double hourlySalary;
} employee; /* The "alias" } Ali, Sara, empDTS[20];
employee Ali; /* Create a struct variable */
struct employee Reza, *emp;
 Declaring Structures (struct)
• Members of the same structure type must have unique
names, but two different structure types may contain
members of the same name without conflict

struct employee struct Student

{ {
char Name[ 20 ]; char Name[ 20 ]; // OK
char Name[ 20 ]; // Error!!! int age;
int age; char gender;
char gender; };
double hourlySalary; struct Student Ce40153[80];
} Ali, Sara, empDTS[20];
struct employee Reza, *emp;

• Each structure definition must end with a semicolon

 Declaring Structures (struct)
• A structure cannot contain an instance of itself
• For example, a variable of type struct employee cannot be
declared in the definition for struct employee A pointer to
struct employee, however, may be included
struct employee2 {
// …
double hourlySalary;
struct employee2 person; /* ERROR */
struct employee2 *ePtr; /* pointer */
};

• A structure containing a member that is a pointer to the

same structure type is referred to as a self-referential
structure
 Declaring Structures (struct)
• The structure tag name is optional

struct
{
char firstName[ 20 ];
char lastName[ 20 ];
int age;
char gender;
double hourlySalary;
} Ali;

• If a structure definition does not contain a structure tag

name, variables of the structure type may be declared
only in the structure definition—not in a separate
declaration
 Memory layout
struct COST {
int amount;
char currency_type[2];
}
struct PART {
char id[2];
struct COST cost;
int num_avail;
} currency_type

id amount num_avail

cost

• Here, the system uses 4-byte alignment of integers, so amount and num_avail
must be aligned Four bytes wasted for each structure!
 Memory layout
struct COST {
int amount;
char currency_type[2];
}
struct PART {
struct COST cost;
char id[2];
int num_avail; currency_type
}

amount id num_avail
cost

• Implementation dependent!!!
 Accessing Struct Members
• Individual members of a struct variable may be accessed using
the structure member operator (the dot, "."):
struct employee
myEmp.firstName ; {
employee. firstName; // Error char firstName[ 20 ];
// …
} myEmp;

• Or , if a pointer to the struct has been declared and initialized

employee *emp = &myEmp ;
– by using the structure pointer operator :
emp -> firstName; // arrow operator

– which could also be written as:

(* emp).firstName;
 An Example - Initialization

//Create a struct but don’t reserve space struct identity

struct personal {
{ char FirstName[30];
long id; // student ID char LastName[30];
float gpa; // grade point average unsigned age;
}; struct personal person;
};

struct identity js = {"Joe", "Smith", 25}, *ptr = &js ;

js.person.id = 123456789 ;
js.person.gpa = 3.4 ; personal
jsstrcpy(js.FirstName,
=js.{"Joe", "Smith",
.id 25,
"Joe");
9, 10}
Error
printf ("%s %s %d %ld %f\n", js.FirstName, js.LastName, js.age, js.person.id, js.person.gpa) ;
printf ("%s %s %d %ld %f\n", ptr->FirstName, ptr->LastName,ptr->age, ptr->person.id,
ptr->person.gpa) ;
 An Example - Assignment

//Create a struct but don’t reserve space struct identity

struct personal {
{ char FirstName[30];
long id; // student ID char LastName[30];
float gpa; // grade point average unsigned age;
}; struct personal person;
};

struct identity js = {"Joe", "Smith", 25}, oj ;

js.person.id = 123456789 ;
js.person.gpa = 3.4 ;
oj = js;
printf ("%s %s %d %ld %f\n", oj.FirstName, oj.LastName, oj.age, js.person.id, oj.person.gpa) ;
printf ("%s %s %d %ld %f\n", ptr->FirstName, ptr->LastName,ptr->age, ptr->person.id,
ptr->person.gpa) ;
 Arrays of Structures
struct identity sharifC40153[80] = {"omid", "Jafarinezhad", 14, 9140153, 20,
//Create a struct but don’t reserve space struct identity
"Samad", "Shekarestani", 90, 2222222, 20} ;
struct personal {
strcpy(sharifC40153[2].FirstName, "Khaje Nezam");
{ char FirstName[30];
strcpy(sharifC40153[2].LastName, "Shekarestani");
long id; // student ID char LastName[30];
sharifC40153[2]. age = 100;
float gpa; // grade point average unsigned age;
sharifC40153[2]. person.id = 11111111;
}; struct personal person;
sharifC40153[2]. person. gpa = 20;
} students[4];

person
age LastName FirstName
gpa id
20 9140153 14 Jafarinezhad omid students[0]
20 2222222 90 Shekarestani Samad Students[1]
20 11111111 100 Shekarestani Khaje Nezam students[2]
students[3]
 Pointers to Structures

Date create_date1(int month, void create_date2(Date *d,

int day, int month,
int year) int day,
{ Pass-by-reference int year)
Date d; {
d->month = month;
d.month = month; d->day = day;
d.day = day; d->year = year;
d.year = year; }

return (d);
}
Date today;

today = create_date1(9, 4, 2008);

Copies date create_date2(&today, 9, 4, 2008);
 Pointers to Structures

void create_date2(Date *d,

int month, 0x30A8 year: 2008
int day,
0x30A4 day: 4
int year)
{ 0x30A0 month: 9
d->month = month;
d->day = day; 0x3098 d: 0x1000
d->year = year;
}

void foo(void)
{ 0x1008 today.year: 2008
Date today;
0x1004 today.day: 4
create_date2(&today, 9, 4, 2008);
} 0x1000 today.month: 9
 Compression of Structures
• Structures may not be compared using
operators == and !=, because structure
members are not necessarily stored in
consecutive bytes of memory

struct a {
int a; // OK
int b;
};
struct a b, c;
b.a = 10;
b.b = 30;
c = b;
if(c == b) // Error
 Enumeration
• Enumeration is a user-defined data type. It is defined using the
keyword enum and the syntax is:
enum tag_name {name_0, …, name_n} ;

• The tag_name is not used directly. The names in the braces are
symbolic constants that take on integer values from zero through n.
As an example, the statement:
enum colors { red, yellow, green } ;

– creates three constants. red is assigned the value 0, yellow is assigned 1 and
green is assigned 2
 Enumeration
• Values in an enum start with 0, unless specified otherwise, and are
incremented by 1

• The identifiers in an enumeration must be unique

• The value of each enumeration constant of an enumeration can be set

explicitly in the definition by assigning a value to the identifier

• Multiple members of an enumeration can have the same constant

value

• Assigning a value to an enumeration constant after it has been defined

is a syntax error

• Use only uppercase letters enumeration constant names. This makes

these constants stand out in a program and reminds you that
enumeration constants are not variables
 An Example

/* enumeration constants represent months of the year */

enum months {JAN = 1, FEB, MAR, APR, MAY, JUN, JUL, AUG, SEP, OCT, NOV, DEC };

enum months month;

/* initialize array of pointers */

const char *monthName[] = { "", "January", "February", "March",
"April", "May", "June", "July", "August", "September", "October",

/* loop through months */

for (month = JAN; month <= DEC; month++ )
{
printf( "%2d%11s\n", month, monthName[month] );
}
 Unions
• A union is a derived data type—like a structure—with members
that share the same storage space

• For different situations in a program, some variables may not be

relevant, but other variables are—so a union shares the space
instead of wasting storage on variables that are not being used

• The members of a union can be of any data type

• The number of bytes used to store a union must be at least

enough to hold the largest member

• Only one member, and thus one data type, can be referenced at
a time
 Unions representation

c
union myDataUnion {
int i;
char c;
float f;
i
} u1, u2;
union myDataUnion u3;
f
u1.i = 4;
u1.c = ’a’;
u2.i = 0xDEADBEEF;
 Unions
• The operations that can be performed on a
union are the following:
– assigning a union to another union of the same type
– taking the address (&) of a union variable
– accessing union members using the structure
member operator and the structure pointer operator

• Unions may not be compared using operators ==

and != for the same reasons that structures
cannot be compared
 Unions
• In a declaration, a union may be initialized
with a value of the same type as the first
union member

union a
{
int a; // OK
char b[4];
};

union a b = {10};
printf("%d", b.a);
 Unions

• A union value doesn’t "know" which case it contains

union AnElt {
int i;
?
char c; How should your program keep track whether
} elt1, elt2; elt1, elt2 hold an int or a char?

elt1.i = 4;
elt2.c = ’a’;
?
elt2.i = 0xDEADBEEF; Basic answer: Another variable holds that info

if (elt1 currently has a char) …

 Tagged Unions
• Tag every value with its case

enum Union_Tag {IS_INT, IS_CHAR};

struct TaggedUnion { Enum must be external to struct,
enum Union_Tag tag; so constants are globally visible
union {
int i;
char c;
} data;
}; Struct field must be named
 Bit-field Structures
• C enables you to specify the number of bits in which an unsigned
or int member of a structure or union is stored

• This is referred to as a bit field

• Bit fields enable better memory utilization by storing data in the

minimum number of bits required

• Bit field members must be declared as int or unsigned

• A bit field is declared by following an unsigned or int member

name with a colon (:) and an integer constant representing the
width of the field (i.e., the number of bits in which the member
is stored)
 Bit-field Structures
• Notice that bit field members of structures are
accessed exactly as any other structure member
struct Flags
{
int f1:3;
f1 f2 f3
unsigned int f2:1;
unsigned int f3:2; 0 1 1 1 0 1 … … …8 bit … …8 bit … …8 bit …
} foo;
foo.f1 = -2;
foo.f2 = 1;
foo.f3 = 2;

• Padded to be an integral number of words

– Placement is compiler-specific
 Unnamed Bit-field
struct example {
unsigned a : 13;

unsigned : 19;
unsigned b : 4;
};
• uses an unnamed 19-bit field as padding—nothing can be stored in those 19
bits
• An unnamed bit field with a zero width is used to align the next bit field on
a new storage-unit boundary
• For example, the structure definition
struct example {
unsigned a : 13;
unsigned : 0;
unsigned b : 4;
};
uses an unnamed 0-bit field to skip the remaining bits (as many as there
are) of the storage unit in which a is stored and to align b on the next
storage-unit boundary
An Example - disk drive controller
• Frequently device controllers (e.g. disk drives)
and the operating system need to
communicate at a low level. Device controllers
contain several registers which may be packed
together in one integer
An Example - disk drive controller
struct DISK_REGISTER {
unsigned ready:1;
unsigned error_occured:1;
unsigned disk_spinning:1;
unsigned write_protect:1;
unsigned head_loaded:1;
unsigned error_code:8;
unsigned track:9;
unsigned sector:5;
unsigned command:5;
};
struct DISK_REGISTER *disk_reg = (struct DISK_REGISTER *) DISK_REGISTER_MEMORY;
/* Define sector and track to start read */
disk_reg->sector = new_sector;
disk_reg->track = new_track;
disk_reg->command = READ;
/* wait until operation done, ready will be true */
while ( ! disk_reg->ready ) ;
/* check for errors */
if (disk_reg->error_occured)
{ /* interrogate disk_reg->error_code for error type */
switch (disk_reg->error_code)
......
}