‫المحاضرة‬

‫الثانية‬
Viscosity

Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. The viscosity of a

liquid is related to the ease with which the molecules can move with

respect to one another. Thus the viscosity of a liquid depends on the:

 Strength of attractive forces between molecules, which depend on

their composition, size, and shape.

 The kinetic energy of the molecules, which depend on the

temperature
Viscosity is not a strong function of pressure; hence the effects

of pressure on viscosity can be neglected. However, viscosity

depends greatly on temperature. For liquids, the viscosity

decreases with temperature, whereas for gases, the viscosity

increases with temperature. For example, crude oil is often

heated to a higher temperature to reduce the viscosity for

transport.
Consider the situation below, where the top plate is moved by a

force F moving at a constant rate of V (m/s).

 Fixed plate

The shear stress τ is given by:

τ = F/A

The rate of deformation dv (or the magnitude of the velocity

component) will increase with distance above the fixed plate.
Hence:

τ = constant x (dv / dy)

where the constant of proportionality is known as the Dynamic

viscosity (µ) of the particular fluid separating the two plates.

τ = µ x (V / y)
Where V is the velocity of the moving plate, and y is the

distance separating the two plates. The units of dynamic

viscosity are kg/ms or Pa s. A non-SI unit in common

usage is the poise where 1 poise = 10-1 kg/m.s

Kinematic viscosity (ν) is defined as the ratio of dynamic
viscosity to density. i.e.

ν=μ/ρ
The units of kinematic viscosity are m2/s.

Another non-SI unit commonly encountered is the “stoke”

where

1 stoke = 10-4 m2/s.

Typical liquid Dynamic Viscosity Centipoise* Kinematic Viscosity Centistokes
(cp) (cSt)
Water 1 1
Vegetable oil 34.6 43.2
SAE 10 oil 88 110
SAE 30 oil 352 440
Glycerine 880 1100
SAE 50 oil 1561 1735
SAE 70 oil 17,640 19,600

Table 1.1 Viscosity of selected fluids at standard temperature

and pressure

Note: 1 cp = 10-3kg/ms and 1 cSt = 10-6

m2/s
Figure 1.1 Variation of the Viscosity of some common fluids
with temperature
Examples
1. Determine the kinematic viscosity of air at 20 0C if its dynamic viscosity is
1.85 x 10-4 poise and its mass density is 1.208 kg/m3.
Solution:
µ = 1.85 x 10-4 poise
= 1.85 x 10 -5
kg/m s
ν = μ / ρ = 1.85 x 10 -5
/ 1.208 = 1.531 x 10-5 m2/s

2. The space between two parallel horizontal plates kept 5 mm apart is filled
with crude oil of dynamic viscosity 2.5 kg/m s. If the lower plate is stationary
and upper plate is pulled with a velocity of 1.75 m/s, determine the shear
stress on the lower plate.

Solution:
= = 0.35 x 103 s -1

τ = µ = 2.5 x 0.35 x 103 = 875 N/m2

3 If the velocity distribution in laminar boundary layer over a flat
plate is given by
u = 2y -2y3 + y4
Determine the shear stress on the plate and at y = 0.1 m if dynamic
viscosity of the fluid is 1 x 10-3 kg/m s.

Solution:
= 2 -6y2 + 4y3
At y= 0 τ = µ = 1 x 10-3 x 2 = 2 x 10-3 N/m2
At y= 0.1 m τ = µ = 1 x 10-3 x (2 – 0.06 + 0.004)
= 1.944 x 10-3 N/m2
 PRESSURES AND ITS
MEASUREMENT
Fluid Pressure
Fluid pressure is the force exerted by the fluid per unit area. Fluid

pressure is transmitted with equal intensity in all directions and acts

normal to any plane. In the same horizontal plane the pressure

intensities in a liquid are equal. In the SI system the units of fluid

pressure are Newtons/m2 or Pascals, where 1 N/m2 = 1 Pa.

1 bar =105 N/m2

1 atmosphere = 101325 N/m2

Pressure Head. The pressure intensity at the base of a column of
homogenous fluid of a given height in meters.

Vacuum. A perfect vacuum is a completely empty space in which,

therefore the pressure is zero.

Atmospheric Pressure. The pressure at the surface of the earth

due to the head of air above the surface. At sea level the atmospheric
pressure is about 101.325 kN/m2 (i.e. one atmosphere = 101.325
kN/m2 is used as units of pressure).

Gauge Pressure. The pressure measured above or below

atmospheric pressure.
Absolute Pressure. The pressure measured above absolute zero or
vacuum.

Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric

Pressure
The relation among absolute, atmospheric, gauge and Vacuum Pressure are shown in figure

Absolute, Gauge, Vacuum and atmospheric Pressure

Mathematically:

i. For positive gauge pressure

Absolute pressure (Pabs ) = Atmospheric pressure ( ) + Gauge pressure (Pg )

Pabs = Patm + Pg
ii. For vacuum pressure or negative gauge pressure
Absolute pressure (Pabs ) = Atmospheric pressure (Patm ) - Vacuum pressure (Pvac )

Pabs = Patm – Pvac

Pascal’s Law
It states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static

fluid is equal in all direction. This is proved as: the fluid element is of

every small dimension i.e. dx, dy, and ds. Consider an arbitrary fluid

element of wedge shape in a fluid mass at rest as shown in figure. Let

the width of the element perpendicular to the plane of paper in unity

and Px , Py and Pz are the pressures or intensity of pressure acting on

the face AB, AC and BC respectively. Let ⦟ ABC = θ

Then the forces acting on the element are:

• Pressure forces normal to the surface

• Weight of element in the vertical direction
The forces on the faces are:
Force on the face AB = px x Area of face AB

= px x dy x 1

Similarly force on the face AC = py x dx x 1

Force on the face BC = pz x ds x 1

Weight of element = (Mass of element) x g

ρ x
= (Volume x g
Resolving the forces in x-direction, we have

px x dy x 1 - pz x (ds x 1) sin (900 - 𝜃) = 0

px x dy x 1 - pz x ds x 1 cos 𝜃 = 0

but from figure

ds cos 𝜃 = AB = dy

∴ px x dy x 1 - pz x dy x 1 = 0

∴ px = pz
Similarly, resolving the forces in y-direction, we get

py x dx x 1 - pz x ds x 1cos (900 - 𝜃) - 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 x 1 x ρ x g = 0

py x dx - pz x ds sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 xρxg=0

But ds sin 𝜃 = dx and also the element is very small and hence

weight is negligible

py x dx - pz x dx = 0

py = pz

∴ px = py = pz
The above equation shows that the pressure at any point in x, y

and z direction is equal. Since the choice of fluid element was

completely arbitrary, which means the pressure at any point is

the same in all directions.

Pressure variation in a fluid at rest

The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained by the

Hydrostatic Low which states that the rate of increase of pressure

in a vertically downward direction must be equal to the specific

weight of the fluid at the point. This is proved as:

Consider a small fluid element as shown in figure

Let ∆A = Cross-sectional area of element

∆Z = Height of fluid element

P = Pressure on face AB

Z = Distance of fluid element from free surface

The forces acting on the fluid element are:

 Pressure force on AB = p x ∆𝐴 and acting perpendicular to face AB in the

downward direction.
 Pressure force on CD = (𝑝 + 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑍 ∆𝑍) x ∆𝐴, acting

perpendicular to face CD, vertically upward direction.

 Weight of fluid element = Density x g x Volume = ρ x g x (∆𝐴 x ∆𝑍)

 Pressure forces on surface BC and AD are equal and opposite. For

equilibrium of fluid element, we have

p ∆𝐴 - (𝑝 + 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑍 ∆𝑍) x ∆𝐴 + ρ x g x (∆𝐴 x

∆𝑍) = 0

(− 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑍 ∆𝑍) x ∆𝐴 + ρ x g x (∆𝐴 x ∆𝑍) = 0

( 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑍 ∆𝑍) x ∆𝐴 = ρ x g x (∆𝐴 x ∆𝑍)

∴ 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑧 = ρ g = 𝛾

where 𝛾 = weight density of fluid

This Equation states that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical
direction is equal to weight density of the fluid at that point. This is
Hydrostatic Low.
By integrating the above equation for liquids, we get
∫ 𝑑𝑝 = ∫ 𝜌gz
P = ρgz
Where p is the pressure above atmospheric pressure and Z is the height
of the point from free surface
Z = 𝑝 𝜌𝑔 = 𝑝 𝛾

Here Z is called pressure head

Atmospheric Pressure and its Measurement
The atmospheric pressure is defined as the normal force exerted
by atmospheric air per unit area. It is classified into two
categories:
i. Standard atmospheric pressure:
This pressure is measurement at sea level and 15 oC

temperature. The value of the standard atmospheric pressure

is fixed:
i.e. 760 mm of Hg = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar
ii. Local atmospheric pressure:

This pressure is measured at condition and place. The value of the

local atmospheric pressure is not fixed, varies at given place

with change in weather.

Measuring Atmospheric Pressure

The standard instrument used to measure the atmospheric pressure,
is called Barometer. In this experiment immersed a tube, sealed at
one end, in a container of mercury as shown in figure. Atmospheric
pressure then forced mercury up into the tube that was considerably
higher than the mercury in a container.
Measurement of Pressure
The pressure of a fluid is measured by using the following two principles:

Principle (1)
The pressure of a fluid is measured at a point in a fluid by balancing the column of same liquid or

the column of another liquid. According to the principle (1), the instruments used to measure the

pressure of a liquid, are called manometers:

Manometers are classified as:

i. Simple Manometers
a) Piezometer

b) U-tube manometer

c) Single column manometer

ii. Differential Manometer.
1) U-tube differential manometer

2) Inverted U-tube differential manometer

Principle (2)
The pressure of a fluid is measured at a point in a fluid by balancing the force of a spring or dead

weight. According to the principle (2), the instruments used to measure the pressure of a liquid,are

called mechanical gauges.

Mechanical gauges are classified as:

i. Diaphragm pressure gauge,

ii. Bourdon tube pressure gauge,

iii. Dead-weight pressure gauge,

iv. Bellows pressure gauge.