CELL STRUCTURE

AND FUNCTIONS
 OBJECTIVES
◦After completing this lesson, you will be able to :

 justify that cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all organisms;
 list the components of the cell and state cell theory;
 differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells;
 differentiate between plant and animal cells;
 illustrate the structure of plant and animal cells by drawing labelled diagrams;
 describe the structure and functions of plasma membrane, cell wall,
endoplasmic reticulum (ER), cilia, flagella, nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria,
chloroplasts, golgi body, peroxisome, glyoxysome and lysosome;
“A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is
responsible for all of life’s processes.”

Humans are made up of trillions of cells — the basic unit of life on earth.

Cells - tiny packages that contain minute factories, warehouses, transport

systems, and power plants.
- function on their own, creating their own energy and self-replicating
the cell is the smallest unit of life that can replicate.
-communicate with each other and connect to create a solid, well
stuck-together animal.
-build tissues, which form organs; and organs work together to keep
the organism alive.

Robert Hook first discovered cells in 1665. He gave them their

name because they resembled the cella (Latin for “small rooms”)
where monks lived in monasteries.
Life Processes
◦ Living organisms have certain life processes in
common. There are seven things that they need
to do to count as being alive. The phrase MRS
GREN is one way to remember them:
• Movement - all living things move, even plants
• Respiration - getting energy from food
• Sensitivity - detecting changes in the
surroundings
• Growth - all living things grow
• Reproduction - making more living things of the
same type
• Excretion - getting rid of waste
• Nutrition - taking in and using food
Types of Cell – Prokaryotic &
Eukaryotic
 Cell
Organelles
 Cell Organelles Structure Functions
Cell membrane A double membrane composed Provides shape, protects the
of lipids and proteins. Present inner organelles of the cell and
both in plant and animal cells. acts as a selectively permeable
membrane.

Centrosomes Composed of centrioles and It plays a major role in

found only in the animal cells. organizing the microtubule and
cell division.
Chloroplasts Present only in plant cells and Sites of photosynthesis.
contains a green-coloured
pigment known as chlorophyll.

Cytoplasm A jelly-like substance, which Responsible for the cell’s

consists of water, dissolved metabolic activities.
nutrients and waste products of
the cell.

Endoplasmic Reticulum A network of membranous Forms the skeletal framework of

tubules, present within the the cell, involved in the
cytoplasm of a cell. detoxification, production of
lipids and proteins.
Golgi apparatus Membrane-bound, sac-like It is mainly involved in
organelles, present within the secretion and intracellular
cytoplasm of the eukaryotic transport.
cells.
Lysosomes A tiny, circular-shaped, single Helps in the digestion and
membrane-bound organelles, removes wastes and digests
filled with digestive enzymes. dead and damaged cells.
Therefore, it is also called as
the “suicidal bags”.
Mitochondria An oval-shaped, membrane- The main site of cellular
bound organelle, also called respiration and also involved
as the “Powerhouse of The in storing energy in the form
Cell”. of ATP molecules.
Nucleus The largest, double Controls the activity of the
membrane-bound organelles, cell, helps in cell division and
which contains all the cell’s controls the hereditary
genetic information. characters.
Peroxisome A membrane-bound cellular Involved in the metabolism of
organelle present in the lipids and catabolism of long-
cytoplasm, which contains the chain fatty acids.
reducing enzyme.
Plastids Double membrane-bound Helps in the process of
organelles. There are 3 types photosynthesis and
of plastids: pollination, imparts colour to
1.Leucoplast –Colourless leaves, flowers, fruits and
plastids. stores starch, proteins and
2.Chromoplast–Blue, red, fats.
and yellow colour plastids.
3.Chloroplast – Green
coloured plastids.

Ribosomes Non-membrane organelles, Involved in the synthesis of

found floating freely in the proteins.
cell’s cytoplasm or embedded
within the endoplasmic
reticulum.

Vacuoles A membrane-bound, fluid-filled Provide shape and rigidity to

organelle found within the the plant cell and help in
cytoplasm. digestion, excretion, and
storage of substances.
Cell and Organelle Overview
◦ Biology: Cell Structure I Nucleus Medical Media - YouTube
The Plasma Membrane
◦ The plasma membrane is made of proteins and lipids and several models were proposed
regarding the arrangement of proteins and lipids. The fluid mosaic model proposed by Singer
and Nicholson (1972) is widely accepted. It is represented in Fig 4.3.
◦ According to the fluid mosaic model,
(i) The plasma membrane is composed of a lipid bilayer of phospholipid molecules into which a
variety of globular proteins are embedded.

(ii) Each phospholipid molecule has two ends, an outer head hydrophilic i.e. water attracting, and
the inner tail pointing centrally hydrophobic, i.e. water repelling

(iii)The protein molecules are arranged in two different ways:

(a) Peripheral proteins or extrinsic proteins: these proteins are present on the outer and inner
surfaces of lipid bilayer.
(b) Integral proteins or intrinsic proteins: These proteins penetrate the lipid bilayer partially
or wholly.
Phospholipids form the basic structure of a cell membrane. Hydrophobic tails of
phospholipids are facing the core of the membrane, avoiding contact with the inner
and outer watery environment. Hydrophilic heads are facing the surface of the
membrane in contact with intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid
Cell Membrane
◦ An outermost envelope-like membrane or a structure, which surrounds the cell and
its organelles is called the plasma membrane. It is a double membraned cell
organelle, which is also called the phospholipid bilayer and is present both in
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
◦ Structure
◦A plasma membrane is mainly composed of carbohydrates, phospholipids, proteins,
conjugated molecules, which is about 5 to 8 nm in thickness.

◦ The plasma membrane is a flexible and lipid bilayer that surrounds and contains
the cytoplasm of the cell. Based on their arrangement of molecules and the
presence of certain specialized components, it is also described as the fluid mosaic
model
Small area of the plasma membrane showing lipids (phospholipids and cholesterol),
different proteins, glycolipids and glycoproteins.
Functions of Cell Membrane
 The plasma membrane functions as a physical barrier between the external
environment and the inner cell organelles.
 The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable membrane, which permits the
movement of only certain molecules both in and out of the cell.
 The plasma membranes play an important role in both the endocytosis and
exocytosis process.
 The plasma membrane also functions by facilitating the communication and
signalling between the cells.
 The plasma membrane plays a vital role in anchoring the cytoskeleton to provide
shape to the cell and also maintains the cell potential.
Cell Membrane Transportation
◦ Cell Membrane Transport - Transport Across A Membrane - How Do Things Move Across A Cell Membr
ane - YouTube
Transport of small molecules (such as glucose,
amino acids, water, mineral ions etc).

◦ Small molecules can be transported across the plasma membrane by

any one of the following three methods:
◦ (i) Diffusion : molecules of substances move from their region of
higher concentration to the regions of lower concentration. This does
not require energy. Example : absorption of glucose in a cell.
◦ (ii) Osmosis: movement of water molecules from the region of
their higher concentration to the region of their lower concentration
through a semipermeable membrane. There is no expenditure of
energy in osmosis. This kind of movement is along concentration
gradient.
◦(iii) Active Transport: When the direction of movement of a
certain molecule is opposite to that of diffusion i.e. from region
of their lower concentration towards the region of their higher
concentration, it would require an “active effort” by the cell for
which energy is needed. This energy is provided by ATP
(adenosine triphosphate). The active transport may also be
through a carrier molecule.
 Transport of large molecules (bulk transport)
During bulk transport the membrane changes its form and shape. It occurs in two ways:
(i) endocytosis (taking the substance in) Phagocytosis Pinocytosis

◦ exocytosis (passing the substance out)

◦ There are 2 types of endocytosis 1. intake of solid 1. intake of fluid
particles droplets
2. membrane 2. membrane
folds out going folds in and
round the forms a cup-
particle, like
forming a structure
cavity and and sucks in
thus engulfing the droplets
the particle (Fig. 4.4b)
(Fig. 4.4a)
Diagrammatic representation of (a) phagocytosis; (b) pinocytosis
Cell membrane regulates movement of substance into and out of the cell. If the cell membrane fails to function normally, the cell dies.
Retina and Vision
Vision: It all Starts with Light
◦ Vision begins with light passing through the cornea, which does about three-quarters of the
focusing, and then the lens, which adjusts the focus.
◦ Both combine to produce a clear image of the visual world on a sheet of photoreceptors called the
retina, which is part of the central nervous system but located at the back of the eye.
◦ hotoreceptors gather visual information by absorbing light and sending electrical signals to other
retinal neurons for initial processing and integration. The signals are then sent via the optic nerve
to other parts of brain, which ultimately processes the image and allows us to see.

◦ Rods and cones function as photoreceptors in the retina of the eye, turning visible light
into neuronal signals, which are sent to the brain. This process is called transduction. Rods
and cones perform at different wavelengths and sensitivities allowing detailed perception of light
and color.
Rods
Two major types of photoreceptors are rods and cones. Rods are extremely sensitive to light
and allow us to see in dim light, but they do not convey color. Rods constitute 95 percent of all
photoreceptors in humans. Most of our vision, however, comes from cones that work under
most light conditions and are responsible for acute detail and color vision.

◦ Cones

◦ The human eye contains three types of cones (red, green and blue), each sensitive to a different range of colors.

Because their sensitivities overlap, cones work in combination to convey information about all visible colors. You

might be surprised to know that we can see thousands of colors using only three types of cones, but computer

monitors use a similar process to generate a spectrum of colors. The central part of the human retina, where light

is focused, is called the fovea, which contains only red and green cones. The area around the fovea, called the

macula, is critical for reading and driving. Death of photoreceptors in the macula, called macular degeneration, is a

leading cause of blindness among the elderly population in developed countries,