Radio Wave

Propagation
Lecture-2
 Space Waves
• The third method of radio signal propagation is by direct waves,
or space waves.
• A direct wave travels in a straight line directly from the
transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna.
• Direct wave radio signaling is often referred to as line-of-sight
communication.
• Direct or space waves are not refracted, nor do they follow the
curvature of the earth.
• Because of their straight-line nature, direct wave signals travel
horizontally from the transmitting antenna until they reach the
horizon, at which point they are blocked (Figure in next slide).
• If a direct wave signal is to be received beyond the horizon, the
receiving antenna must be high enough to intercept it.
• The formula for computing the distance between a transmitting
antenna and the horizon is:
where
ht = height of transmitting antenna (ft)
d = distance from transmitter to horizon (miles)
This is called the radio horizon.

• To find the practical transmission distance D for straight-line wave

transmissions, the height of the receiving antenna must be
included in the calculations:
 +
where hr = height of the receiving antenna (ft)
Example:

If a transmitting antenna is 350 ft high and the receiving

antenna is 25 ft high, find the longest practical
transmission distance?
• Line-of-sight communication is mostly found in radio signals
with a frequency above approximately 30 MHz, particularly VHF,
UHF, and microwave signals.

• Such signals pass through the ionosphere and are not bent.
• Transmission distances at those frequencies are extremely
limited, and that is why very high transmitting antennas must be
used for FM and TV broadcasts.
• The antennas for transmitters and receivers operating at the
very high frequencies are typically located on top of tall
buildings or on mountains, which greatly increases the range of
transmission and reception.
• To extend the communication distance at VHF, UHF, and
microwave frequencies, special techniques have been adopted.
• The most important of these is the use of repeater stations
(figure in next slide).
• A repeater is a combination of a receiver and a transmitter
operating on separate frequencies.
• The receiver picks up a signal from a remote transmitter,
amplifies it, and retransmits it (on another frequency) to a
remote receiver.
• Usually, the repeater is located between the transmitting and
receiving stations, and therefore it extends the communication
distance.
• Repeaters have extremely sensitive receivers and high-power
transmitters, and their antennas are located at high points.
• Repeaters are widely used to increase the communication
range for mobile and handheld radio units.
• The limited transmitting and receiving range of such units can
be extended considerably by operating them through a repeater
located at some high point.
• In high-activity areas, a repeater used for mobile units will
become overloaded when too many users try to access it at the
same time.
• In that case, some users have to wait until free time becomes
available and then make a call.
• Although multiple repeaters can be used to ease overcrowding,
but usually it doesn’t work as communication activity is not
equally distributed among them.
• This problem is solved by using trunked repeater systems in
which under the control of a computer system a user is
transferred from a busy repeater to another available repeater.
• Each repeater contains a receiver and a transmitter.
• The original signal is picked up, amplified, and retransmitted on
a different frequency to a second repeater, which repeats the
process.
• Typically, such relay stations are located 20 to 60 miles apart,
mostly at high elevations to ensure reliable communication over
very long distances.
• The “ultimate” repeater is, of course, a communication satellite.
Most communication satellites are located in a geostationary
orbit 22,500 miles above the equator.
• Since at that distance it takes exactly 24hrs. to rotate around
the earth, communication satellites appear stationary.
• They act as fixed repeater stations. Signals sent to a satellite
are amplified and retransmitted to earth long distances away.
• The receiver-transmitter combination within the satellite is
known as a transponder.
Common Propagation Problems
• Although radio waves pass right through most objects on their
way from transmitter to receiver, they are negatively influenced
by these objects.
• The result is a common problem called fading.
• Good design of a communication system can minimize but not
completely eliminate fading.
• One way to overcome fading is to use a diversity system.
 Fading
• One of the primary effects of radio wave propagation is called
fading.
• Fading is the variation in signal amplitude at the receiver caused
by the characteristics of the signal path and changes in it.
• Fading causes the received signal to vary in amplitude, typically
making it smaller.
• Under some conditions, the received signal may actually be
larger than a direct path signal depending upon the specific
communication situation.
• Fading is caused by four factors:
i. variation in distance between transmitter and receiver.
ii. changes in the environmental characteristics of the signal
path.
iii. the presence of multiple signal paths.
iv. relative motion between the transmitter and receiver.
• As a receiver gets farther away from a transmitter, the signal
gets weaker just because the path length is increasing.
• If the receiver moves closer to the transmitter, the signal
strength increases.
• Both types of situations occur when one or perhaps both
transceivers are moving with respect to the other.
• It is especially noticeable in airplanes and in cars. This type of
fading is generally gradual and does not result in severe or
rapid swings in signal amplitude.
• Fading is also caused by objects coming between the transmitter
and receiver known as shadow fading.
• It occurs if a vehicle containing a transceiver moves in such a way
that a large building or a mountain comes between it and a base
station transceiver.
• The obstacle causes the signal to be attenuated, resulting in fading.
• When a car enters a tunnel, the signal may be greatly attenuated so
that fading occurs.
• Even the movement of a rainstorm or snowstorm between
transmitter and receiver can cause fading.
Multipath interference

• One of the worst sources of fading is multipath interference.

Sometimes called Rayleigh fading, this type of fading occurs
when a transmitted signal takes multiple paths to the receiver
because of reflections.
• Radio signals are easily reflected by conducting objects. The
signal is usually radiated by a nondirectional antenna over a
wide horizontal range in such a way that it will strike the
receiver antenna directly by way of the direct line-of-sight space
wave, but it may also strike many obstacles along the way.
• Buildings, towers, hills and mountains, and even moving
vehicles all have reflected surfaces that will direct a signal along
a separate path to the receiving antenna.
• The signal may also be reflected from the ground or water. The
result is that multiple signals reach the receiver antenna at
different times.
• Reflected signals take a longer path than a direct signal, so they
are delayed and arrive at the antenna later than the direct
signal.
• Another type of fading is caused by movement of either the
transmitter or the receiver.
• When the transmitter is in a car, plane, or other vehicle, rapid
movement toward or away from the receiver introduces a signal
frequency change called a Doppler shift.
• Movement that causes the transmitter and receiver to get closer
to each other causes the signal frequency to increase.
• Movement that increases the distance causes a frequency
decrease.
• In most cases, several types of fading occur simultaneously.
Multipath fading and shadow fading are the worst offenders.
• If you have ever used a cell phone from a moving car in a
changing environment, you know that fading can cause
significant signal variations, including no service at all.
• Using a cell phone or radio in a large city with many tall
buildings produces extreme multipath interference and shadow
fading.
• Using cell phones or other wireless equipment inside a building
essentially does the same.
• Although fading can occur on signals of any frequency, it is
most pronounced in UHF and microwave communication,
where the signal wavelengths are very short compared to the
path distances and size of reflective surfaces.
• Fading is a significant problem with cell phones and other radio
equipment especially when one or more of the transceivers are
in motion.
• Fading is also a problem in long-distance shortwave
communication when the signal can take several bounces off
the ionosphere and the earth to produce canceling of signals.
• A significant amount of fading can make communication
unreliable.
• To overcome fading, most communication systems have a built-
in fading margin.
• That is, they have a high enough transmitter power and
sufficient receiver sensitivity to the signal reliability.
• A fade margin of at least 5 dB is built into most systems.
• Multipath fading can also be greatly minimized by using highly
directive antennas, either at the transmitter or at the receiver or
at both.
• Narrow transmit and receive beams virtually eliminate multiple
paths and the related fading.
• However, in most communication systems, nondirectional (i.e.,
omnidirectional) antennas are used.
Diversity System
• Fading can also be minimized by using what is called a diversity
system. A diversity system uses multiple transmitters, receivers,
or antennas to mitigate the problems caused by multipath
signals.
• Two common types of diversity:
i. frequency
ii. spatial.
In frequency diversity, two separate sets of transmitters and
receivers operating on different frequencies are used to transmit
the same information simultaneously.
• In this way signals on different frequencies will react differently
to the various fading systems, resulting in to receive a reliably
signal.
• To be effective, the frequencies should be widely spaced from
one another.
• Another more widely used form of diversity is called space or
spatial diversity.
• It uses two receiver antennas spaced as far apart as possible
to receive the signals.
• Diversity systems are used mainly at base stations rather than
in portable or handheld units.
• The basic idea is that antennas at different locations will receive
different variations of the signals, with one being better than
another.
• The spacing may be horizontal or vertical, whichever is the
more convenient.