Research is an essential and powerful tool in leading man

towards progress. Without systematic research there would

have been very little progress.
Word ‘Research’ is comprises of two words = Re+Search. It
means to search again. So research means a systematic
investigation or activity to gain new knowledge of the already
existing facts.

“Research is an endeavor / attempt to discover, develop and

verify knowledge. It is an intellectual process that has
developed over hundreds of years ever changing in purpose “Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for
and form and always researching to truth.” facts and their meanings or implications with reference to a
J. Francis Rummel given problem. The product or findings of a given piece of
research should be an authentic, verifiable contribution to
knowledge in the field studied.”
P.M. Cook

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions

through the application of scientific procedure. The main aim of
research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has
not been discovered as yet.
 Science & Social Science
Etymologically, the word ‘science’ is derived from the Latin
word scientia meaning knowledge. Science refers to a
systematic and organised body of knowledge in any area of
inquiry that is acquired using ‘the scientific method’

Science can be grouped into two broad categories: natural science

and social science.

Natural science is the science of naturally occurring objects or phenomena, such

as light, objects, matter, earth, celestial bodies, or the human body. Natural
sciences can be further classified into physical sciences, earth sciences, life
sciences, and others. Physical sciences consist of disciplines such as physics (the
science of physical objects), chemistry (the science of matter), and astronomy
(the science of celestial objects). Earth sciences consist of disciplines such as
geology (the science of the earth). Life sciences include disciplines such as
biology (the science of human bodies) and botany (the science of plants).
In contrast, social science is the science of people or collections of
people, such as groups, firms, societies, or economies, and their
individual or collective behaviours. Social sciences can be classified into
disciplines such as psychology (the science of human behaviours),
sociology (the science of social groups), and economics (the science of
firms, markets, and economies).
The natural sciences are different from the social sciences in several
respects. The natural sciences are very precise, accurate, deterministic,
and independent of the person making the scientific observations.

Social sciences, which tend to be less accurate, deterministic, or

unambiguous. For instance, if you measure a person’s happiness using a
hypothetical instrument, you may find that the same person is more happy
or less happy (or sad) on different days and sometimes, at different times
on the same day.

There is a high degree of measurement error in the social sciences and there
is considerable uncertainty and little agreement on social science policy
decisions.

Any student studying the social sciences must be cognizant of and comfortable
with handling higher levels of ambiguity, uncertainty, and error that come with
such sciences, which merely reflect the high variability of social objects.
Sciences can also be classified based on their purpose. Basic sciences,
also called pure sciences, are those that explain the most basic objects
and forces, relationships between them, and laws governing them.
Examples include physics, mathematics, and biology. Applied sciences,
also called practical sciences, are sciences that apply scientific knowledge
from basic sciences in a physical environment. For instance, engineering
is an applied science that applies the laws of physics and chemistry for
practical applications such as building stronger bridges or fuel efficient
combustion engines, while medicine is an applied science that applies
the laws of biology to solving human ailments. Both basic and applied
sciences are required for human development.

The purpose of science is to create scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge

refers to a generalised body of laws and theories for explaining a phenomenon
or behaviour of interest that is acquired using the scientific method. Laws are
observed patterns of phenomena or behaviours, while theories are systematic
explanations of the underlying phenomenon or behaviour.
The goal of scientific research is to discover laws and postulate theories that
can explain natural or social phenomena, or in other words, build scientific
knowledge. It is important to understand that this knowledge may be
imperfect or even quite far from the truth. Sometimes, there may not be a
single universal truth, but rather an equilibrium of ‘multiple truths.’ We must
understand that the theories upon which scientific knowledge is based are
only explanations of a particular phenomenon as suggested by a scientist.

We arrive at scientific laws or theories through a process of logic and

evidence. Logic (theory) and evidence (observations) are the two, and
only two, pillars upon which scientific knowledge is based.

Scientific research operates at two levels: a theoretical level and an empirical

level. The theoretical level is concerned with developing abstract concepts about
a natural or social phenomenon and relationships between those concepts (i.e.,
build ‘theories’), while the empirical level is concerned with testing the
theoretical concepts and relationships to see how well they reflect our
observations of reality, with the goal of ultimately building better theories. Over
time, a theory becomes more and more refined (i.e., fits the observed reality
better), and the science gains maturity.
 Depending on a researcher’s training and interest, scientific inquiry may take one
of two possible forms: inductive or deductive. In inductive research, the goal of
a researcher is to infer theoretical concepts and patterns from observed data. In
deductive research, the goal of the researcher is to test concepts and patterns
known from theory using new empirical data. Hence, inductive research is also
called theory-building research, and deductive research is theory-testing
research.
Note that inductive and deductive research are two halves of the research cycle
that constantly iterates between theory and observations. You cannot do
inductive or deductive research if you are not familiar with both the theory and
data components of research.

It is important to understand that theory-building (inductive research) and

theory-testing (deductive research) are both critical for the advancement of
science. Elegant theories are not valuable if they do not match with reality.
Likewise, mountains of data are also useless until they can contribute to the
construction of meaningful theories.
Theory building and theory testing are particularly difficult in the social sciences, given
the imprecise nature of the theoretical concepts, inadequate tools to measure them, and
the presence of many unaccounted for factors that can also influence the phenomenon
of interest. It is also very difficult to refute theories that do not work. For instance, Karl
Marx’s theory of communism as an effective means of economic production withstood
for decades, before it was finally discredited as being inferior to capitalism in promoting
economic growth and social welfare. Erstwhile communist economies like the Soviet
Union and China eventually moved toward more capitalistic economies characterised by
profit-maximising private enterprises. However, the recent collapse of the mortgage and
financial industries in the United States demonstrates that capitalism also has its flaws
and is not as effective in fostering economic growth and social welfare as previously
presumed.
Social science theories are rarely perfect, which provides numerous
opportunities for researchers to improve those theories or build their own
alternative theories.
Conducting scientific research, therefore, requires two sets of skills—theoretical and
methodological—needed to operate in the theoretical and empirical levels
respectively. Methodological skills (‘know-how’) are relatively standard, invariant
across disciplines, and easily acquired through doctoral programs. However,
theoretical skills (‘know-what’) are considerably harder to master, require years of
observation and reflection, and are tacit skills that cannot be ‘taught’ but rather
learned though experience
Scientific method refers to a standardised set of techniques for building scientific knowledge, such as how to make valid
observations, how to interpret results, and how to generalise those results. The scientific method allows researchers to
independently and impartially test pre-existing theories and prior findings, and subject them to open debate, modifications, or
enhancements.

The scientific method must satisfy four key characteristics:

Replicability: Others should be able to independently replicate or repeat a scientific study and obtain
similar, if not identical, results.
Precision: Theoretical concepts, which are often hard to measure, must be defined with such precision that
others can use those definitions to measure those concepts and test that theory.
Falsifiability: A theory must be stated in such a way that it can be disproven. Theories that cannot be tested
or falsified are not scientific theories and any such knowledge is not scientific knowledge. A theory that is
specified in imprecise terms or whose concepts are not accurately measurable cannot be tested and is
therefore not scientific. Sigmund Freud’s ideas on psychoanalysis fall into this category and are therefore not
considered a ‘theory’, even though psychoanalysis may have practical utility in treating certain types of
ailments.
Parsimony: When there are multiple different explanations of a phenomenon, scientists must always accept
the simplest or logically most economical explanation. This concept is called parsimony or ‘Occam’s razor’.
Parsimony prevents scientists from pursuing overly complex or outlandish theories with an endless number
of concepts and relationships that may explain a little bit of everything but nothing in particular.
 Any branch of inquiry that does not allow the scientific method to test its
basic laws or theories cannot be called ‘science’. For instance, theology
(the study of religion) is not science because theological ideas—such as the
presence of God—cannot be tested by independent observers using a
logical, confirmable, repeatable, and scrutinisable. Similarly, arts, music,
literature, humanities, and law are also not considered science, even
though they are creative and worthwhile endeavours in their own right.

The scientific method, as applied to social sciences, includes a variety of research approaches, tools, and
techniques for collecting and analysing qualitative or quantitative data. These methods include laboratory
experiments, field surveys, case research, ethnographic research, action research, and so forth.

Scientific research projects can be grouped into three types,

depending on the purpose of the research: exploratory,
descriptive, and explanatory.

Exploratory research is often conducted in new areas of inquiry, where the goals of the research are: to
scope out the magnitude or extent of a particular phenomenon, problem, or behaviour, to generate some
initial ideas (or ‘hunches’) about that phenomenon, or to test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive
study regarding that phenomenon. For instance, if the citizens of a country are generally dissatisfied with
governmental policies during an economic recession, exploratory research may be directed at measuring the
extent of citizens’ dissatisfaction, understanding how such dissatisfaction is manifested, such as the
frequency of public protests, and the presumed causes of such dissatisfaction, such as ineffective
government policies in dealing with inflation, interest rates, unemployment, or higher taxes.
Descriptive research is directed at making careful observations and detailed documentation of a phenomenon of interest.
These observations must be based on the scientific method (i.e., must be replicable, precise, etc.), and therefore, are more
reliable than casual observations by untrained people. Examples of descriptive research are tabulation of demographic
statistics. Other descriptive research may include chronicling ethnographic reports of gang activities among adolescent
youth in urban populations, the persistence or evolution of religious, cultural, or ethnic practices in select communities,
and the role of technologies such as Twitter and instant messaging in the spread of democracy movements in Middle
Eastern countries.

Explanatory research seeks explanations of observed phenomena, problems, or behaviours.

While descriptive research examines the what, where, and when of a phenomenon,
explanatory research seeks answers to questions of why and how. It attempts to ‘connect the
dots’ in research, by identifying causal factors and outcomes of the target phenomenon.
Examples include understanding the reasons behind adolescent crime or gang violence, with
the goal of prescribing strategies to overcome such societal ailments. Most academic or
doctoral research belongs to the explanation category, though some amount of exploratory
and/or descriptive research may also be needed during initial phases of academic research.
Seeking explanations for observed events requires strong theoretical and interpretation skills,
along with intuition, insights, and personal experience. Those who can do it well are also the
most prized scientists in their disciplines.