RBAK Unit 1

Basic Aviation Knowledge for RPAS

Direction of Flight and Wind
Direction of Flight
Direction is expressed as a 3 figure group. Measured as the direction you are heading as the
nose points or as a track along a map / ground. The cardinal points of a compass are North,
South, East and West. We fly to that point in that direction.

Ordinal directions refer to the direction found at the point equally between each cardinal
direction. Ordinal directions are: northeast (NE), southeast (SE), southwest (SW), and
(northwest NW). A compass rose with both ordinal and cardinal directions will have eight points:
N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, and NW
North would be 360 degrees, South 180 degrees etc
Direction of Wind
Wind direction is measured the same but we measure its direction from where it is coming from.
ie wind direction 180 degrees means its coming from the south. When expressed with wind
strength it would read 180/30kts.
Clock Code
Relative direction is often referred to by the hours of a clock. 12 o'clock is always ahead, 6 o'clock is
always astern the aircraft. 3 o'clock is to the right and 9 o'clock to the left.

Pilots often use this form of direction indication to indicate a direction of view (relative bearing). How-
ever, it is never used to indicate a direction to fly, i.e. A course.

Example of a visual contact report:

"Contact, Left, 11 o'clock, high."
This tells a wingman where to look to see the contact. In the example here, slightly to the left of the
flight direction, slightly upwards and quite far away. So he will have to look carefully to see the contact.

The problem lies in the inaccuracy when the reference point (i.e. the reporter’s own location) is not
absolutely clear. If the wingman flies a slightly different heading, he also looks somewhere else, al-
though he looks into the correct clock code.
Latitude and Longitude
Understanding Latitude and Longitude

Latitude and Longitude: Your Global Address

Every location on earth has a global address. Because the address is in numbers, people
can communicate about location no matter what language they might speak. A global ad-
dress is given as two numbers called coordinates. The two numbers are a location's latit-
ude number and its longitude number ("Lat/Long").
Latitude and Longitude
Latitude
Horizontal mapping lines on Earth are lines of latitude. They are known as "parallels" of latitude, because
they run parallel to the equator.
Latitude lines are a numerical way to measure how far north or south of the equator a place is located.
The equator is the starting point for measuring latitude--that's why it's marked as 0 degrees latitude.
The number of latitude degrees will be larger the further away from the equator the place is located, all the
way up to 90 degrees latitude at the poles.
Latitude locations are given as __ degrees North or __ degrees South.

Longitude
Vertical mapping lines on Earth are lines of longitude, known as "meridians".

Longitude lines are a numerical way to show/measure how far a location is east or west of a universal
vertical line called the Prime Meridian. This Prime Meridian line runs vertically, north and south, right
over the British Royal Observatory in Greenwich England, from the North Pole to the South Pole.

As the vertical starting point for longitude, the Prime Meridian is numbered 0 degrees longitude.
To measure longitude east or west of the Prime Meridian, there are 180 vertical longitude lines east of
the Prime Meridian and 180 vertical longitude lines west of the Prime Meridian, so longitude locations
are given as __ degrees east or __ degrees west. The 180 degree line is a single vertical line called
the International Date Line, and it is directly opposite of the Prime Meridian.
True vs Magnetic direction
What’s the difference between true and magnetic north?
The simple reason that we use both true and magnetic headings, is because we have two
Norths:
true north and magnetic north.
Simply put: true north is at the top of the giant sphere we call Earth.
The magnetic North Pole to which the magnetic compass points is not co-located with the
geographic
(True) North Pole…directions measured from the magnetic poles are called magnetic direc-
tions.
To get the magnetic heading, just read the heading off your magnetic compass.
True vs Magnetic direction
The difference between true and magnetic directions is called variation.
Where to Find Magnetic Variation
In order to find the variation on a WAC (World Aeronautical Chart), look for the lines of variation, or
isogonic lines (ISOGONALS). On the WAC look for the dashed magenta lines with a number
nearby.
True vs Magnetic direction
CALCULATING MAGNETIC DIRECTION
Variation is the difference between true north and magnetic north. Isogonic lines are drawn
on your charts to show different lines of magnetic variation to help with planning your
magnetic heading.
To find your magnetic course (in no wind, the heading you see on your compass), you'll
either subtract
easterly variation or add westerly variation.
A great memory tool for this is "East is least, West is best."
In this example, the variation is 14 degrees East, so you'd subtract 14 degrees from your
true course to
get your magnetic course. ie 120 degrees True minus 14 deg east variation = 106
deg magnetic
Time
A time zone is a region of the Earth that has a uniform standard time or local time. There are
24 time zones (from −12 to +12) roughly divided by longitude. The time zone number indicates how
many
hours to add or subtract from the Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The UTC reflects the mean
solar time along the Earth’s prime meridian and is still widely known as the Greenwich Mean Time
(GMT). The International Date Line is an imaginary line through the Pacific Ocean that corresponds
to 180º longitude. It runs from the North Pole to the South Pole and defines the change of one
calendar day to the next.

Everywhere within a time zone has the same time. • Positive time zone number – ahead of UTC or
GMT. Add the time. • Negative time zone number – behind of UTC or GMT. Subtract the time.

Australian time zones Australia has three time zones called the Eastern Standard Time ( UTC+10),
Central Standard Time (UTC+9.5) and Western Standard Time ( UTC+8 )
Time

Time format
Time is expressed always as UTC, from a 4 figure group up to a 10 figure group. It is also shown in
a 24 hour format.

1100 UTC on the 20th May 2021 would be shown;

2105201100 YR/M/D/HR/MIN as a 10 figure group.
051100 D/HR/MIN as a 6 figure group used for aviation weather forecasts and NOTAMS.
1100 HR/MIN as a 4 figure group

LMT is the local time at the location. The rise and set times of the sun and moon are given in civil
or local mean time (LMT), which differs from ordinary clock time by several minutes at most loca-
tions.
Units of Measurement
Unit of
Category of Measurement Abbreviation
Measurement
• 1 nautical mile = 6080 feet (1.85km)
nautical miles nm • Visibility is measured in meters/km
Horizontal Distance
Kilometer km
• Vertical distance is in feet
meters m
Horizontal Distance: RVR, Rwy • Velocity measured in knots and NM, in the
feet ft
length, and visibility <5km case of an RPA speed is expressed as
statute miles sm metres per second.

feet ft • Temperature is expressed in Celsius

Vertical Distance: Flight
Levels, heights and elevations
meters m
• Atmospheric pressure hectopascals hPa.
Speed knots kt
• Volume in litres
Vertical speed Feet per minute ft/min

Hecto Pascals hpa • Electric current in amperes; amperes/hour

Millibars mb
Air Pressure
Inches of
In.Hg
mercury

Kilogram kg
Mass
Pound lb

degrees Celsius °C
Temperature and Dew Point
Fahrenheit °F
Units of Measurement
Energy
Energy comes in many forms, many of which are either types of potential energy or kinetic en-
ergy.

Kinetic energy, is simply the energy an object possesses due to its speed
Potential energy, stored energy or the energy an object possesses due to its height,
stresses within itself, electrical charge, and other factors.

A spring has more potential energy when it is compressed or stretched. A tossed ball into the air at its
peak , stretched elastic band.

Potential energy change to kinetic energy when the object moves.

Energy

How to work out kinetic energy for RPA

KE= ½ mv2 where m is the mass, v is the combined horizontal and vertical velocity that could
potentially be achieved after a failure in flight measured in metres per second. Kinetic energy is
measured in joules.

i.e A Mavic 2 weighs 0.907kg and is capable of speeds 20m/s

Therefore its KE = ½ x 0.907 x 202 181.4 joules
Inertia
Inertia is the property of an object to resist change in motion including a change in direction.
An object will stay still or keep moving at the same speed and in a straight line, unless it is acted
upon by an external force.
Aerodynamics
Aerofoil

Chord line – Line joining leading and trailing edge of an aerofoil

Angle of Attack – Angle between the chordline and the relative airflow going
past the aerofoil.
Aerodynamics
Centre of Pressure (CoP) The centre of pressure is the point where the total sum of a pressure
field acts on a body, causing a force to act through that point.

Centre of Gravity (CoG) The point where gravity or weight acts through.
Aerodynamics
4 forces acting on an aircraft
There are 2 main forces acting on a propeller.
Propeller thrust acts parallel to the prop shaft and
provides the force required to overcome drag in flight.

With multirotor RPAs, thrust is inclined upwards and provides

the lift required for flight instead of a wing.

Once an RPA is hovering in a no-wind condition, lift and thrust act

straight up; weight and drag forces act straight down. The sum of
the lift and thrust forces must equal the sum of the
weight and drag forces in order for the RPA to hover.

When you turn these forces are divided into a vertical and
horizontal component of lift/thrust.
Aerodynamics
Bernoulli’s Principle – States that as speed of the fluid increases, pressure
decreases.

Relating to an aerofoil;
Aerodynamics
COANDA EFFECT is the tendency of a flow of fluid to follow an adjacent flat or curved surface so
that a region of lower pressure develops.
Aerodynamics
Coanda and Newtons 3rd Law are related.

Newtons 3rd Law states; that for every action (force) in nature there is an equal and opposite reaction.
So if the air is deflected downwards, an opposing force must act in the opposite direction.
Weight and Balance
EMPTY WEIGHT - Weight of the drone without batteries, sensor and mount.

OPERATING WEIGHT - The empty weight of the aircraft plus those items of removable equipment
and disposable load which remain constant for the type of operation being conducted.

MAXIMUM GROSS WEIGHT - The maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) or maximum gross takeoff weight
(MGTOW) or maximum takeoff mass (MTOM) of an aircraft is the maximum weight at which the pilot is
allowed to attempt to take off, due to structural or other limits. ... MTOW is usually specified in units of
kilograms or pounds.

Datum - The datum is an imaginary vertical plane from which all horizontal measurements are taken
From for balance purposes, with the aircraft in level flight attitude.
For each aircraft make and model, the location of all items is identified in reference to the datum.

Station - Regarding weight and balance on an airplane, the station is a location along the airplane fusel-
age given in terms of distance from the reference datum. The arm is the distance the station is from the
datum.

Moment - A moment is the product of the weight of an item multiplied by its arm. (Moment/1000 is used to
simplify digits in some cases, these are known as IU (Index Units.))
Weight and Balance
CoG limits
An aircraft's centre of gravity is the point at which it would balance if it were suspended in air.
Its distance from the datum is found by dividing the total moment by the total weight of the airplane.
The centre of gravity can be thought of as where all of the aircraft's mass is concentrated, or the "heaviest"
part of the airplane. It can have a forward and aft limit where the CoG position must fall into for safe flight.
The forward and aft center of gravity locations within which the airplane must be operated are referred to
as CG limits. CG limits are based on a given weight. Loading limits apply to ensure safety.
 Weight and Balance application to a drone
As with all drones it balances its weight evenly across all its props.
In the case being a quad copter one pair rotors spin clockwise and the other pair
counter
clockwise. When the drone needs to turn one pair is slowed down and the other sped
up
The prop yaw then turns the drone.

This means it is imperative that one pair will have power (speed) available in reserve.
If the drone is in forward flight the two back rotors speed up and to maintain altitude the
front two slow down slightly tilting the drone forward.
All the while the four motors are sharing the load near evenly because of how the drone
is balanced.
Adding any additional load to the drone should therefore be done in this manner as to
keep the balance so that no motor or motors are over worked disproportionally to the
others.
It is for this reason that any CoG position is placed so that when the drone is in forward
flight the load is shared more evenly. If not in balance the motors will have to work
harder and consume more battery and the drone could be destabilised

The above is only in ideal conditions, should there be any wind the drone would be
destabilised even more. Making it balance even more important.
In conclusion, if any load is added to the drone, no matter the weight it is better to
maintain the drone’s balance as near as possible than to risk the drone itself.
Lift and Drag

Angle of Attack vs Lift

Lift and Drag

Airspeed vs Lift
Lift and Drag

Drag Types
Lift and Drag

Induced Drag
Comes from the production of lift at low speed (high angles of attack),
so it’s lift dependent.
Lift and Drag

Parasite Drag
Comes from zero production of lift where the form of the aircraft slows
the aircraft down.
Lift and Drag
Total Drag
The mean of induced and parasite drag where drag is at the
Minimum for the amount of lift.
Propellers and Rotors

What’s the difference?

A propeller is used to propel something, the force at stake being called thrust. Thrust is usually
horizontal (but not always, think about rockets). The faster a prop turns the more thrust it makes.
However props are also influenced by flight dynamics. Some provide more thrust when stationary,
as opposed to when its flying. Other props perform better at higher speeds

A rotor of a rotorcraft is used to control anything, including the altitude, the generated force being
called lift. Lift is generally vertical (but not always, think about a rudder).
Rotors have generally more than 2 blades.

Wing, propeller blade and rotorcraft blades work exactly the same from an aerodynamic stand-
point.The resultant of their action is the total aerodynamic force, which is then broken down arbitrar-
ily
into lift, drag, thrust and torque to facilitate mechanical analysis.
Propellers and Rotors

Terminology

A propeller also comprises blades, fixed on the rotation axis.

Propellers and Rotors
Terminology
HELIX ANGLE -- The (geometric pitch) angle between the plane of rotation of a propeller and the
path of the effective pitch. The actual path the blades follow.
BLADE ANGLE - The angle between the chordline and the plane of rotation. This varies along the
length of the prop to keep thrust equal along its length. This angle is bigger at the hub than the tip of
the prop.
Propellers and Rotors
Terminology
Pitch is not the same as blade angle, but because pitch is largely determined by blade angle, the two
terms are often used interchangeably. An increase or decrease in one is usually associated with an
increase or decrease in the other. Propeller slip is the difference between the geometric pitch of the
propeller and its effective pitch. Geometric pitch is the distance a propeller should advance in one
revolution with no slippage; effective pitch is the distance it actually advances. Thus, geometric or
theoretical pitch is based on no slippage.
Actual, or effective, pitch recognizes propeller slippage in the air. The relationship can be shown as:
(Helix angle) Geometric pitch – Effective pitch = slip
Propellers and Rotors
Torque Reaction

Blades turn one way and the body of

aircraft turns the opposite way. Increas-
ing
rotation speed increases the torque.
Propellers and Rotors
Torque Reaction – Quadcopters
Physics says to be in stability the net forces acting on a body should be zero.
So if all the rotors were to spin in the same direction, it would result in a net Torque causing the
complete Quad to rotate.

Cancel torque rotation by making the

two adjacent motors spin in the
opposite direction.

1 & 3 spin Clockwise

(From our point of view)

2 & 4 Spin Counter-Clockwise

Propellers and Rotors
How a Quadcopter moves
Principles and Operation
Flight Control
Principles and Operation

Flight Control

Flight Axes

PITCH - lateral axis

ROLL – longitudinal axis
YAW – directional or normal axis
Principles and Operation
Flight Control – Quadcopters

The Rotors act as wings. They generate thrust by rotating at fast speeds, which pulls the air down-
wards and keeps the quad in the air.
• The Thrust cancels out the acting weight and the quad hovers.
• A directional Thrust causes the quad to move in that direction.
• Or a decrease in Thrust overall causes the Drone to lose height.
Principles and Operation
Flight Control
Effect of changes in power on vertical and horizontal speed

A change in altitude will require more throttle to gain altitude or less throttle to descend as
you are
trying to control the thrust (lift ) vs weight. The power you add or subtract will determine how
fast
you climb or descend.

When remaining level the total thrust vector and the weight vector directly oppose each
other,
Lift/thrust = weight.

The total drag vector can be separated into 2 components;

• the vertical component – the part of the total thrust that is still compensating for the
aircrafts
weight.

• the horizontal component. – the part of the total thrust that is pulling the aircraft into
the turn.
Principles and Operation
Flight Control
Turning forces
If you roll the RPA the total thrust
force does not directly oppose
the weight, it acts inward to-
wards the roll direction
(parallel from the rotor shafts)

The more the RPA banks, the

more the thrust is going to the
horizontal component and less to
the vertical. If the RPA is to re-
main at a constant altitude the
vertical
component must be increased via
an increase in the throttle.
Principles and Operation
Flight Control – skid and slip

If you don’t co-ordinate a turn it will lead to a

slip or skid. Slips occur when the angle of bank
is too great for the rate of turn.

If the pilot overcorrects, the RPA will then slip to

the other side which is called a skid.

**If the RPA is in Manual Mode and you

increase the AoB too far, the RPA will no longer
be able to produce the required lift from thrust
to stay in the air and will slip out of the sky.
Principles and Operation
Flight Control – Climb Performance

Measured by the angle of climb and rate of climb. The best angle of climb speed is less then the best
rate of climb speed . Only the angle of climb is affected by wind, shallow angle if a tailwind and
steeper angle if a head wind.
Principles and Operation
Flight Control – Trim Controls

Trimming is a way to eliminate drifting and stabilize RPA, thus making flight safer. Toy RPAs have trim but-
tons on controller.

Professional RPAs have far more sensors that control flight accuracy such as gyros, accelerometers,
barometers, magnetometers and compass.

Through vibration, aging, impact, temperature and other reasons the sensor may drift in their response and
make flight less efficient and safe. Calibration of the sensors removes these errors.
Due to the technical nature of the sensors, calibration is done through the RPA software.

You must consider calibrating when;

• At a new location, RPA not working as it should = compass calibration
• Altitude drops in flight = calibrate IMU so barometer will be reset
• Unstable drifting in one direction = calibrate accelerometer (IMU)
• After a crash
• Not hovering at an attitude/level
• After a firmware update
• When RPA is subject to vibrations during travel or knocks
Remote Pilot Station
Remote Controller
Most radio control systems use 2.4 GHz frequency range. (same as bluetooth/wifi)
Equipment must be approved for use in Australia. (AMCA ‘C’ tick )

The mark will be on battery compartment of remote controller or near serial number.
Remote Pilot Station
Remote Controller
The remote controller comes standard as MODE 2. This suits most right handed people.
MODE 1 swaps the controls around.
MODE 3 is similar to MODE 1 but yaw and roll are swapped over.
Remote Pilot Station
Remote Controller
Safe operation of a drone requires a stable command and control link between the pilot on the
ground and the flying drone.
Link can be maintained within radio line-of-sight (RLOS) or beyond radio line-of-sight (BRLOS)
Remote Pilot Station
Telemetry
Telemetry is a digital two-way data stream, which can both send data about the flight down to a
ground station (in our case, the Mission Planner) and send command up to the autopilot.
There are other ways to get telemetry data, such as embedding it in the video stream of your FPV
system (called On-Screen Display) and, confusingly, some Remote Control gear offer a limited
telemetry downlink, but by doing it with its own radio link like the 3DR Telemetry kit, it arrives in a
full digital form that can be displayed, logged and analyzed by the Mission Planner.

Although it's possible to control the aircraft via the telemetry stream, most people use Remote
Control for that due to the superior reliability of that dedicated radio link and controller
(as well as the need for a second control system for safety).
Payload / Non Payload Communications

The non-payload communication link is dedicated to secure and reliable communications

between the remote pilot ground control station and the aircraft to ensure safe and effective
UAV flight operation.

In contrast, the payload communication link is usually used for data applications, and often
requires high throughput (the rate of production or the rate at which something is processed).

Payload communication types depend on application and hence can vary widely.

A disruption of payload links may be inconvenient, but it is not critical to the safety of the operation.
Disruption to the non-payload communications link can be critical thus the link must transmit data in
real time, with very low bit error rate and redundancy for the highest reliability.
Remote Pilot Station
Antenna / aerial
What is an Antenna
An Antenna is a transducer, which converts electrical power into electromagnetic waves and vice versa .
An Antenna can be used either as a transmitting antenna or a receiving antenna.

A transmitting antenna is one, which converts electrical signals into electromagnetic waves and radiates them.

A receiving antenna is one, which converts electromagnetic waves from the received beam into electrical signals.

In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for both transmission and reception.

Antenna can also be termed as an Aerial. Plural of it is, antennae or antennas. Nowadays, antennas have undergone
many changes, in accordance with their size and shape. There are many types of antennas depending upon their wide
variety of applications.
Antennas have to be classified to understand their physical structure and functionality more clearly.
There are many types of antennas depending upon the applications. Below are some of the types and applications.
Antennas are tuned to specific frequencies so you can’t use a 2.4 GHz antenna with 5.8 GHz equipment.
Remote Pilot Station
Antenna / aerial range
Each antenna has a specific radiation pattern. Standard RPA antennas receive equally in all directions
but can be changed to suit mission range or other locational factors.

Frequency
The lower the frequency , the longer the range. If you operate where there is interference it may affect
the signal.

Interference
Same frequency of metal / wifi signals etc. Any obstacles can cause reflection of signal causing the
signal to come from multiple paths and cause errors.
Remote Pilot Station
Flight Controls
Remote Pilot Station
Flight Controls

Roll
Roll moves your quadcopter left or right. It’s done by pushing the right stick on your transmitter to the
left or to the right.

It’s called “roll” because it literally rolls the quadcopter.

For example, as you push the right stick to the right, the quadcopter will angle diagonally downwards
to the right.

The bottom of the propellers will be facing to the left. This pushes air to the left, forcing the quad-
copter to fly to the right.
The same thing happens when you push the stick to the left, except now the propellers will be push-
ing air to the right, forcing the copter to fly to the left.
Remote Pilot Station
Flight Controls

Pitch
Pitch is done by pushing the right stick on your transmitter forwards or backwards. This will tilt the
quadcopter, resulting in forwards or backwards movement.
Remote Pilot Station
Flight Controls

Yaw
This is the rotating or swivelling of the head of the quadcopter either to right or left. It is the basic move-
ment to spin the quadcopter. On most drones, it is the achieved by using the left throttle stick either to
the left or right. Yaw is typically used at the same time as throttle during continuous flight. This allows the
pilot to
make circles and patterns. It also allows videographers and photographers to follow objects that might be
changing directions.
Remote Pilot Station
Flight Controls

Climbing descending
Using the right stick (throttle) to climb push up and descend push down.
Remote Pilot Station
Software and Firmware updates

This is aircraft system dependant and you should get familiar with each RPAs way of doing this.

Drone and Gimbal Firmware Updates

Most aircraft and some high-end gimbals, sensors, and field survey equipment have firmware, soft-
ware packages that operate the on-board software. Manufacturers (OEMs) will periodically provide up-
dates to the firmware to improve performance, fix bugs, and eliminate security issues. Please make
sure to refer to the OEM's recommendations when updating firmware.
Firmware is the software at the heart of your drone. It controls everything from flight inputs to battery
management and everything in between. So having up to date firmware is important if you are to
operate your drone safely and reliably.
Remote Pilot Station

Power supply

Power source for drones

Most drones we see are powered by lithium-polymer batteries (LiPos) which only last for
about 20 minutes, depending on your load. Using this as your power source means that you will
have to bring your drone down to replace or recharge the battery quite often.

LiPos work on the principle of intercalation and de-intercalation of lithium-ions from a positive
electrode material and a negative electrode material, with liquid electrolyte providing a conductive
medium. To prevent the electrodes from touching each other directly, a microporous separator is
placed in between, which allows only the ions, and not the electrode particles, to migrate from one
side to another.

More on this later……