PL ANT AND ANIMAL
ORGAN SYSTEMS AND
THEIR FUNCTIONS
General Biology 2
Mark Joseph B. Talon
Part 1
LEARNING COMPETENCIES
• compare and contrast the following processes in plants and
animals: reproduction, development, nutrition, gas
exchange, transport/circulation, regulation of body fluids,
chemical and nervous control, immune systems, and
sensory and motor mechanisms
• Code: STEM_BIO11/12 IVa-h-1
REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND
ANIMALS: A COMPARISON
• reproduction, process by which organisms replicate
themselves. (Britannica)
• In a general sense, reproduction is one of the most important concepts
in biology: it means making a copy, a likeness, and thereby providing
for the continued existence of species. Although reproduction is often
considered solely in terms of the production of offspring in animals and
plants, the more general meaning has far greater significance to living
organisms. To appreciate this fact, the origin of life and the evolution
of organisms must be considered.
REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
• Plant reproduction is the process by which plants create new
individuals, ensuring the continuation of their species. It's a
fascinating and diverse process with two main types:
• SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN
PLANTS
• This involves the fusion of male and female gametes (sex cells) to produce offspring that are
genetically different from both parents.
• FLOWERING PLANTS (ANGIOSPERMS) are a prime example. They have specialized
structures like FLOWERS. These are the reproductive organs of flowering plants. They
contain both male and female parts.
• STAMEN - The male reproductive part, consisting of the anther (where pollen is
produced) and the filament (which supports the anther).
• PISTIL - The female reproductive part, consisting of the stigma (where pollen is
received), the style (which connects the stigma to the ovary), and the ovary (which
contains the ovules).
POLLINATION
• POLLINATION - is a fundamental step in the sexual reproduction of flowering plants
(angiosperms). It's the process where pollen grains, containing the male reproductive cells, are
transferred from the anther (part of the stamen) to the stigma (part of the pistil) of a flower. Think of it
as the delivery of the "package" containing the sperm cells to the "female address" in the flower.
WHY IS POLLINATION IMPORTANT?
Pollination is essential because it precedes/leads fertilization. Without pollination, fertilization cannot occur,
and the plant cannot produce seeds and fruits. Seeds are vital for the propagation of most plants, and fruits
are often the means by which seeds are dispersed.
POLLINATION
HOW DOES POLLINATION HAPPEN?
Plants can't move around to find a mate, so they rely on various agents to carry pollen. These agents are
called pollinators. POLLINATORS are animals that play a vital role in plant reproduction by transferring
pollen from one flower to another. This transfer is necessary for fertilization, which leads to the production
of fruits and seeds.
POLLINATION
WHO ARE THE POLLINATORS?
Pollinators come in a variety of shapes and sizes, and they include:
• INSECTS: Bees, butterflies, moths, flies, beetles, and ants are among the most common insect
pollinators. They are attracted to flowers by their colors, scents, and nectar.
• BIRDS: Hummingbirds, sunbirds, and other nectar-feeding birds are important pollinators, especially
for brightly colored flowers with tubular shapes.
• MAMMALS: Bats, monkeys, lemurs, possums, and even some rodents can pollinate flowers,
particularly those that are open at night or have strong scents.
• OTHER ANIMALS: Some reptiles (like lizards) and even snails can also act as pollinators.
POLLINATION
THERE ARE TWO MAIN TYPES OF POLLINATION
BASED ON THE AGENT INVOLVED:
• BIOTIC POLLINATION: This involves living agents like animals.
• ABIOTIC POLLINATION: This involves non-living agents.
• WIND: Wind-pollinated plants produce large amounts of lightweight pollen that can be carried by
the wind. These plants often have small, inconspicuous flowers (e.g., grasses).
• WATER: Water-pollinated plants, like aquatic plants, rely on water currents to carry pollen.
TYPES OF POLLINATION
• SELF-POLLINATION: Pollen is transferred
from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or
another flower on the same plant. This can happen in
flowers that have both male and female parts and are
structured in a way that allows pollen to reach the
stigma.
• CROSS-POLLINATION: Pollen is transferred
from the anther of one flower to the stigma of a
flower on a different plant of the same species. This
is generally preferred as it promotes genetic diversity.
ADAPTATIONS FOR
POLLINATION
Plants have evolved various adaptations to attract pollinators and ensure successful pollination. These
include:
• FLOWER COLOR AND SHAPE: Bright colors and unique shapes attract specific pollinators.
• SCENT: Flowers produce scents that attract pollinators, especially those that are active at night.
• NECTAR: A sugary liquid that serves as a reward for pollinators.
• POLLEN STRUCTURE: Pollen grains can have different shapes and sizes, making them more likely
to stick to specific pollinators.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN
PLANTS
• ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: This involves the creation of new plants
from a single parent, without the fusion of gametes. The offspring are genetically identical to
the parent (clones).
• THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
• Vegetative Propagation
• Apomixis
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
• VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION - Vegetative propagation is a method of plant
reproduction where a new plant grows from a vegetative part of a parent plant, like a stem,
root, or leaf, essentially creating a genetically identical copy of the parent plant through
asexual reproduction; it allows gardeners and farmers to rapidly produce large quantities of
plants with desirable traits by utilizing parts of the existing plant instead of relying on
seeds.
TYPES OF VEGETATIVE
PROPAGATION
• Runners (Stolon) • Cutting
• Rhizomes • Grafting
• Tubers • Layering
• Spore Formation
• Bulbs
• Corms
RUNNERS
(STOLON)
These are specialized stems that
grow horizontally along the
surface of the soil. Their primary
function is to facilitate vegetative
propagation, a form of asexual
reproduction in plants.
Examples: Strawberry Plant, Spider Plants
and Grasses
RHIZOMES
Rhizomes are fascinating
underground stems that play a
crucial role in the survival and
propagation of certain plants.
They're like hidden powerhouses,
storing nutrients and enabling
plants to spread and regenerate.
Examples: Ginger, Turmeric, Bamboo,
Irises, and Ferns
TUBERS
Tubers are essentially underground
storage units that some plants use
to stockpile nutrients, particularly
carbohydrates like starch. They're a
clever adaptation that allows plants
to survive harsh conditions and
reproduce efficiently.
Examples: Potatoes, Yams, Jerusalem
Artichokes, Cassava
SPORE
FORMATION
Spore formation is a method of asexual
reproduction used by some plants,
algae, fungi, and bacteria. It involves
the production of spores, which are
small, usually single-celled
reproductive units. Each spore is
capable of developing into a new
individual under favorable conditions.
Examples: Ferns, Mosses, Liverworts,
Horsetails, Club Mosses
BULBS
Bulbs are actually modified stems.
They are short, thick, and grow
underground. The main function of a
bulb is to store food for the plant,
which allows it to survive unfavorable
conditions (like winter or drought) and
then grow again when conditions are
better.
Examples: Onions, Garlic, Tulips, Daffodils,
Lilies
CORMS
Corms are essentially modified
stems that grow underground.
Unlike bulbs, which are made up of
layers of fleshy leaves, corms are
solid and have a more uniform
structure. Their primary function is
to store food for the plant, mainly
in the form of starch. This stored
food allows the plant to survive
unfavorable conditions like drought
or winter and then grow again when
conditions improve.
Examples: Crocus, Taro, and Gladiolus
CUTTING
A cutting is simply a piece of a plant
that is cut off and used to grow a
new plant. This piece can be a stem,
a leaf, or even a root, depending on
the plant species. The key is that the
cutting must be capable of
developing roots and growing into a
complete, independent plant.
Examples: Roses, Geraniums, Coleus,
African Violets, Snake Plants, Begonias,
Raspberries, Blackberries, Hydrangeas
1.TAKE THE CUTTING: 2. PREPARE THE
A section of the parent CUTTING: Some leaves
plant is carefully cut, may be removed from the
usually with a sharp, clean lower portion of the cutting
tool to minimize the risk of 1 to reduce water loss.
disease. The cut is often Sometimes, the cut end is
made just below a node dipped in a rooting
(the point where leaves or hormone to encourage root
buds emerge). development.
HOW CUTTINGS 2
3. PLANT THE CUTTING: 4. ROOT DEVELOPMENT:
WORK FOR The cutting is placed in a
suitable growing medium,
Over time, the cutting will
start to develop roots. This
PROPAGATION? such as soil, sand, or water.
It's important to keep the
3
can take anywhere from a
few days to several weeks,
depending on the plant
medium moist and provide
the cutting with adequate species and the conditions.
warmth and light.
5. NEW PLANT GROWTH:
Once the cutting has
developed a sufficient root
system, it will begin to grow
into a new plant,
genetically identical to the
parent plant.
TYPES OF
CUTTINGS
Stem Cuttings: These are the most common
type of cutting. A section of stem is cut and used
to grow a new plant. Examples: roses,
geraniums, coleus.
Leaf Cuttings: Certain plants can be propagated
from their leaves. The leaf is either placed on the
soil or cut into pieces, and new plants develop
from the cut edges. Examples: African violets,
snake plants, begonias.
Root Cuttings: Some plants can be propagated
from root sections.
A piece of root is cut and planted horizontally,
and new shoots emerge from it.
GRAFTING
Grafting is a specific type of
vegetative propagation where
you join two plants together to
grow as one.
It's a bit like a plant transplant,
but instead of moving a whole
plant, you're combining parts of
two different ones.
LAYERING
In asexual reproduction, "layering" is
a method of plant propagation where
a stem of a plant develops roots while
still attached to the parent plant,
essentially creating a new plant that
can then be separated and grown
independently; this is considered a
form of vegetative propagation, as
the new plant is genetically identical
to the parent plant.
Apomixis
• Apomixis - Apomixis is a form of asexual reproduction in plants where seeds develop without fertilization,
essentially creating genetically identical offspring to the parent plant through a seed-like structure; it
bypasses the normal sexual reproduction process, allowing plants to produce offspring without the need for
pollination or sperm-egg fusion.
Examples:
• Hawthorns: Part of the Crataegus genus
• Shadbush: Part of the Amelanchier genus
• Blackberries: Part of the Rubus genus
• Meadow grasses: Such as mat grass and hawkweeds
• Citrus: Most cultivated citrus varieties are facultatively apomictic
• Bahia-grass: An example of obligate apomixis, where sexual reproduction is absent or nearly so.
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