Mechanics

Lecture 6
Syllabus
Forced Harmonic Oscillation

Driving force is given by the

piston arrangement
 Forced Harmonic Oscillation
• A damped oscillator subjected to external periodic driving force is called a
forced oscillator or driven oscillator.
• In forced oscillation the energy lost due to the damping force is compensated
by the work done by the applied force. So the oscillations with constant
amplitude are sustained.
• If an external periodic sinusoidal force F cosωt acts on a damped oscillator ,
its equation of motion is written as

• Rearranging the terms, we get

• or

…….(1) = Differential equation for the

forced harmonic oscillator
Where = Damping coeffiecient and = Angular Frequency
• Differential equation for the forced harmonic oscillator is an inhomogeneous,
linear, second order differential equation with constant coefficients 2β and ω02
• For weak damping ( ω02 > β2 ), the general solution is of the form
………….(2)
where xc ( t ) is a solution of the eqn. (1) obtained by equating the R.H.S. of Eq.
(1) to zero. On substitution of this result x p(t) satisfies the differential equation
• 𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒑 𝒑 𝑭
+𝟐 𝜷 + 𝝎 𝟐𝟎 𝒙 𝒑 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎 𝒕 …….….(3)
𝒅𝒕 𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝒎

• So = Complementary
solution
• with …….….(4)

= Particular integral

…….….(5)

• and
…….….(6)
• The complementary solution xc(t) dies away exponentially with time and
is a transient solution.
• After sufficient long time , the general solution reduces to the particular
integral and is given by
= Steady- state solution

…….….(7)
Phase

Amplitude
Frequency of the forced oscillations

• The vibration of the driven oscillator is ultimately governed by the

driving force.
• The oscillator vibrates with the same frequency as that of the external
periodic driving force
• The steady-state solution xp, transient solution xc and sum x are shown in
(a) for driving frequency ω Less than the damping frequency ω1 (ω < ω1)
and in (b) for ω > ω1)
 Steady state solution derivation
• In the steady state the system will oscillate with the same frequency as
that of the external force F cosωt

• To obtain the steady state solution of the equation for Forced harmonic
oscillator (eqn (1)) ,let us suppose that the displacement of the forced
oscillator is given by
• xp ( t )= A cos (ωt - δ ) …….….(8)

• To determine A and δ we differentiate eqn. (8) twice with respect to time.

• This gives 𝒅𝒙 𝒑
= 𝑨 𝝎 𝒔𝒊𝒏( ω t − δ )
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒑
𝟐
=− 𝑨 𝝎𝟐 cos ( ω t − δ )
𝒅𝒕

• Substituting these results back in eqn (3)

A=
…….….(9)
• Using the relation cos (ω t − δ ) = cosω t cos δ + sin ω t sin δ )
• And
sin ( ω t − δ ) = sin ω t cos δ −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎 t sin δ )
• And rearranging the terms, eqn (9) gives

+ =0
…….….(10)

• We know that both never simultaneously become zero; when one

vanishes, the other takes a maximum value.
• Therefore, Eq. (10) can be satisfied only when both terms within the
square brackets become zero separately, i.e
𝑭
( 𝝎 𝟐𝟎 − 𝝎 𝟐 ) 𝑨cos δ + 2 𝜷 𝑨 𝝎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 δ ) = 𝒎 …….….(11)

=0 …….….(12)

• Eqn (12) gives the phase value 2𝜷𝝎

tan δ =
( 𝝎𝟐𝟎 − 𝝎 𝟐)
…….….(13)
 • Phase difference
• The phase difference δ between the oscillator and the driving force is
given by
…….….(14)

• The above expression for phase

shows that there is a delay between
the action of the driving force and
the response of the oscillator
• For a given oscillator the phase
difference depends on the frequency
of the driving force as shown in the
fig.
• At ω = ω0 , the displacement lags
behind the driving force by π/2
 − 𝝎
• The amplitude of steady-state displacement can be determined from Eq.
(11) once we know the values of sin δ and cos δ.

𝟎 𝟐
• To get these values we construct the so-called acoustic impedance triangle,
as shown in Fig.
• We can readily write

2𝜷𝝎

[(𝝎
2𝜷𝝎
sin δ = 𝟏/ 𝟐
[(𝝎𝟐
𝟎 − 𝝎 ) +𝟒 𝜷 𝝎
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
] …….(15)
δ
(𝝎 𝟐
𝟎 −𝝎𝟐
)
c os δ =
[( 𝝎 𝟐
𝟎 −𝝎 ) +𝟒 𝜷 𝝎
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
]
𝟏 /𝟐
…….(16)
( 𝝎 𝟐𝟎 − 𝝎 𝟐 )
Fig. acoustic impedance triangle
• Using these values of sin δ and cos δ in eqn (11) we get the amplitude

A =
( )
𝑭
𝒎
𝟏 /𝟐
[ ( 𝝎 𝟐𝟎 − 𝝎 𝟐 ) + 𝟒 𝜷𝟐 𝝎 𝟐 ]
Amplitude of the forced oscillations

• The amplitude of a driven oscillator in steady state is

• This depends on the frequency of the driving force and is maximum

when is minimum

Velocity of the forced oscillations

• The velocity of a driven oscillator is

=> velocity of the

driven oscillator leads
the displacement by π/2
• Thus the phase of the velocity of the driven oscillator is

Which is more than the phase of the displacement [ i.e. ] by π/2

• So at any instant of time the velocity of the driven oscillator leads the
displacement by π/2
 Power absorption and dissipation
• The power dissipation of the oscillator due to resistive forces is
compensated by the power absorption from the driving force

• The power dissipation due to the resistive force is

(Fr = Resistive force = bv and b=2mβ )

• The average power dissipation over one cycle of oscillation is

(since average value of

is 1/2)
 condition of resonance
• The equation for the amplitude of shows that the amplitude A of the
forced or driven harmonic oscillator is proportional to the amplitude F
of the driving force and depends on ω and ω0

• The amplitude attains a maximum value when is

minimum
• i.e.

• Or 2 (ω0 2 - ω2) (-2 ω) + 8β2 ω =0

• Or 2 (ω0 2 - ω2) (2 ω) = 8β2 ω
• Or (ω0 2 - ω2) = 2β2
• Or
• ω = = Resonant Angular Frequency
or condition of resonance
• At ω= ωR = condition for resonance, the oscillator is said to resonate with the
driving force and the amplitude is maximum . This phenomenon is called
resonance
• Substituting the value for ω= ωR , the maximum value of amplitude

• For very weak damping ω02 > β2, such that

• and

• i,.e the maximum value of amplitude is proportional to the damping constant

b
= Resonant Frequency

• The frequency
• Note-

•  Resonant frequency is less than the natural frequency except for weak
damping. For weak damping
• The reason for large-amplitude oscillations at the resonance frequency
is that energy is being transferred to the system under the most
favorable conditions.
• We can better understand this concept by taking expression for the
velocity of the oscillator.
• We find that v is proportional to cos(ωt-δ), which is the same
trigonometric function as that describing the driving force.
• Therefore, the applied force is in phase with the velocity.
• The rate at which work is done on the oscillator by equals the dot
product ; this rate is the power delivered to the oscillator.
• Because the product is a maximum when and are in
phase, we conclude that at resonance, the applied force is in phase with
the velocity and the power transferred to the oscillator is a maximum
• Sharpness of resonance
• The amplitude of the driven oscillator is maximum at resonance and
decreases rapidly as the frequency increases or decreases from the resonant
frequency
• How rapidly the amplitude decrease on either side f the resonant frequency
is represented by sharpness of resonance

• For very weak damping

• For, the amplitude =

• So the range of frequency for which amplitude is called

• Width of resonance

• If β is small, Δω is small and the resonance is sharp

• For large β, the width Δω is large and the resonance is flat
• Figure Graph of amplitude versus
frequency for a damped oscillator when a
periodic driving force is present.
• Notice that the shape of the resonance
curve depends on the size of the damping
coefficient b
• the amplitude increases with decreasing
damping (b → 0) and that the resonance
curve broadens as the damping increases.
• In the absence of a damping force (b = 0),
we see that the steady-state amplitude
approaches infinity as ω approaches ω0.
• In other words, if there are no losses in
the system and we continue to drive an
initially motionless oscillator with a
periodic force that is in phase with the
velocity, the amplitude of motion builds
without limit (see the red-brown curve in
Fig. ).
• This limitless building does not occur in
practice because some damping is always
present in reality
Graph of the amplitude A of forced oscillation as a function of the angular frequency
of the driving force.
The horizontal axis shows the ratio of to the angular frequency
of an undamped oscillator. Each curve has a different value of the damping constant b
 Quality factor
• We describe the degree of damping in an oscillating system in terms of the
"quality factor" Q of the system:
• If little damping occurs, then Q is very large and the shape of the resonance
curve approaches that for an undamped oscillator
• But the resonance can be completely destroyed if the damping is large and Q
is very small.
• Figure below shows the resonance and phase curves for several different
values of Q.

decrease in Q (i.e., with an increase of the damping coefficient β). The effect
• These curves indicate the lowering of the resonance frequency with a

is not large, however; the frequency shift is less than 3% even for Q as small
as 3 and is about 18% for Q= l
Quality factor
• The quality factor of an oscillator is

• Also quality factor can be defined as

• For forced harmonic oscillator

• For weak damping, , so quality factor

• (a) The amplitude A is displayed as a function of the driving frequency ω
for various values of the quality factor Q.
• (b) the phase angle δ ( which is the phase angle between the driving force
and the resultant motion) is displayed as a function of the driving
frequency for various values of the quality factor Q.
 value of ω for which T is a maximum.
• We now calculate the frequency for kinetic energy resonance—that is, the

• We have
•

• So

• Now average value of T over one complete period of oscillation

• We know that

• So

• The value of ω for <T> a maximum is labeled ωE and is obtained from

• We find

• so the kinetic energy resonance occurs at the natural frequency of the

system for undamped oscillations.
 whereas the kinetic energy resonance occurs at ω0 .
• We see therefore that the amplitude resonance occurs at a frequency
•

• Because the potential energy is proportional to the square of the

amplitude, the potential energy resonance must also occur at

• That the kinetic and potential energies resonate at different frequencies is

a result of the fact that the damped oscillator is not a conservative system.

• Energy is continually exchanged with the driving mechanism, and energy

is being transferred to the damping medium.
Resonance in mass-spring system
Collapse of bridge due to Resonance
• Average value of a function over a given time interval

t T

f t 'dt ' 1
t T
f T
 t
t T

T f t 'dt '
dt '
t
t

• For t = 0
T

f t 'dt ' 1
T
f T
0 t T

T f t 'dt '
dt '
t
0
• Average value of a function over a given interval in x from x= a to x=
b
b

f x dx 1
b
f ab
a b
  f x dx
b a a
dx
a
Coupled Oscillations
 Coupled Oscillations
• Isolated oscillators are rare in real world.
• Most of the times two or more oscillating systems remains interconnected
or coupled to each other.
• If any part of the coupled system is set into vibration, its vibrational
energy is transmitted to other parts because of the coupling.
• The frequencies of the different modes of vibration of the system depends
on the properties of the individual parts as well as the manner and
strength of their coupling with other parts
• Examples- two pendulums connected by a light spring, the prongs of a
tuning fork, two oscillatory electrical circuits coupled inductively through
mutual inductance, atoms or ions in molecule or solid
• Let us consider two identical pendulums A and B each having bob mass m,
suspended by rigid massless rod of length l from a rigid support.
• The two bobs are connected to each other (coupled) by a light spring of force
constant k.
• Normal length of the spring = distance between the bobs in equilibrium
position
• In this condition the spring does not exert any force on the pendulum bobs
• However , when the bobs undergo unequal displacements, the spring gets
either stretched or compressed depending upon the relative displacement of
the bobs. The deformed spring exerts force on the bobs
• The pendulum bobs are set into
oscillation as shown in the fig b
• At a given instant let the
displacement of the bobs are x and y
respectively (in the same direction).
• The restoring force, due to the spring
, on A and B are -k (x-y), -k (y-x)
respectively.
• Similarly the restoring force, on A and B due to the components of
gravitational force are and

• Hence the equation of motion of the pendulum A and B are

………………(1)

and
………………(2)

• Each of the above equations involve both x and y.

• Hence they are coupled equations
• We notice that the second term in the above equations arise because of
coupling of two pendulums by the spring. In the absence of coupling the
above two equations would reduce to equation of motion for two
independent simple pendulum

• The equation of motion (1) and (2) can be written as

………………(3)

• And
………………(4)

• Where
• The pair of coupled equations can be written as pair of decoupled
equations in terms of new pair of variables.
• In order to achieve this we add equations (3) and (4) and subtract (4) from
(3) to get

………………(5)

• and ………………(6)

• The equation (5) and (6) suggest us that we can introduce two variable Q 1
and Q2 in terms of x and y
= Normal
coordinates of
• So that the coupled
system

• and
• So the equations (5) and (6) take the form

………………(7)

………………(8)

• Where

• The equations (7) and (8) in terms of Q1 and Q2 are decoupled and
each equation describes the motion of a simple harmonic oscillator
Normal coordinates
• The coordinates defined by are called
Normal coordinates of the coupled system
• The normal coordinates are linear combinations of original variables x and y.
• The oscillations described in terms of normal co-ordinates are called normal
mode of oscillations

Normal mode frequencies

• From equations (7) and (8), the angular frequency of oscillations for the
normal coordinates Q1 and Q2 are given by

• and

• The corresponding frequencies are given by

• and

= Normal mode frequencies of the coupled system

 Normal modes of Oscillations
• By suitably choosing the initial conditions, it is always possible to describe
the oscillation of a coupled system in terms of only one normal co-ordinate.
• The system oscillates with the corresponding normal mode frequency.
• The oscillation of the coupled system in terms of each normal coordinate is
called normal mode of oscillation.
• If the system is initially disturbed in such a manner that only one normal
mode is excited, then the system continues to oscillate in that normal mode
and no other mode is excited since other modes are decoupled.

• However if the system is initially disturbed in an arbitrary manner , the

general oscillation will be a linear combination of different normal modes
of oscillation

• We shall discuss the normal modes of oscillation of the coupled pendulum

for the normal coordinates Q1 and Q2
 Q1 mode or in-phase mode
• If the initial conditions are chosen such that x=y
• i.e. both the pendulum bobs are displaced by the same amount in the same
direction
• => Q2 = x – y = 0

• Thus only Q1 mode is excited and the equation of motion is described by only
one equation, eq. (7).
• Since both the bobs have the same displacement, the spring is always in the
normal state and both the bobs oscillate with same amplitude, frequency and
phase.
• This is called in-phase mode of oscillation.
• Here the spring does not play any role and the two pendulum oscillate as if
there is no coupling.
• The frequency of oscillation of the coupled oscillator is same as that of an
independent oscillator
 in-phase mode of oscillation

out-of-phase mode of oscillation.

 Q2 mode or out-of-phase mode
• If the initial conditions are chosen such that x = - y
• i.e. both the pendulum bobs are displaced by the same amount in the
opposite direction
=> Q1 = x + y = 0

Thus only Q2 mode is excited and the equation of motion is described by only one
equation, eq. (8).

The angular frequency ω2 is greater than that of individual oscillation

• The bobs always vibrate in opposite phase. This is called out-of-phase mode
of oscillation.

• Since ω2 > ω1 , the frequency of oscillation of out-of-phase mode is greater

than that of in-phase mode
• The solution of the normal mode equations

• Q1 = a1 cos (ω1t + ϕ1)

• Q2 = a2 cos (ω2t + ϕ2)
• Where a1 and a2 are the amplitudes of the normal modes and
• ϕ1 and ϕ2 are the initial phases

• Since Q1 = x +y and Q2 = x - y
• So
• x(t) = ½ (a1 cos (ω1t + ϕ1) + a2 cos (ω2t + ϕ2) )

• y(t) = ½ (a1 cos (ω1t + ϕ1) - a2 cos (ω2t + ϕ2) )

 X2 - X1 = x

X4 – X3 = y

X1 X2 X3 X4