Mechanical and Electronic
Measurements
UNIT V
Signal Conditioning
1
Syllabus
Principle of signal conditioning,
Linearization,
filtering,
impedance matching,
AC & DC bridge circuits,
RC filters
Voltage versus current as a mode of
communication.
2
Introduction
• Signal conditioning refers to operations performed on signals
to convert them to a form suitable for interfacing with other
elements in the process-control loop.
• In this chapter, we are concerned only with analog
conversions, where the conditioned output is still an analog
representation of the variable.
• Even in applications involving digital processing, some type
of analog conditioning is usually required before analog-to-
digital conversion is made.
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Examples
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PRINCIPLES OF ANALOG SIGNAL
CONDITIONING
1. A sensor measures a variable by converting information about that
variable into a dependent signal of electrical form.
2. Most analog signals require some form of preparation before they can
be digitized. Signal conditioning is the manipulation of a signal in a
way that prepares it for the next stage of processing.
3. Many applications involve environmental or structural measurement,
such as temperature and vibration, from sensors. These sensors, in
turn, require signal conditioning before a data acquisition device can
effectively and accurately measure the signal.
• For example, thermocouple signals have very small voltage levels
that must be amplified before they can be digitized. Other sensors,
such as resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), thermistors, strain
gages, and accelerometers, require excitation to operate. All of these
preparation technologies are forms of signal conditioning.
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PRINCIPLES OF ANALOG SIGNAL
CONDITIONING
4. Signal conditioning is one of the most important components of a data
acquisition system because the accuracy of the measurement cannot be
relied upon without optimizing real-world signals for the digitizer in use.
5. Depending on your sensor, the signal conditioning will vary widely with
no instrument having the capability to provide all types of conditioning for
all sensors.
6. The key to a successful signal conditioning system is to understand the
right circuitry needed to ensure an accurate measurement whatever your
channel mix.
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PRINCIPLES OF ANALOG SIGNAL
CONDITIONING
7. Analog signal conditioning provides the operations necessary
to transform a sensor output into a form necessary to interface
with other elements of the process-control loop.
8. We will confine our attention to electrical transformations.
We often describe the effect of the signal conditioning by the
term transfer function.
9. By this term we mean the effect of the signal conditioning on
the input signal. Thus, a simple voltage amplifier has a transfer
function of some constant that, when multiplied by the input
voltage, gives the output voltage.
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Categories of Signal Conditioning
A) Signal-Level and Bias Changes
• One of the most common types of signal conditioning involves
adjusting the level (magnitude) and bias (zero value) of some voltage
representing a process variable.
• For example, some sensor output voltage may vary from 0.2 to 0.6 V
as a process variable changes over a measurement range. However,
equipment to which this sensor output must be connected perhaps
requires a voltage that varies from 0 to 5 V for the same variation of
the process variable.
• We perform the required signal conditioning by first changing the
zero to occur when the sensor output is 0.2 V. This can be done by
simply subtracting 0.2 from the sensor output, which is called a zero
shift, or a bias adjustment. 8
Categories of Signal Conditioning
A) Signal-Level and Bias Changes
• Now we have a voltage that varies from 0 to 0.4 V, so we need to
make the voltage larger. If we multiply the voltage by 12.5, the new
output will vary from 0 to 5 V as required.
• This is called amplification, and 12.5 is called the gain.
• In some cases, we need to make a sensor output smaller, which is
called attenuation.
• You should note that the circuit that does either chore is called an
amplifier.
• We distinguish between amplification and attenuation by noting
whether the gain of the amplifier is greater than or less than unity.
• In designing bias and amplifier circuits, we must be concerned with
issues such as the frequency response, output impedance, and input9
impedance.
Categories of Signal Conditioning
B) Linearization
• The process-control designer has little choice of the characteristics of
a sensor output versus a process variable.
• Often, the dependence that exists between input and output is
nonlinear. (Sensor input v/s output)
• Even those sensors that are approximately linear may present
problems when precise measurements of the variable are required.
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Purpose of Linearization Circuit
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Linearization
• Historically, specialized analog circuits were devised to linearize
signals.
• For example, suppose a sensor output varied nonlinearly with a
process variable, as shown in Figure 1a. A linearization circuit,
indicated symbolically in Figure 1b, would ideally be one that
conditioned the sensor output so that a voltage was produced which
was linear with the process variable, as shown in Figure 1c.
• Such circuits are difficult to design and usually operate only within
narrow limits.
• The modern approach to this problem is to provide the nonlinear
signal as input to a computer and perform the linearization using
software.
• Virtually any nonlinearity can be handled in this manner and, with the
speed of modern computers, in nearly real time. 12
Categories of Signal Conditioning
C) Conversions
• Often, signal conditioning is used to convert one type of electrical
variation into another.
• Thus, a large class of sensors exhibit changes of resistance with
changes in a dynamic variable.
• In these cases, it is necessary to provide a circuit to convert this
resistance change either to a voltage or a current signal.
• This is generally accomplished by bridges when the fractional
resistance change is small and/or by amplifiers whose gain varies
with resistance.
• E.g. In case of temperature measurement by RTD, resistance output is
converted into voltage output which can be further amplified, if
required.
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Conversions
i) Signal Transmission
• An important type of conversion is associated with the process-
control standard of transmitting signals as 4- to 20-mA current levels
in wire.
• This gives rise to the need for converting resistance and voltage
levels to an appropriate current level at the transmitting end and for
converting the current back to voltage at the receiving end.
• Thus, voltage-to-current and current-to-voltage converters are often
required.
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Conversions
• Digital Interface
• The use of computers in process control requires conversion of
analog data into a digital format by integrated circuit devices
called analog-to-digital converters(ADCs).
• Analog signal conversion is usually required to adjust the
analog measurement signal to match the input requirements of
the ADC.
• For example, the ADC may need a voltage that varies between
0 and 5 V, but the sensor provides a signal that varies from 30
to 80 mV.
• Signal conversion circuits can be developed to interface the
output to the required ADC input.
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Categories of Signal Conditioning
D) Filtering
• Often, spurious signals of considerable strength are present in the
industrial environment, for example the 60-Hz line frequency signals.
• Motor start transients may also cause pulses and other unwanted
signals in the process-control loop.
• In many cases, it is necessary to use high-pass, low-pass, or notch
filters to eliminate unwanted signals from the loop.
• Such filtering can be accomplished by passive filters, using only
resistors, capacitors, and inductors, or active filters, using gain and
feedback.
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Categories of Signal Conditioning
E) Impedance Matching
• Impedance matching is an important element of signal
conditioning when transducer internal impedance or line
impedance can cause errors in measurement of a dynamic
variable.
• Both active and passive networks are employed to provide
such matching.
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Categories of Signal Conditioning
F) Loading
• One of the most important concerns in analog signal conditioning is the
loading of one circuit by another.
• This introduces uncertainty in the amplitude of a voltage as it is passed
through the measurement process. If this voltage represents some process
variable, then we have uncertainty in the value of the variable.
• Qualitatively, loading can be described as follows.
• Suppose the open-circuit output of some element is a voltage, say V x, when
the element input is some variable of value x.
• This element could be a sensor or some other part of the signal-conditioning
circuit, such as a bridge circuit or amplifier. Open circuit means that nothing
is connected to the output.
• Loading occurs when we do connect something, a load, across the output,
and the output voltage of the element drops to some value V y < Vx .
Different loads result in different drops.
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F) Loading
• Quantitatively, we can evaluate loading as follows. Thévenin’s
theorem tells us that – the output terminals of any two terminal
elements can be defined as a voltage source in series with an output
impedance.
• Let’s assume this is a resistance (the output resistance) to make the
description easier to follow.
• This is called the Thévenin equivalent circuit model of the element.
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F) Loading
• Figure 2 shows such an element modeled as a voltage Vx and a
resistance Rx
• Now suppose a load, RL, is connected across the output of the element
as shown in Figure 2.
• This could be the input resistance of an amplifier, for example. A
current will flow, and voltage will be dropped across Rx.
• It is easy to calculate that the loaded output voltage will thus
be given by
• The voltage that appears across the load is reduced by the voltage
dropped across the internal resistance.
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Example 1 - An amplifier outputs a voltage that is 10 times the voltage on its
input terminals. It has an input resistance of 10 kΩ. A sensor outputs a voltage
proportional to temperature with a transfer function of 20 mV/ °C. The sensor
has an output resistance of 5.0KΩ. If the temperature is 50 °C , find the
amplifier output.
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Solution
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G) Passive Circuits
• Bridge and divider circuits are two passive techniques that
have been extensively used for signal conditioning for many
years.
• Although modern active circuits often replace these
techniques, there are still many applications where their
particular advantages make them useful.
• Bridge circuits are used primarily as an accurate means of
measuring changes in impedance.
• Such circuits are particularly useful when the fractional
changes in impedance are very small.
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Divider Circuits
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Divider Circuits
• It is important to consider the following issues when using a divider
for conversion of resistance to voltage variation:
1. The variation of VD with either R1 or R2 is nonlinear; that is, even
if the resistance varies linearly with the measured variable, the
divider voltage will not vary linearly.
2. The effective output impedance of the divider is the parallel
combination of R1and R2.
This may not necessarily be high, so loading effects must be
considered.
3.In a divider circuit, current flows through both resistors; that is,
power will be dissipated by both, including the sensor. The power
rating of both the resistor and sensor must be considered.
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Example
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Bridge Circuits-Wheatstone Bridge
• This network is used in signal-conditioning applications where a
sensor changes resistance with process variable changes.
• Many modifications of this basic bridge are employed for other
specific applications.
• In Figure, the object labeled D is a voltage detector used to compare
the potentials of points a and b of the network.
• In most modern applications, the detector is a very high-input
impedance differential amplifier.
• In some cases, a highly sensitive galvanometer with a relatively low
impedance may be used, especially for calibration purposes and spot
measurement instruments.
• For our initial analysis, assume the detector impedance is infinite—
that is, an open circuit. The potential difference between the points a
and b is given by-
ΔV = Va - Vb 28
Bridge Circuits-Wheatstone Bridge
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Bridge Circuits-Wheatstone Bridge
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AC Bridges
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AC Bridges
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RC Filters
• To eliminate unwanted noise signals from measurements, it is often
necessary to use circuits that block certain frequencies or bands of
frequencies. These circuits are called filters.
• A simple filter can be constructed from a single resistor and a single
capacitor. Types of Filters are –
i) Low pass Filter
ii) High pass Filter
iii) Band Pass Filter
• The simple circuit shown in figure is called a low-pass RC filter.
37
Low-pass RC Filter
• It is called low-pass because it blocks high frequencies and passes low
frequencies.
• It would be most desirable if a low-pass filter had a characteristic such that
all signals with frequency above some critical value are simply rejected.
• Practical filter circuits approach that ideal with varying degrees of success.
• In the case of the low-pass RC filter, the variation of rejection with frequency
is shown in Figure . In this graph, the vertical is the ratio of output voltage to
input voltage without regard to phase.
• When the Voltage ratio is one, the signal is passed without effect; when it is
very small or zero, the signal is effectively blocked.
• The horizontal is actually the logarithm of the ratio of the input signal
frequency to a critical frequency. This critical frequency is that frequency for
which the ratio of the output to the input voltage is approximately 0.707.
• In terms of the resistor and capacitor, the critical frequency is given by
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Low Pass RC Filter
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Low Pass RC Filter
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High-Pass RC Filter
• A high-pass filter passes high frequencies (no rejection) and blocks
(rejects) low frequencies.
• A filter of this type can be constructed using a resistor and a
capacitor, as shown in the schematic.
• Similar to the low-pass filter, the rejection is not sharp in frequency
but distributed over a range around a critical frequency.
• This critical frequency is defined by the same value as that for the
low-pass filter.
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Example on High pass filter
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Band-Pass RC Filter
• It is possible to construct a filter that blocks frequencies below a low
limit and above a high limit while passing frequencies between the
limits.
• These are called band-pass filters.
• Passive band-pass filters can be designed with resistors and
capacitors, but more efficient versions use inductors and/or
capacitors.
• In general, the band-pass filter is defined by the response shown in
Figure
44
Band-Pass RC Filter
• The lower critical frequency, fL, defines the frequency below which the ratio
of output voltage to input voltage is down by at least 3 dB or 0.707.
• The higher critical frequency, fh , defines the frequency above which the
ratio of output voltage to input voltage is down by at least 3 dB, or 0.707.
• The frequency range between fL and fh is called the passband.
• The band-pass RC filter is shown in Figure . Notice that it is simply a low-
pass filter followed by a high-pass filter.
• Care must be taken that the second filter does not load the first. The lower
critical frequency is that of the high-pass filter, whereas the high critical
frequency is that of the low-pass filter.
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Band-Pass RC Filter
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Operational Amplifiers
• With the remarkable advances in electronics and integrated circuits
(ICs), the requirement to implement designs from discrete
components has given way to easier and more reliable methods of
signal conditioning.
• Many special circuits and general-purpose amplifiers are now
contained in integrated circuit (IC) packages, producing a quick
solution to signal-conditioning problem together with small size, low
power consumption, and low cost.
• Apart from these specialized ICs, there is also a type of amplifier that
finds wide application as the building block of signal-conditioning
applications.
• This device, called an operational amplifier (op amp), has been in
existence for many years.
• It was first constructed from tubes, then from discrete transistors, and
now as integrated circuits. 47
Operational Amplifier
• An op amp is a circuit composed of resistors, transistors, diodes, and
capacitors.
• It typically requires connection of bipolar power supplies—that is, both
+Vs and –Vs with respect to ground.
• When considered as a functional element of some larger circuit, however,
all we are concerned with are its input and output signals.
• For that reason, the op amp is usually shown in a larger circuit using its
own schematic symbol as in Figure.
• Notice that the power supply connections are not shown—only two input
terminals and an output terminal.
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Operational Amplifier
• In the schematic symbol of Figure, one input is labeled with a
minus sign and is called the inverting input.
• The other is labeled with a plus sign and is called the
noninverting input.
• The sign labels are part of the symbol and must always be
included.
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Operational Amplifier Characteristics
50
Operational Amplifier Characteristics
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Operational Amplifier Characteristics
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Op-Amp as Voltage follower
• It is an op amp circuit with unity gain and very high input impedance.
• The input impedance is essentially the impedance of the op amp itself, which can
be greater than 100 M-ohm .
• The unity gain voltage follower is essentially an impedance transformer in the sense
of converting a voltage at high impedance to the same voltage at low impedance.
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Op-Amp as a Inverting amplifier
• Resistor R2 is used to feed back the output to the inverting input of the op amp, and
R1 connects the input voltage Vin to this same point.
• The common connection is called the summing point. We can see that with no
feedback and the (+) terminal grounded,
1. The summing point voltage is equal to the op amp input level, zero in this case.
2. No current flows through the op amp input terminals because of the assumed
infinite
impedance.
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Op-Amp as a Inverting amplifier
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Voltage- to- Current Converter
• Because signals in process control are most often transmitted as a current,
specifically 4 to 20 mA, it is often necessary to employ a linear voltage-to-current
converter.
• Such a circuit must be capable of sinking a current into a number of different
loads without changing the voltage-to-current transfer characteristics.
• An op amp circuit that provides this function is shown in Figure.
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Voltage- to- Current Converter
• An analysis of this circuit shows that the relationship between current
and voltage is given by
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Current- to- Voltage Converter
• At the receiving end of the process-control signal transmission system, we
often need to convert the current back into a voltage. This can be done most
easily with the circuit shown in Figure.
• This circuit provides an output voltage given by
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Op- Amp as a Differentiator
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Op- Amp as an Integrator
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