Developing Fundamental

I/O discrete devices

 Electromagnetic Control Relays

• An electrical relay is a magnetic switch. It uses

electromagnetism to switch contacts.
• A relay will usually have only one coil but may have
any number of different contacts
Output circuit

Load
Contact

Relay

Coil
Switch

Input circuit

Electromechanical control relay

 Electromagnetic Control Relays

• The coil and contacts are insulated from each other;

therefore, under normal conditions, no electric circuit
will exist between them
•The letter M frequently indicates a motor starter, while
CR is used for control relays
• Normally open (NO) contacts are defined as those
contacts that are open when no current flows through
the coil but that close as soon as the coil conducts a
current or is energized
•Normally closed (NC) contacts are closed when the coil
is de-energized and open when the coil is energized
• Control relay coils and contacts have separate ratings.
Coils are rated for the type of operating current (DC or
AC) and normal operating voltage
 Electromagnetic Control Relays
Fixed contacts

Movable contact
Armature

Spring

Coil de-energized

Coil energized

Relay
operation
 Electromagnetic Control Relays

Normally closed Normally open

(NC) contacts (NO) contacts
NC NO

Stationary
contact Energized

Armature Coil Armature Coil

Movable contacts
Coil de-energized Coil energized

M M CR CR

Coil Associated Coil Associated

contacts contacts

Relay normally open and normally closed

contacts
 Contactors

• A contactor is a special type of relay designed to

handle heavy power loads that are beyond the
capability of simple control relays
• Unlike relays, contactors are designed to make and
break higher powered circuits without being damaged
• Such loads include lights, heaters, transformers,
capacitors, and electric motors for which overload
protection is provided separately or not required
 Contactors
Line side Line side

Load side
Stationary
contact Load side

Movable
contacts

Coil

Movable iron
armature or plugner

Line side

Contacts

Coil

Load side

Wiring symbol

Three-pole magnetic
contactor
 Contactors
Pump

Contactor power
contact

L2

High-current
wiring
L1

Coil
terminals

Low-current
wiring

L2 L1

PLC output
module

Contactor used in conjunction with a PLC

output
 Motor Starters

• A motor starter is designed to

provide power to motors
• The motor starter is made up of a
contactor with an overload relay Contactor

attached physically and electrically

Overload
relay

Motor starter is a contactor with an

attached
overload relay
 Motor Starters

• The function of the overload relay can be summarized

as follows:
• Overload relays are designed to meet the special
protective needs of motor control circuits
• They allow harmless temporary overloads that occur
when a motor starts
• The overload relay will trip and disconnect power to
the motor if an overload condition persists
• Overload relays can be reset after the overload
condition has been corrected
 Motor Starters
Start
Stop OL
M
Magnetic starter
M

Low-current
control circuit

M OL
L1
T1
M OL Three-
T2
L2 phase
motor
M OL
T3
L3
High-current
power circuit

Three-phase magnetic motor

 Motor Starters

Magnetic Motor
PLC
starter

Pushbuttons

L1 Inputs Outputs L2
Start
Starter
PLC Program
coil
Stop Start Stop OL M M

OL M

PLC control of a motor

 Manually Operated Switches

• Manually operated switches are controlled by hand

such as toggle switches, pushbutton switches, knife
switches, and selector switches.
• Pushbutton switches are the most common form of
manual control and can be divided as:
• Normally open (NO) pushbutton , which makes a
circuit when it is pressed
• Normally closed (NC) pushbutton, which opens the
circuit when it is pressed
• Break-before-make pushbutton in which the top
section contacts are NC and the bottom section
contacts are NO. When the button is pressed, the top
contacts open before the bottom contacts are closed
 Manually Operated Switches

IEC NEMA IEC NEMA NEMA symbol

symbol symbol symbol symbol

Normally open Normally closed Break-make

Commonly used types of pushbutton

switches
 Manually Operated Switches

• The selector switch is another common manually

operated switch
• The main difference between a pushbutton and
selector switch is the operator mechanism. A selector
switch operator is rotated (instead of pushed) to open
and close contacts of the attached contact block
Symbol

Contacts Hand Off A uto

Position 1 2 3
AB
1 X
2 A
3 X
B

Three-position selector
switch
 Manually Operated Switches

• Dual in-line package (DIP) switches are small switch

assemblies designed for mounting on printed circuit
board modules
• The pins or terminals on the bottom of the DIP switch
are the same size and spacing as an integrated circuit
(IC) chip
• DIP switches use binary (on/off) settings to set the
parameters for a particular module 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

ON

OFF
DIP switch
 Mechanically Operated Switches

• A mechanically operated switch is controlled

automatically by factors such as pressure, position, or
temperature
• The limit switch is a very common industrial control
device. Limit switches are designed to operate only
when a predetermined limit is reached, and they are
usually actuated by contact with an object such as a
Cam (on machine)
cam
Operating
force Operator
IEC symbols
NEMA symbols

Normally open Normally closed

limit switch limit switch
Enclosure
containing Normally Normally
contact
open closed
mechanism

Mechanically operated limit

switch
 Mechanically Operated Switches

• The temperature switch, or thermostat is used to

sense temperature changes. Although there are many
types available, they are all actuated by some specific
environmental temperature change
NEMA symbols

Programmable thermostat
NO contact NC contact

IEC symbols

NO contact NC contact

Temperature
switch
 Mechanically Operated Switches

• Pressure switches are NEMA symbols for

pressure switch symbols
used to control the
NO
pressure of liquids and contact

gases. Although many

NC
different types are contact

available, they are all

basically designed to IEC symbols for
pressure switch symbols
actuate (open or close)
their contacts when a NO
contact
specified pressure is
reached
NC
• Pressure switches can be contact

pneumatically (air) or
hydraulically (liquid) Pressure switch
operated switches
 Mechanically Operated Switches

• Level switches are used to sense liquid levels in

vessels and provide automatic control for motors that
transfer liquids from sumps or into tanks. They are also
used to open or close piping solenoid valves to control
fluids
Symbols
NO contact

NC contact

Float type level

switch
 Sensors

• Sensors are used for detecting, and often measuring,

the magnitude of something
• They convert mechanical, magnetic, thermal, optical,
and chemical variations into electric voltages and
currents
• Sensors are usually categorized by what they
measure, and they play an important role in modern
manufacturing process control
 Proximity Sensor

• Proximity sensors or switches are devices that detect

the presence of an object (usually called the target)
without physical contact
• These solid-state electronic devices are completely
encapsulated to protect against excessive vibration,
liquids, chemicals, and corrosive agents found in the
industrial environment
Normally open (NO)
sensor symbols

IEC NEMA
Proximity sensor
 Proximity Sensor

• Proximity sensors are used when:

• The object being detected is too small, lightweight, or
soft to operate a mechanical switch
• Rapid response and high switching rates are required,
as in counting or ejection control applications
• An object has to be sensed through nonmetallic
barriers such as glass, plastic, and paper cartons
• Unfriendly environments demand improved sealing
properties, preventing proper operation of mechanical
switches
 Proximity Sensor

• Proximity sensors are used when:

• The object being detected is too small, lightweight, or
soft to operate a mechanical switch
• Rapid response and high switching rates are required,
as in counting or ejection control applications
• An object has to be sensed through nonmetallic
barriers such as glass, plastic, and paper cartons
• Unfriendly environments demand improved sealing
properties, preventing proper operation of mechanical
switches
• Long life and reliable service are required
• A fast electronic control system requires a bounce
free input signal
 Inductive proximity sensor

• Inductive proximity sensors are used to detect both

ferrous metals (containing iron) and nonferrous metals
(such as copper, aluminum, and brass)
• Inductive proximity sensors operate under the
electrical principle of inductance, where a fluctuating
current induces an electromotive force (emf) in a target
object
Target

L1 Output L2

Metal
object Coil Oscillator Detector Output OFF
Target

Output

ON
Inductive proximity
sensor
 Inductive proximity sensor

• The operation of inductive proximity sensor can be

summarized as follows:
•The oscillator circuit generates a high-frequency
electromagnetic field that radiates from the end of the
sensor
• When a metal object enters the field, eddy currents
are induced in the surface of the object
• The eddy currents on the object absorb some of the
radiated energy from the sensor, resulting in a loss of
energy and change of strength of the oscillator
• The sensor’s detection circuit monitors the oscillator’s
strength and triggers a solid-state output at a specific
level
• Once the metal object leaves the sensing area, the
Inductive proximity sensor: wiring diagram

L1
( )
Load
L2
Load
( )
NO NO

L1

Signal

Load Load
L2

Typical three-wire Typical two-wire

DC sensor DC sensor
connection connection
 Inductive proximity sensor: sensing range

• Hysteresis is the
distance between the
operating point when the Cube sensor
with status LED
target approaches the
Hysteresis
proximity sensor face and zone

the release point when

Target
the target is moving away
from the sensor face Operating Release
point point
• Most proximity sensors
come equipped with an
LED status indicator to
verify the output
switching action Proximity sensor sensing
range
 Capacitive proximity sensors
• Capacitive proximity sensors are similar to inductive
proximity sensors. The main differences between the
two types are that capacitive proximity sensors
produce an electrostatic field instead of an
electromagnetic field and are actuated by both
conductive and nonconductive
Sensor materials
electrodes
Electrostatic
field

Oscillator waveform

T arget T arget
Metallic or absent T arget absent
Nonmetalic present
target
Capacitive proximity sensor
 Capacitive proximity sensors
• Capacitive proximity sensors will sense metal objects
as well as nonmetallic materials such as paper, glass,
liquids, and cloth
• They typically have a short sensing range of about 1
inch regardless of type of material being sensed
• The larger the dielectric constant of a target, the
easier it is for the capacitive sensor to detect. This
makes possible the detection of materials inside
nonmetallic containers

Capacitive
proximity
sensor liquid
detection
 Magnetic Reed Switch

• A magnetic reed switch is

composed of two flat
contact tabs that are
hermetically sealed
(airtight) in a glass tube
filled with protective gas
• When a magnetic force is
generated parallel to the
reed switch, the reeds
become flux carriers in the N S
magnetic circuit. The
overlapping ends of the Magnetic reed
reeds become opposite switch
magnetic poles, which
attract each other
 Light Sensors
• A photoelectric sensor is an optical control device that
operates by detecting a visible or invisible beam of
light and responding to a change in the received light
intensity
• Photoelectric sensors are composed of two basic
components: a transmitter (light source) and a receiver
(sensor) Receiver
Load
Modulated
light
beam

Object to
be sensed

Photoelectric
Transmitter
sensor
 Light Sensors
• The scan technique refers to the method used by
photoelectric sensors to detect an object
• The through-beam scan technique (also called direct
scan) places the transmitter and receiver in direct line
with each other

Receiver
Transmitter

Through-beam
scan
 Light Sensors
• In a retroreflective scan, the transmitter and receiver
are housed in the same enclosure
• This arrangement requires the use of a separate
reflector or reflective tape mounted across from the
sensor to return light back to the receiver
Transmitter
Reflector

Receiver

Retroreflective
scan
 Light Sensors

• Fiber optic sensors

use a flexible cable
Through-beam
containing tiny fibers From transmitter To receiver
that channel light from
emitter to receiver From transmitter

• Fiber optic sensor Retroreflective

systems are To receiver

completely immune to
all forms of electrical
interference

Fiber optic sensors

 Light Sensors
• Bar code technology is widely implemented in industry
to enter data quickly and accurately
• A light source within the scanner illuminates the bar
code symbol; those bars absorb light, and spaces reflect
light
• A photodetector collects this light in the form of an
electronic-signal pattern representing the printed
symbol.

Diverter

Scanner/decoder

Programmable
PLC bar code application controller
 Ultrasonic Sensors
• An ultrasonic sensor
operates by sending
high-frequency sound
waves toward the target
and measuring the time Detecting the level
Detecting transparent bottles
of chocolate
it takes for the pulses to
bounce back 4- to 20-mA
output

• The time taken for this Inches

echo to return to the 30

Inches

sensor is directly 5
10
proportional to the 5
15

distance or height of the 4 20 20

25
Output
object because sound (mA) 30

has a constant velocity Level detection

Ultrasonic sensor
 Strain/Weight Sensors

• A strain gauge converts a

mechanical strain into an Hopper

electric signal Programmable controller

• Strain gauges are based 56 kg

ON/OFF
control
on the principle that the
resistance of a conductor PLC sensor
input
varies with length and
crosssectional area Drum

• The force applied to the

gauge causes the gauge to Load cell

bend which in turn changes

its resistance

Strain gauge load

cell
 Temperature Sensors

• The thermocouple is the most widely used

temperature sensor
• Thermocouples operate on the principle that when
two dissimilar metals are joined, a predictable DC
voltage will be generated that relates to the difference
in temperature between the hot junction and the cold
junction
• The hot junction (measuring junction) is the joined
end of a thermocouple that is exposed to the process
where the temperature measurement is desired
• The cold junction (reference junction) is the end of a
thermocouple that is kept at a constant temperature to
provide a reference point
• Because of their ruggedness and wide temperature
 Temperature Sensors

Metal A
Chromel(nickel-chromium)
Leads HEAT

Hot 300 C 12.2 mV

Metal B
junction
Alumel (nickel-aluminum)
type K thermocouple

Thermocouple temperature
sensor
 Flow Measurement

• Turbine-type flowmeters are a popular means of

measurement and control of liquid products in industrial,
chemical, and petroleum operations
• Turbine flowmeters uses their angular velocity (rotation
speed) to indicate the flow velocity
• The bladed rotor rotates on its axis in proportion to the
rate of the liquid flow through the tube
•A magnetic pickup sensor is positioned as close to the
rotor
• Fluid passing through the flow tube causes the rotor to
rotate, which generates pulses in the pickup coil
• The frequency of the pulses is then transmitted to
readout electronics
 Flow Measurement

Readout
Gallons/minute
electronics

Magnetic pickup Generated pulses

Flow

Rotating
turbine

Turbine type
flowmeter
 Velocity and Position Sensors

• Turbine-type