Chapter 5: CPU Scheduling

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Outline
 Basic Concepts
 Scheduling Criteria
 Scheduling Algorithms
 Thread Scheduling
 Multi-Processor Scheduling
 Real-Time CPU Scheduling
 Operating Systems Examples
 Algorithm Evaluation

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Objectives
 Describe various CPU scheduling algorithms
 Assess CPU scheduling algorithms based on scheduling criteria
 Explain the issues related to multiprocessor and multicore scheduling
 Describe various real-time scheduling algorithms
 Describe the scheduling algorithms used in the Windows, Linux, and
Solaris operating systems
 Apply modeling and simulations to evaluate CPU scheduling
algorithms

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Basic Concepts

 Maximum CPU utilization

obtained with multiprogramming
 CPU–I/O Burst Cycle – Process
execution consists of a cycle of
CPU execution and I/O wait
 CPU burst followed by I/O burst
 CPU burst distribution is of main
concern

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Histogram of CPU-burst Times

Large number of short bursts

Small number of longer bursts

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 CPU Scheduler
 The CPU scheduler selects from among the processes in ready
queue, and allocates a CPU core to one of them
• Queue may be ordered in various ways
 CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a process:
1. Switches from running to waiting state
2. Switches from running to ready state
3. Switches from waiting to ready
4. Terminates
 For situations 1 and 4, there is no choice in terms of scheduling. A
new process (if one exists in the ready queue) must be selected
for execution.
 For situations 2 and 3, however, there is a choice.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Preemptive and Nonpreemptive Scheduling

 When scheduling takes place only under circumstances 1 and

4, the scheduling scheme is nonpreemptive.
 Otherwise, it is preemptive.
 Under Nonpreemptive scheduling, once the CPU has been
allocated to a process, the process keeps the CPU until it
releases it either by terminating or by switching to the waiting
state.
 Virtually all modern operating systems including Windows,
MacOS, Linux, and UNIX use preemptive scheduling
algorithms.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Preemptive Scheduling and Race Conditions

 Preemptive scheduling can result in race conditions

when data are shared among several processes.
 Consider the case of two processes that share data.
While one process is updating the data, it is preempted
so that the second process can run. The second process
then tries to read the data, which are in an inconsistent
state.
 This issue will be explored in detail in Chapter 6.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Dispatcher
 Dispatcher module gives control of the
CPU to the process selected by the CPU
scheduler; this involves:
• Switching context
• Switching to user mode
• Jumping to the proper location in the
user program to restart that program
 Dispatch latency – time it takes for the
dispatcher to stop one process and start
another running

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Scheduling Criteria

 CPU utilization – keep the CPU as busy as possible

 Throughput – # of processes that complete their execution
per time unit
 Turnaround time – amount of time to execute a particular
process
 Waiting time – amount of time a process has been waiting
in the ready queue
 Response time – amount of time it takes from when a
request was submitted until the first response is produced.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Scheduling Algorithm Optimization Criteria

 Max CPU utilization

 Max throughput
 Min turnaround time
 Min waiting time
 Min response time

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 First- Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling

Process Burst Time

P1 24
P2 3
P3 3
 Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P1 , P2 , P3
The Gantt Chart for the schedule is:

P1 P2 P3
0 24 27 30

 Waiting time for P1 = 0; P2 = 24; P3 = 27

 Average waiting time: (0 + 24 + 27)/3 = 17

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 FCFS Scheduling (Cont.)

Suppose that the processes arrive in the order:

P 2 , P3 , P 1
 The Gantt chart for the schedule is:

P2 P3 P1
0 3 6 30

 Waiting time for P1 = 6; P2 = 0; P3 = 3

 Average waiting time: (6 + 0 + 3)/3 = 3
 Much better than previous case
 Convoy effect - short process behind long process
• Consider one CPU-bound and many I/O-bound processes

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Shortest-Job-First (SJF) Scheduling

 Associate with each process the length of its next CPU burst
• Use these lengths to schedule the process with the
shortest time
 SJF is optimal – gives minimum average waiting time for a
given set of processes
 Preemptive version called shortest-remaining-time-first
 How do we determine the length of the next CPU burst?
• Could ask the user
• Estimate

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Example of SJF

Process Burst Time

P1 6
P2 8
P3 7
P4 3

 SJF scheduling chart

P4 P1 P3 P2
0 3 9 16 24

 Average waiting time = (3 + 16 + 9 + 0) / 4 = 7

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Shortest Remaining Time First Scheduling

 Preemptive version of SJN

 Whenever a new process arrives in the ready queue, the
decision on which process to schedule next is redone using
the SJN algorithm.
 Is SRT more “optimal” than SJN in terms of the minimum
average waiting time for a given set of processes?

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Example of Shortest-remaining-time-first

 Now we add the concepts of varying arrival times and preemption to

the analysis
Process i Arrival TimeT Burst Time
P1 0 8
P2 1 4
P3 2 9
P4 3 5
 Preemptive SJF Gantt Chart

P1 P2 P4 P1 P3
0 1 5 10 17 26

 Average waiting time = [(10-1)+(1-1)+(17-2)+(5-3)]/4 = 26/4 = 6.5

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Round Robin (RR)
 Each process gets a small unit of CPU time (time quantum q),
usually 10-100 milliseconds. After this time has elapsed, the
process is preempted and added to the end of the ready queue.
 If there are n processes in the ready queue and the time quantum
is q, then each process gets 1/n of the CPU time in chunks of at
most q time units at once. No process waits more than (n-1)q
time units.
 Timer interrupts every quantum to schedule next process
 Performance
• q large  FIFO (FCFS)
• q small  RR
 Note that q must be large with respect to context switch, otherwise
overhead is too high

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Example of RR with Time Quantum = 4

Process Burst Time

P1 24
P2 3
P3 3
 The Gantt chart is:
P1 P2 P3 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
0 4 7 10 14 18 22 26 30

 Typically, higher average turnaround than SJF, but better response

 q should be large compared to context switch time
• q usually 10 milliseconds to 100 milliseconds,
• Context switch < 10 microseconds

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Time Quantum and Context Switch Time

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Turnaround Time Varies With The Time Quantum

80% of CPU bursts should

be shorter than q

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Priority Scheduling

 A priority number (integer) is associated with each process

 The CPU is allocated to the process with the highest priority (smallest
integer  highest priority)
• Preemptive
• Nonpreemptive
 SJF is priority scheduling where priority is the inverse of predicted next
CPU burst time

 Problem  Starvation – low priority processes may never execute

 Solution  Aging – as time progresses increase the priority of the

process

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Example of Priority Scheduling

Process Burst Time Priority

P1 10 3
P2 1 1
P3 2 4
P4 1 5
P5 5 2

 Priority scheduling Gantt Chart

 Average waiting time = 8.2

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Priority Scheduling w/ Round-Robin
 Run the process with the highest priority. Processes with the same
priority run round-robin
 Example:
Processa Burst Time Priority
P1 4 3
P2 5 2
P3 8 2
P4 7 1
P5 3 3
 Gantt Chart with time quantum = 2

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Multilevel Queue
 The ready queue consists of multiple queues
 Multilevel queue scheduler defined by the following parameters:
• Number of queues
• Scheduling algorithms for each queue
• Method used to determine which queue a process will enter
when that process needs service
• Scheduling among the queues

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Multilevel Queue
 With priority scheduling, have separate queues for each priority.
 Schedule the process in the highest-priority queue!

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Multilevel Queue
 Prioritization based upon process type

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Multilevel Feedback Queue
 A process can move between the various queues.
 Multilevel-feedback-queue scheduler defined by the following
parameters:
• Number of queues
• Scheduling algorithms for each queue
• Method used to determine when to upgrade a process
• Method used to determine when to demote a process
• Method used to determine which queue a process will enter
when that process needs service
 Aging can be implemented using multilevel feedback queue

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Example of Multilevel Feedback Queue
 Three queues:
• Q0 – RR with time quantum 8 milliseconds
• Q1 – RR time quantum 16 milliseconds
• Q2 – FCFS
 Scheduling
• A new process enters queue Q0 which is
served in RR
 When it gains CPU, the process receives 8
milliseconds
 If it does not finish in 8 milliseconds, the
process is moved to queue Q1
• At Q1 job is again served in RR and
receives 16 additional milliseconds
 If it still does not complete, it is preempted
and moved to queue Q2

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Thread Scheduling
 Distinction between user-level and kernel-level threads
 When threads supported, threads scheduled, not processes
 Many-to-one and many-to-many models, thread library schedules
user-level threads to run on LWP
• Known as process-contention scope (PCS) since scheduling
competition is within the process
• Typically done via priority set by programmer
 Kernel thread scheduled onto available CPU is system-contention
scope (SCS) – competition among all threads in system

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Pthread Scheduling
 API allows specifying either PCS or SCS during thread creation
• PTHREAD_SCOPE_PROCESS schedules threads using PCS
scheduling
• PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM schedules threads using SCS
scheduling
 Can be limited by OS – Linux and macOS only allow
PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Pthread Scheduling API
#include <pthread.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#define NUM_THREADS 5
int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
int i, scope;
pthread_t tid[NUM THREADS];
pthread_attr_t attr;
/* get the default attributes */
pthread_attr_init(&attr);
/* first inquire on the current scope */
if (pthread_attr_getscope(&attr, &scope) != 0)
fprintf(stderr, "Unable to get scheduling scope\n");
else {
if (scope == PTHREAD_SCOPE_PROCESS)
printf("PTHREAD_SCOPE_PROCESS");
else if (scope == PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM)
printf("PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM");
else
fprintf(stderr, "Illegal scope value.\n");
}

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Pthread Scheduling API

/* set the scheduling algorithm to PCS or SCS */

pthread_attr_setscope(&attr, PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM);
/* create the threads */
for (i = 0; i < NUM_THREADS; i++)
pthread_create(&tid[i],&attr,runner,NULL);
/* now join on each thread */
for (i = 0; i < NUM_THREADS; i++)
pthread_join(tid[i], NULL);
}
/* Each thread will begin control in this function */
void *runner(void *param)
{
/* do some work ... */
pthread_exit(0);
}

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Multiple-Processor Scheduling

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Multiple-Processor Scheduling
 If multiple CPUs are available, load sharing, where multiple threads may
run in parallel, becomes possible.
 CPU scheduling more complex when multiple CPUs are available. the
term multiprocessor referred to systems that provided multiple physical
processors, where each processor contained one single-core CPU

 Multiprocess may be any one of the following architectures:

• Multicore CPUs
• Multithreaded cores
• NUMA systems
• Heterogeneous multiprocessing

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Approaches to Multiple-Processor Scheduling

 Asymmetric multiprocessing – only one processor accesses the system

data structures, alleviating the need for data sharing

 In a multiprocessor system has all scheduling decisions, I/O processing,

and other system activities handled by a single processor—the master
server.
 The other processors execute only user code.
 Simple because only one processor accesses the system data structures,
reducing the need for data sharing.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Approaches Multiple-Processor Scheduling
 Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) is where each processor is self
scheduling.
 All threads may be in a common ready queue (a)
 Each processor may have its own private queue of threads (b)
 Currently, most common support SMP, including Windows, Linux, and
Mac OS X

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Multicore Processors

 Recent trend to place multiple processor cores on same physical chip

 Faster and consumes less power than systems in which each CPU
has its own physical chip.
 when a processor accessesmemory, it spends a significant amount of
time waiting for the data to become available. This situation, known as
a memory stall, occurs primarily because modern processors operate
at much faster speeds than memory.
 Multiple threads per core also growing
• Takes advantage of memory stall to make progress on another
thread while memory retrieve happens
 Figure

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Multithreaded Multicore System
 Each core has > 1 hardware threads.
 If one thread has a memory stall, switch to another thread!
 Figure

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 Multithreaded Multicore System
 Chip-multithreading (CMT)
assigns each core multiple
hardware threads. (Intel refers
to this as hyperthreading.)

 On a quad-core system with 2

hardware threads per core, the
operating system sees 8 logical
processors.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Multiple-Processor Scheduling – Load Balancing

 If SMP, On SMP systems, it is important to keep the workload

balanced among all processors to fully utilize the benefits of
having more than one processor.
 Load balancing attempts to keep the workload evenly distributed
across all processors in an SMP system.
 It is important to note that load balancing is typically necessary
only on systems where each processor has its own private ready
queue of eligible threads to execute.
 There are two general approaches to load balancing: push
migration and pull migration.
 Push migration – periodic task checks load on each processor,
and if found pushes task from overloaded CPU to other CPUs
 Pull migration – idle processors pulls waiting task from busy
processor

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Multiple-Processor Scheduling – Processor Affinity

 When a thread has been running on one processor, the cache contents
of that processor stores the memory accesses by that thread.
 We refer to this as a thread having affinity for a processor (i.e.,
“processor affinity”)
 Load balancing may affect processor affinity as a thread may be moved
from one processor to another to balance loads, yet that thread loses
the contents of what it had in the cache of the processor it was moved
off of.
 Soft affinity – the operating system attempts to keep a thread running
on the same processor, but no guarantees.
 Hard affinity – allows a process to specify a set of processors it may
run on.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 NUMA and CPU Scheduling
If the operating system is NUMA-aware, it will assign memory closes
to the CPU the thread is running on.

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 Real-Time CPU Scheduling

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Real-Time CPU Scheduling
 CPU scheduling for real-time operating systems
involves special issues
 Soft real-time systems – no guarantee as to when critical
real-time process will be scheduled. They guarantee only
that the process will be given preference over noncritical
processes
 Hard real-time systems – task must be serviced by its
deadline. Otherwise considered as no service.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.49 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Real-Time CPU Scheduling
 Can present obvious challenges
 Soft real-time systems – Critical real-time tasks have the
highest priority, but no guarantee as to when tasks will be
scheduled
 Hard real-time systems – task must be serviced by its
deadline

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.50 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Real-Time CPU Scheduling

 When an event occurs, the system

must respond to and service it as
quickly as possible.
 Event latency – the amount of time
that elapses from when an event
occurs to when it is serviced.
 Two types of latencies affect
performance
1. Interrupt latency – time from
arrival of interrupt to start of
routine that services interrupt
2. Dispatch latency – time for
schedule to take current process
off CPU and switch to another

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.51 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Interrupt latency
 When an interrupt occurs, the operating system must first
complete the instruction it is executing and determine the
type of interrupt that occurred.

 It must then save the state of the current process before

servicing the interrupt using the specific interrupt service
routine (ISR).

 The total time required to perform these tasks is the

interrupt latency

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.52 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Real-Time CPU Scheduling cont.. --Interrupt Latency

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 Dispatch latency

 The amount of time required for the scheduling

dispatcher to stop one process and start another
is known as dispatch latency.

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 Priority-based Scheduling
 For real-time scheduling, scheduler must support preemptive, priority-
based scheduling
• But only guarantees soft real-time
 For hard real-time must also provide ability to meet deadlines
 Processes have new characteristics: periodic ones require CPU at
constant intervals
• Has processing time t, deadline d, period p
• 0≤t≤d≤p
• Rate of periodic task is 1/p

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.56 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Rate monotonic scheduling
 Unusual about this form of scheduling is that a process
may have to announce its deadline requirements to the
scheduler.
 Then, using a technique known as an admission-
control algorithm, the scheduler does one of two things.
 It either admits the process, guaranteeing that the
process will complete on time. (or)
rejects the request as impossible if it cannot guarantee
that the task will be serviced by its deadline.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.57 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
  The rate-monotonic scheduling algorithm schedules
periodic tasks using a static priority policy with
preemption.
 Higher priority one preempt the lower priority
 Upon entering the system, each periodic task is assigned
a priority inversely based on its period.
 The shorter the period, the higher the priority;
 policy is to assign a higher priority to tasks that require
the CPU more often.
 This assumes that the processing time of a periodic
process is the same for each CPU burst.
 That is, every time a process acquires the CPU, the
duration of its CPU burst is the same.
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.58 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Rate Monotonic Scheduling

 A priority is assigned based on the inverse of its period

 Shorter periods = higher priority;

 Longer periods = lower priority

 P1 is assigned a higher priority than P2.

 Example:
P1 and P2
 Period: 50(P1); 100(P2)
 Burst Time: 20(p1), 35(P2)
 Deadlines: Before start of next Period.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.59 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Rate Monotonic Scheduling
 A priority is assigned based on the inverse of its period
 Shorter periods = higher priority;
 Longer periods = lower priority
 P1 is assigned a higher priority than P2.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.60 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Missed Deadlines with Rate Monotonic Scheduling

 Process P2 misses finishing its deadline at time 80

 Figure

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.61 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Earliest Deadline First Scheduling (EDF)

 Priorities are assigned according to deadlines:

• The earlier the deadline, the higher the priority
• The later the deadline, the lower the priority
 Figure

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.62 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Proportional Share Scheduling

 Proportional share schedulers operate by allocating T shares

among all applications.
 An application can receive N shares of time, thus ensuring that
the application will have N/T of the total processor time.
 T shares are allocated among all processes in the system

 An application receives N shares where N < T

 This ensures each application will receive N / T of the total

processor time

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.63 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
  Eg: T = 100 shares is to be divided among three processes,
 A, B, and C. Ais assigned 50 shares – 50%
B is assigned 15 shares – 15%
C is assigned 20 shares – 20%
 These must work in conjunction with an admission-control policy to
guarantee that an application receives its allocated shares of time.
 This policy will admit a client requesting a particular number of shares
only if sufficient shares are available.

 A+B+C= 50 + 15 + 20 = 85 shares
If D requires 30 shares that is denied

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5.64 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 End of Chapter 5

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018